SCIENCE by Ghalib sir NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) Chapter 5: Exploring Forces

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

¢ Class 8 Science – Chapter 7: Particulate Nature of Matter

✅ 1. Introduction to Matter
J Definition:
èMatter is anything that has mass and occupies
space.
è Everything around us that we can touch, feel, see, or
experience physically is matter.

] Examples of Matter:
✔ Water. ✔ Air. ✔ Wood. ✔ Iron. ✔ Sugar. ✔ Etc.

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

Ñ Things which are NOT matter:

These do not have mass and do not occupy space so they are not matter.

✔Headlights. ✔ Electricity. ✔ Sound. ✔ Emotions like love, fear, joy

1 Forms (States) of Matter:
Matter exists in three different forms based on the arrangement and behavior of
particles:
State Examples
# Solid Table, chalk, stone, iron nail, book
$ Liquid Water, milk, oil, honey
` Gas Oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, water vapor
Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

✅ 2. Constituent Particles of Matter

+ Observation:
All matter is made up of a large number of tiny particles called constituents
Particles ( like atoms , molecules or ions ). These tiny particles are the
building blocks of substances.

# Key Characteristics of Constituent Particles:

1. Too small to be seen by the naked eye.
2. Smallest unit of matter.
3. Cannot be broken by physical methods like cutting, grinding, or
crushing.
4. Responsible for forming all substances.

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

¥ Examples:
✔ Chalk made of tiny particles
✔ Sugar made of millions of small particles
✔ Sand made of tiny grains

Q Activity 7.1 – Breaking Chalk

Procedure:
✔ Break chalk into smaller pieces and grind it into powder.
✔ Observe that even in powdered form, it remains chalk.

Conclusion:
✔ Breaking a substance physically does not change its identity
it is a physical change, not a chemical one.

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

✅ 3. Particle Theory of Matter (Particulate Nature)

á Key Points:
1. All matter is made of very small particles (atoms or
molecules).
2. There is space between particles.
3. Particles are always in motion.
4. Particles attract each other with certain forces.

These explain how solids, liquids, and gases behave.

✅ 4. Inter Particle Spaces and Inter Particle Attraction

It decided whether a matter is solid ,Iiquids or gases
µ Inter Particle Space:
✔ The distance between two neighbouring particles of matter.
Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

Examples:
✔ Sugar dissolves in water small particles fit in spaces
between water molecules.
✔ Sand does not dissolve large particles cannot fit between
water molecules.

! Inter Particle space in Different States

State Inter Particle space
" Solid Minimum
# Liquid Maximum
` Gas Very maximum

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

µ Inter Particle Attraction:

The force of attraction between two neighbouring particles of matter.

✔ It is a Force that pulls particles toward each other.

✔ Depends on the nature of particles and distance between them.
✔ Determines the state of matter.

NOTE : inter particle attraction decreases on increasing inter particle distance

" Observation – Mixing Sugar and Water

✔ When sugar is added to water, the total volume is
less than the sum of volumes of sugar and water
because sugar particles occupy spaces between
water particles.

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

! Observation – Mixing Sand and Water

✔ Sand does not dissolve settles at the bottom
increases total volume by occupying space.

" Inter Particle Force in Different States

State Inter Particle Attraction
# Solid Strong
$ Liquid Weaker but keeps particles close
` Gas Very weak
Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

✅ 5. Motion of Particles
T Constant Motion of Particles:
Particles in solids, liquids, and gases are always moving in
random directions called Brownian motion.

# Example – Fragrance from an Incense Stick

✔ Burning incense in one corner spreads fragrance throughout the room.
✔ Air particles carry fragrance particles and mix motion everywhere.
$ Motion in Different States
State Motion of Particles
% Solid Vibrate at fixed positions but cannot move freely
& Liquid Move freely and flow easily
` Gas. Move randomly and rapidly in all directions

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

✅ 6. Physical States of Matter

" 6.1 Solid State
] Structure: minimum inter particle space but higher interest particle
attraction.
✔ Particles are tightly packed almost no space between them.
✔ Strong forces of attraction keep them together.
✔ particles Vibrate /oscillate about their fixed positions but do not move Freely.

! Properties:
✔ Definite shape and volume ✔ Hard and rigid
✔ Incompressible cannot be easily compressed
¥ Examples: Iron nails, stones, wood, salt, chalk.
^ Observation: ✔ Solids maintain shape and size they do not flow.

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

! 6.2 Liquid State

] Structure: liquid have more inter particle space but weak interest
particles interaction so
✔ Particles loosely packed more space than solids.

✔ Weaker attraction particles move freely but stay close.

! Properties:
✔ No definite shape takes container’s shape

✔ But Definite volume

✔ Slightly compressible small gaps allow minor compression
Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

Q Activity 7.4 – Water in Different Containers

Procedure:
✔ Pour water into containers of various shapes.
✔ Observe how water takes shape but maintains volume.

Observation:
✔ Water flows but volume remains unchanged typical liquid behavior.

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

` 6.3 Gaseous State

] Structure: Gases have maximum inter particle space but very weak
inter particle interaction so
✔ Particles far apart large gaps between them.
✔ Very weak attraction particles move freely and
randomly in all directions
! Properties:
✔ No definite shape or volume
✔ Highly compressible particles can be pushed
closer
✔ Expands to fill the container random movement in
all directions

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

¥ Example: Smoke tiny particles suspended in air.

R Q Activity 7.5 – Smoke in Gas Jars
Procedure:
✔ Observe smoke spreading in the air.
Observation:
✔ Gas particles move freely fills the available space.

✅ Fluids – Liquids and Gases

Liquids and gases flow and do not have fixed shapes hence called fluids.
 Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

✅ Diffusion – Mixing of Particles

J Definition:
✔ Diffusion is the mixing and spreading of particles from an area of higher
concentration to lower concentration.
¥ Example:
✔ Coloring agents like KMnO₄ spread in water.
✔ Fragrance from incense spreads in air.
⏹Q Activity 7.8 – KMnO₄ in Water
Procedure:
✔ Drop KMnO₄ in water observe how the color spreads.

Observation: ✔ Particles move and mix explains diffusion.

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY )

⏹Q Activity 7.9 – Incense Stick

Procedure:
✔ Burn incense in one corner smell fragrance

everywhere.
Observation:
✔ Air particles constantly move carry fragrance.

✅ 7. Effect of Temperature on Particle Motion

2 Heating: ✔ Particles gain energy move faster expand.

❄ Cooling: ✔ Particles lose energy move slower contract.

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

Q Activity – Heating and Cooling

Boiling Water:
✔ Heat water particles move faster bubbles and steam

expansion.
Freezing Water:
✔ Cool water particles slow down form ice

contraction.
Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

✅ 8. Physical Changes in Matter

"( Melting (Fusion)
J Definition: ✔ The process in which Solid turns into liquid when heated
is called melting.

¥ Example: Ice melts into water.

. Melting Point: ✔ Temperature at which solid changes to liquid at

atmospheric pressure.

⚙ Key Point:
✔ Solids with weak attraction low melting points
✔ Solids with strong attraction high melting points

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

❄ ) Freezing (Solidification)
J Definition:
✔ The process in which Liquid turns into solid when
cooled is called freezing.
¥ Example: Water freezes into ice.

. Freezing Point:
✔ The fixed Temperature at which liquid changes into
solid is called freezing point.(at atmospheric pressure)
T Note: Freezing and melting are reverse processes.
Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

> * Evaporation
J Definition: ✔ The process in which Liquid turns into
vapour gradually at any temperature. (Even at Room
temperature)

¥ Example: Water in a bowl disappears over time.

⭐ Properties:
✔ Happens at all temperatures
✔ Only surface particles evaporate surface phenomenon
✔ Causes cooling high energy particles escape
✔ Slow, invisible process
Q Activity: Leave water observe water level decreasing.

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

2 8.4 Boiling
J Definition: ✔ The rapid vaporisation at a certain
temperature is called Boiling.

. Boiling Point: ✔ The fixed Temperature at which

vaporisation occurs throughout the liquid is called vaporisations.

¥ Example: Water boils at 100°C.

Q Activity: Boil water observe bubbles and steam

rapid vaporisation.

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

> , Condensation
J Definition:
✔ The process of changing of Gas back into liquid is called
condensation.

¥ Example: Dew on grass, water droplets on cold glass.

Q Activity: Place cold water bottles in humid air observe

droplets forming.
 Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

❄ .Sublimation
J Definition:✔ The process in which Solid turns directly into gas without
becoming liquid.

¥ Examples: Iodine, camphor, dry ice.

Q Activity: Heat camphor vapour forms without melting.

Ghalib sir - EXAM CRACKER QUESTIONS NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) HALF YEARLY EXAMS

✅ Summary Table – States of Matter

✅ Property P Solid > Liquid = Gas

] Particle Arrangement Closely packed Loosely packed Far apart

º Inter Particle Force Strong Weaker than solids Very weak

T Motion Vibrates only Moves freely but stays close Moves randomly

c Shape Definite Takes the shape of the container No definite shape

) Volume Definite Definite No definite volume

í Compressibility Almost none Slight Highly compressible

æ Example Iron, stone Water, milk Oxygen, smoke

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

¢ Class 8 – Science
Chapter 8 – Nature of Matter: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
✅ Introduction – What is Matter?
✔ Matter is everything that has mass and occupies space.
✔ Every object, substance, or living being is made of matter!
✔ All matter is made of tiny particles that we
cannot see.(atoms)
✔ Most things are mixtures of two or more
substances.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

✅ 8.1 What Are Mixtures?

➤ Definition of Mixture
A mixture is formed when two or more substances are
combined.
✔ Each substance keeps its own properties.
✔ There is no chemical reaction between them.
✔ These substances are called components.
è In sugar solution water and sugar its components
➤ Everyday Examples of Mixtures
✅ Poha ✅ Sprout salad ✅ Lemonade ✅ Sugar solution ✅ Soup

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

á Note: Hydrogen gas (H₂) and oxygen gas (O₂) form water (H₂O) through a
chemical reaction, so it is not a mixture.

✅ Types of Mixtures
( Homogeneous Mixtures (Uniform Mixtures)
Those mixture in which Components are
evenly spread throughout are called
Homogeneous Mixtures.
✔ It’s Composition is uniform everywhere.
✔ it’s Components cannot be seen even
with a microscope.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

á Examples:
✅ Sugar + Water Sugar solution
✅ Oxygen + Nitrogen + other gases Air
✅ Salt + Water Saltwater

) Heterogeneous Mixtures (Non-uniform

Mixtures)
✔ Those mixture in which Components are
not evenly spread throughout are called non
Homogeneous Mixtures.
✔ It’s Composition is non-uniform.
✔ It’s Components can be seen easily.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

á Examples:
✅ Sprout salad Chickpeas, onion, etc., visible
✅ Sand + Water Sand grains visible
✅ Oil + Water Separate layers form

✅ Alloys?
Alloys are Homogeneous mixtures of two or more metals.
✔ The metals are mixed so well that they cannot be seen separately.
✔ Alloys are strong, durable, and resistant to rust.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

á Examples of Alloys:
✅ Steel Fe + C
✅ Stainless Steel Fe + Ni + Cr + C
✅ Brass Cu + Zn
✅ Bronze Cu + Sn
✅ Use: Utensils, tools, bridges, machines

✅ 8.1.1 Is Air a Mixture?

✔ Air is a uniform mixture (homogeneous mixture) of gases.
á Composition of Air:
✅ 78% Nitrogen (N₂) – does not support combustion
✅ 21% Oxygen (O₂) – essential for life and burning
✅ Other gases Argon (Ar), Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Water vapor (H₂O)
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

✔ Air also contains dust particles and pollutants.

á Major Air Pollutants:
✅ Particulate matter Dust, soot
✅ polluted Gases ✔ Carbon monoxide (CO) ✔ Ozone (O₃) ✔ Nitrogen
dioxide (NO₂) ✔ Sulfur dioxide (SO₂)

á Air Quality Index (AQI): Measures how clean or polluted air is.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

✅ Experiment – Does Air Contain Carbon Dioxide?

$ Activity 8.1 – Lime Water Test
✅ solution of lime water turns milky after some time
✔ Water + Calcium oxide After some time turns milky.

✅ Explanation:
➤ Step 1: CaO + H₂O Ca(OH)₂

✔ Calcium oxide reacts with water forms calcium hydroxide (slaked lime).

➤ Step 2: Ca(OH)₂ + CO₂ CaCO₃ + H₂O

✔ Calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide to forms calcium carbonate

that shines (milky look.)

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

✅ æ Table 8.1: Different types of mixtures

[Link] Uniform or non-

Mixture-type Examples
. uniform
1 Gas and gas Air Uniform
Aerated water (soda water), Oxygen dissolved in
2 Gas and liquid Uniform
water
3 Solid and gas Carbon particles in air Non-uniform
Liquid and
4 Acetic acid in water (vinegar), Oil and water Uniform, Non-uniform
liquid
5 Solid and liquid Sand and water, Seawater Non-uniform, Uniform
Baking powder (baking soda and tartaric acid),
6 Solid and solid Non-uniform, Uniform
Alloys
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

✅ Separation of Mixtures
✔ Mixtures are separated to get useful substances and remove unwanted
parts.
✔ Methods include:
✅ Filtration Separate solids from liquids
✅ Evaporation Separate dissolved solids from liquids
✅ Distillation Separate liquids with different boiling points

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

✅ 8.2 What Are Pure Substances?

á Common vs Scientific Meaning:
✔ Common meaning: Pure means unadulterated substances
e.g. pure milk,Pure ghee

✔ Scientific meaning: A pure substance contains only one

type of particle( Atoms , molecules , ions ) (cannot be
separated physically)
✅ Examples: Elements and compounds are only pure
substance
✔ Elements e.g. Iron (Fe), Gold (Au)
✔ Compounds e.g. Water (H₂O), Sugar (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁)

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

✅ Activity – Classifying Substances

✔ Mixtures Milk, fruit juice, soil, sand, alloys (steel, bronze,

brass)
✔Pure substances Baking soda, sugar, glucose, iron, cobalt

✅ 8.3 What Are the Types of Pure Substances?

á Example – Water and Its States
✔ Water exists as: ❄ Ice (solid), > Liquid water, n Steam (gas)
✔ Heating or cooling changes its state but not the particles shows that water

is a pure substance.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

✅ Activity 8.3 – Electrolysis of Water

✔ Passing electricity through water with H₂SO₄ produces:
✅ Hydrogen (H₂) at negative terminal (cathode)
✅ Oxygen (O₂) at positive terminal (anode)
á Observation: Volume of hydrogen released is two times
than than oxygen.

á Reaction: 2H₂O 2H₂ + O₂

✔ Water decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen.
á Inference:
✔ Electrolysis shows water is a compound, as it
breaks into two elements.
✔ It is a chemical change, forming new substances.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

¢ Class 8 – Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

( Atoms
✔ Matter is made up of very small particles called atoms.
✔There are 118 types of atoms
á Examples:
✔H Hydrogen, O Oxygen, C Carbon

✔ Elements are made of the same type of atoms e.g.

✅ Gold (Au) . Made up of same gold atoms
✅ Iron (Fe) Made up of same iron atoms

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

) Molecules
✔ Some atoms cannot exist alone and they combine to form molecules.

á Molecules of Elements:
✔ H₂ 1 molecule of hydrogen = 2 hydrogen atoms
✔2 O₂ 2 molecules of hydrogen = 2 oxygen atoms

á Molecules of Compounds:
✔ H₂O Water
✔ CO₂ Carbon dioxide
✔ C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ Sugar
✔ C₆H₁₂O₆ Glucose
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

* Ions
✔ Ions are charged atoms, formed when an atom gains or loses electrons.
á Types of Ions:
✅ Cations (+) Atom loses electrons positive charge Example: Na⁺, Ca²⁺

✅ Anions (−) Atom gains electrons negative charge Example: Cl⁻, O²⁻

✔ Ions combine to form ionic compounds.(NaCl ,

FeO)

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

¢ Class 8 – Science – Elements and Compounds

✅ 8.3.1 Elements

j ➤ What is an Element?
✔ Elements are pure substances that cannot be
broken down into simpler substances by any
physical or chemical method.
✔ Every element is made of identical atoms.
✔ Atoms of one element are different from atoms of
other elements.
✔ Elements are the building blocks of matter.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

á Examples of Elements:
✅ Hydrogen (H) ✅ Oxygen (O) ✅ Gold (Au) ✅ Silver (Ag) ✅ Sulfur (S)
✅ Carbon (C)

j ➤ Classification of Elements
( Metals Good conductors of heat & electricity, shiny, malleable.
á Example: Gold, Silver, Magnesium, Iron, Aluminium.
) Non-metals Poor conductors, brittle, dull.
á Example: Carbon, Sulphur, Hydrogen, Oxygen.
* Metalloids Have properties between metals & non-metals.
á Example: Silicon, Germanium, Boron
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

j ➤ Interesting Facts
✔ There are 118 known elements today.
✔ Most are solids at room temperature.
✔ 11 gases exist at room temperature like oxygen, nitrogen, helium,
hydrogen, chlorine.
✔ Only 2 liquids at room temperature: øMercury (metal) jBromine (non-
metal)
✔ Gallium and Caesium melt near room temperature (~30°C).
✔ Soft metals: Lithium, Sodium, Potassium.
✔ Graphite(carbon ) Non metal Good conductors

j ➤ Everyday Use of Elements

✔ Over 45 elements like aluminium, copper, lithium are used in mobile phones

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

✅ 8.3.2 Compounds
j ➤ What is a Compound?
✔ A compound is formed when two or more elements combine in a fixed ratio
by mass to create a new substance with different properties.
✔ Elements in a compound cannot be separated by physical methods.

á Example ratios:
✔ CO₂ 12:32 = 3:8

✔ H₂O 2:16 = 1:8

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

¿ Examples of Compounds
( Water (H₂O)
2H₂ (flammable) + O₂ (supports combustion)
2H₂O ( extinguishes fire)
➡ Hydrogen burns, oxygen helps burning, but
together they form water, which extinguishes
fire!

) Common Salt (NaCl)

2Na (Soft metal) + Cl₂ (Poisonous green gas) 2NaCl (White solid, edible)
➡ Sodium and chlorine are harmful, but together they form salt, safe and
useful!
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

* Sugar (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁)
C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ (Solid sugar) 12C (Charcoal) + 11H₂O
(Water vapour)
➡Sugar is made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
On heating, it decomposes, proving its different
properties.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

Observati j Sample B – Iron Sulfide

on j Sample A – Iron + Sulfur (Mixture)
(Compound)
Combinat
Mixed but not chemically combined Heated → forms a new substance
ion
Magnet Magnet cannot attract → fully
Magnet attracts iron → parts remain separate
Test combined

Reaction Hydrogen gas (2 n ) released; sulfur stays solid Hydrogen sulfide (¬ n ) released;
with HCl ¡ cannot separate easily

Additiona Hydrogen is colourless and burns with a ‘pop’ Hydrogen sulfide is colourless but
l Info 2 n . Sulfur stays as yellow solid ¡ smells like rotten eggs ¬ n

Word Iron + Hydrochloric acid → Iron chloride + Iron sulfide + Hydrochloric acid →
Equation Hydrogen gas Iron chloride + Hydrogen sulfide

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

✅ 8.4 How Do We Use Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures?

✔ Everything around us is made of elements, compounds, or mixtures!
á Examples:
✅ Air, Wood, Steel, Concrete Mixtures
✅ Water, Salt Compounds
✅ Iron, Aluminium Elements
á Applications:
( Medicine & Vaccines ) Fertilisers * Engineering, Alloys

j ➤ Example of Innovation – Graphene Aerogel

✔ Made from carbon, it’s the lightest material on Earth!
✔ Has high porosity absorbs oil efficiently!
✔✅ Used for cleaning oil spills in seas and on land.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

✅ 8.5 What Are Minerals?

✔Minerals are naturally occurring substances found in rocks and under
earth crust.
✔I mineral has fixed formula

j ➤ Types of Minerals
( Native Minerals If mineral is in the form of Pure elements
á Examples:
Gold (Au) Mineral of Gold
• Silver (Ag) Mineral of Silver
• Diamond (C) Mineral of Carbon
• Graphite (C) Mineral of Carbon

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

) Compound Minerals If mineral is in the form of compounds (Made of two

or more elements!)
á Examples:
• Magnetite (Fe₃O₄) Mineral of Iron
• Hematite (Fe₂O₃) Mineral of Iron
• Bauxite (Al₂O₃·2H₂O) Mineral of Aluminium
• Quartz (SiO₂) Mineral of Silicon
• Calcite (CaCO₃) Mineral of Calcium
• Gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) Mineral of Calcium
j ➤ Everyday Uses of Minerals
✔ Many products are made from minerals!

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapter 8 : Nature of Matter

á Examples:
✅ Cement Made from calcite, quartz, alumina, iron oxide
✅ Talcum powder Made from talc mineral

Æ 2. What is a Rock?
• A rock is a natural mixture of one or more minerals.
• Some rocks have only one mineral, while most are made of several.

è Examples:
• Granite Quartz + Feldspar + Mica
• Marble Calcite
• Basalt Pyroxene + Plagioclase
 SCIENCE by Ghalib sir NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) Chapte 3: Health – The Ultimate Treasure

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

1 The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and

Solutions
’ Uniform and Non-Uniform Mixtures
◼Uniform mixture (Solution):
• Salt + water, sugar + water , ORS evenly mixed.

•. Same taste in every sip components are evenly

distributed.
◼Non-uniform mixture:
• Chalk powder + water, sand + water, sawdust + water
not evenly mixed.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

9.1 Q What are Solute, Solvent, and Solution?

• Solution: It is a Homogeneous mixture (uniform
mixture ) of two or more than two components .
• Binary solution: A solution having two components
solute and solvent
Solute + Solvent → Solution

• Solute: The substance that gets dissolves (usually

lesser in amount).
• Solvent: The substance which dissolved the solute .(usually more in
amount).
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

= Example: Air as a Gaseous Solution

• Solvent: Nitrogen (largest amount).
• Solutes: Oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide,
other gases.
÷ Example: Sugar Syrup (Chashni for
Gulab Jamun)
• Sugar (solid) + little water (liquid).
• Still Sugar = Solute, Water = Solvent.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

9.2 ! How Much Solute Can a Fixed Amount of Solvent

Dissolve?
$ Activity 9.1 (Salt in Water)
1. Fill a tumbler half with water.
2. Add salt spoon by spoon, stirring each time.
3. Observe when salt stops dissolving.
Amount of Salt Observation
1 spoon Dissolves
2 spoons Dissolves
3 spoons Dissolves
After limit Undissolved salt settles at bottom

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

! Types of Solutions & Key Terms

➡ Solubility
• The maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a fixed amount
of solvent at a given temperature.
✅ Example: At 20 °C, about 36 g of salt can dissolve in 100 g of water.

( Unsaturated Solution
• A solution that can still dissolve more solute at a given temperature.

) Saturated Solution
• A solution that cannot dissolve any more solute at a given
temperature.
• If extra solute is added, it just settles at the bottom.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

* Super Saturated Solution

• A solution that holds more solute than its normal limit, possible
only by heating.
• When cooled, the extra solute may crystallise out.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

➡Dilute and concentrated solution

◼Concentration of a Solution
• The amount of solute present in a given amount of solution/solvent
◼ Dilute Solution
• A solution containing less solute (weak solution).
✅ Example: Few drops of lemon juice in water.

◼Concentrated Solution
• A solution containing more solute (strong
solution).
✅ Example: Thick sugar syrup used in sweets.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

- Examples
• Dilute vs Concentrated:
• 1 spoon salt + 100 mL water dilute.

• 4 spoons salt + 50 mL water more concentrated.

• Reflection Question: Which is more concentrated?

• 2 spoons salt in 100 mL water OR 4 spoons salt in 50 mL water?
è Clearly, 4 spoons in 50 mL is more concentrated.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

2 9.2.1 Effect of Temperature on Solubility of Solids

$ Activity 9.2: Baking Soda in Water
1. Take 50 mL of water at 20 °C.
2. Add baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate)
gradually until undissolved solid remains.
3. Heat to 50 °C the undissolved solid dissolves.

4. Add more baking soda again some remains

undissolved.
5. Heat to 70 °C more dissolves.

è Observation: •More baking soda dissolves in hot water than in cold

water.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

è Conclusion:
• For most solids, solubility increases with temperature.
• A saturated solution at a lower temperature becomes unsaturated if
the temperature is increased.
= 9.3 Solubility of Gases in Liquids
• Mixture of gases in water = uniform solution (gases dissolve evenly).
• Oxygen dissolves in water (small amount) essential for aquatic life.

@ Temperature Effect:
• As temperature increases solubility of gases decreases.
• Cold water dissolves more oxygen supports aquatic plants, Animal
• Warm water holds less oxygen harmful for aquatic organisms.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

@ Effect of Pressure on Gas Solubility

• Increasing pressure above a liquid Gas
solubility increases
• Decreasing pressure above a liquid Gas
solubility decreases

✅ This is why soda fizzes when opened — pressure

drops, and dissolved gas escapes
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

9.5 ! What is Density?

ÿ Everyday Example with Particles
• Room A: 10 people in it less dense.
• Room B: 20 people in the same size room more
dense.
Imagine two boxes of the same size (same volume).
• Box A has 100 particles inside less dense.
• Box B has 200 particles inside more dense.
Everyday Examples of Density
• High density: Crowded bus, dense forest (trees close together).
• Low density: Less crowded bus, sparse forest (trees far apart).

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

$ Scientific Link
• More particles in a given volume higher density ➡more crowded
• Fewer particles in the same volume lower density ➡less crowded
D Since mass depends on number of particles,
è more particles = more mass = higher density
è Less particles = less mass = lower density

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

¢ Density
J The mass of a substance per unit volume is called its density.
Density = Mass /Volume
⚡ Key Points
• Density is independent of shape or size of the substance.
è Density depends on temperature and pressure.
• Effect of Pressure: Significant on gases; less on solids and liquids.
In case of gases When pressure increases volume decreases

density increases.
• Effect of Temperature: When temperature increases volume

increases density decreases.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

! Example
A small piece of gold Ÿ and a large gold bar N have the same density.
è Because Density = Mass ÷ Volume, and this ratio remains constant for the
same material.
á Therefore, the density of gold is the same, no matter its size.

Units of Density
• SI Unit: kg/m³ (mass in kg, volume in m³)
• Common units for liquids: g/mL or g/cm³
• Conversions: 1 kg/m³ = 1 g/L = 0.001 / g/cm³
• 1 mL of water ≈ 1 g at room temperature

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

Relative Density (Specific Gravity)

Relative density = Density of substance/ Density of water at same temperature
Aluminium: density = 2.7 g/cm³ 2.7 times denser than water

9.5.1 Determination of Density

( Measuring Mass
• Use a balance (digital, spring, or two-pan).
• Steps for digital balance:
1. Switch ON, ensure zero reading (tare if needed).
2. Place watch glass or beaker.
3. Reset to zero.
4. Place solid/liquid and note mass.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

) Measuring Volume
a) Liquids
• Use a measuring cylinder
• Read volume at bottom of meniscus for
colorless liquids, top for colored liquids.
b) Regular Solids
• Formula: Volume} = l X bX h
• Example: Notebook: 25 × 18 × 2 cm 900 cm³

c) Irregular Solids (Displacement Method)

• Fill cylinder with water note initial volume.
• Submerge object note final volume.
• Volume of object = Final − Initial volume. • Unit: mL = cm³
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

* Calculating Density
Density} = Mass/Volume
• Example: Mass = 16.4 g, Volume = 5 cm³ Density = 3.28 g/cm³

⁄ Density in Nature
Earth has layers with varying density:
• Crust (lightest) Upper mantle Lower mantle
Outer core Inner core (densest).

• Density increases with depth due to higher pressure

and temperature.
Everyday Example: Floating Objects
•Bamboo and wooden logs float lightweight, hollow, less dense than water.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

⚖ 9.4 Why Do Objects Float or Sink in Water?

When we put things in water:
• Some objects float (like wood, oil).
• Some objects sink (like iron).

K Example
• Take a wooden stick and an iron rod of the same
size.
• The iron rod feels heavier because it has more density than wood.
✅ General belief:
• Floating objects = lighter than water.
• Sinking objects = heavier than water.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

⚖ Why Do Objects Float or Sink in Water?

1. If object’s density < water’s density Object floats

Example: Wood , oil (density less than water) floats.
2. If object’s density > water’s density Object sinks
Example: Iron (density more than water) sinks.
K Example
• Wooden stick and iron rod of the same size:
• Wood has less density than water floats.
• Iron has more density than water sinks.
✅ Rule (in short):
• Lower density than water Floats
• Higher density than water Sinks
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

9.5.2 Effect of Temperature on Density

è On Heating substance particles move apart volume increases
density decreases.
è On Cooling substance particles come closer volume decreases
density increases.
• Example: Hot air rises less dense than cool air hot air balloons.
9.5.3 Effect of Pressure on Density
è Gases: Increasing pressure particles closer density increases.
è Liquids: Nearly incompressible small effect.
è Solids: Very little effect density changes negligible.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

❄ Ice and Water

• Water is heaviest ( highest density) at 4 °C.
• When water freezes it expands becomes
less dense than water
• So, ice floats on water.
> Water & Temperature:
• 0 °C 4 °C: Volume decreases
• 4 °C Minimum volume(Maximum density )
• Above 4 °C: Volume increases again î
1 Why important?
• Ice forms a top layer on lakes/rivers in winter.
• This layer keeps water below from freezing.
• Thus, fish and other aquatic life survive.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 9 : The Amazing World of Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

$ Think Like a Scientist

• Egg in water sinks (density higher than water).

• Add salt egg floats (increases water density).

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

Class 8 Science – Chapter 10: Light: Mirrors and Lenses

✅ When light strikes an object some light is reflected (bounce back), some
is refracted(passed) , and some is absorbed.

⬛ Reflection and Refraction of Light

✅ Reflection of Light (mirror)
è When light hits a smooth surface, it returns
back to the same medium.
And This phenomenon is called Reflection of Light.
✅ Refraction of Light ( lens)
è When light enters from one medium to another, it bends.
And This phenomenon is called Refraction of Light.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

⏹ Image ( mirror and lens formed images )

è The light rays coming from a source, after reflection or refraction, appear to
intersect at a point. And This point is called the Image of the Object.
‹ Types of Images
( Real Image ) Virtual Image
✅ Real Image è Formed at the point where light rays actually meet after
reflection or refraction.
è It is always inverted.
è It can be projected on a screen.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

✅ Virtual Image è Formed at the point from which light rays appear to come
after reflection or refraction.
è It is always erect.
è It cannot be projected on a screen.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

✅ MIRROR — ( it reflects most of light )

A mirror is a part of glass having one smooth surface › and another
polished surface ✨.
The polished surface acts as a reflector because it reflects most of the light
Õ that falls on it.

fi Types of Mirrors
( Plane Mirror
) Spherical Mirrors
(i) Concave Mirror (curved inward like a cave)
(ii) Convex Mirror (curved outward like the back of a spoon)

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

✅ Plane Mirror
fl Definition: If the reflective surface is flat (plane), the mirror is called a
Plane Mirror.
fl Coating: The back surface of the mirror is coated with silver (Ag) ‡ or
mercury (Hg) > to make it reflective.
I Property D Description

Nature of Image Virtual (cannot be obtained on a screen)

Orientation Erect (upright, same direction as object)

Size of Image Equal to the size of the object
At the same distance behind the mirror as the object is
Position of Image
in front of it
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

⭕10.1 What Are Spherical Mirrors?

☑ Activity 10.1 : A shiny metallic spoon behaves just like a mirror!

( Inner Curved Surface Acts as a Concave Mirror

è When the spoon is close to your face ➡ your
image looks erect and enlarged
è As you move it farther away ➡ your image
becomes inverted & smaller.

) Outer Curved Surface Acts as a Convex

Mirror
è Always shows an erect and smaller image, no
matter how far or near it is

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

✅ Concave Mirror
1. Definition: A mirror whose reflecting surface is
curved inwards is called a concave mirror.
2. Representation:
• The non-reflecting surface is usually shaded .
3. Examples:
⚫ Shaving mirror. ⚫ Dentist’s mirror
⚫ Headlights of vehicles
4. Key Characteristics:
• When the object is close, the image is erect and
magnified.
• When the object is far, the image becomes

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

inverted and smaller.

✅ Convex Mirror
1. Definition:A mirror whose reflecting surface is
curved outwards is called a convex mirror.
2. Representation: The non-reflecting side is
shaded.
3. Examples: Rear-view mirrors of vehicles.
4. Key Characteristics:
• Always forms an erect and
diminished image.
• Provides a wider field of view.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

W How are Spherical Mirrors Made?

✔ Spherical mirror are part of a hollow sphere , but Spherical mirrors are not
made by cutting a hollow sphere.
✔ in fact a flat glass piece is ground and polished into a curved shape.
✔ If a reflective coating is applied on the:
• Outer curved surface Concave mirror
• Inner curved surface Convex mirror

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

^ Activity 10.2 – Let Us Distinguish Between Concave and Convex

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

Mirrors.
Mirror Direction of
Nature of Image Common Uses
Type Reflecting Surface
Concave • For close objects – Erect & magnified Shaving mirror, Dentist
Curved inwards
Mirror • For distant objects – Inverted & small mirror, Headlights
Convex Rear-view mirrors in
Curved outwards Always erect and diminished
Mirror vehicles
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

I 2. Key Concept
• Concave mirror Converges light rays.
• Convex mirror Diverges light rays.
• Plane mirror Keeps rays parallel.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

I 1. Reflection of Parallel Light Beams by Plane, Concave & Convex

Mirrors
Mirror Type Behaviour of Reflected Beams Nature of Reflection

Plane Mirror Reflected beams remain parallel Regular reflection

Concave Mirror
Reflected beams come closer (converge) Converging reflection
(converging mirror)
Convex Mirror
Reflected beams spread out (diverge) Diverging reflection
( diverging mirror)

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

Activity 10.7: Focusing Sunlight with a Concave Mirror

• Concave mirror reflects sunlight and concentrates it at the focus.
• A bright spot is formed at the focus where light energy gathers.
• The concentrated sunlight produces intense heat, enough to burn
paper.
• This shows that a concave mirror converges light rays.
✔Applications: Used in solar concentrators and solar furnaces to generate
heat or energy.
Device Working Principle Uses

Solar Uses mirrors or lenses to focus sunlight in a To heat liquids, produce steam, generate
Concentrator small area electricity, or cook food

Solar Uses concentrated sunlight to produce very

For melting metals like steel
Furnace high temperatures
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

I Angles Related to Reflection

fl Angle of Incidence (∠i):
The angle between the incident ray and the normal.

fl Angle of Reflection (∠r):

The angle between the reflected ray and the
normal.

⚖ Laws of Reflection
( The angle of incidence = The angle of reflection
è< i = < r
) The incident ray, reflected ray, and normal all lie in the same plane.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

⬛ Incidence Ray and reflected ray and normal

fl Incident Ray
➡ The ray of light that falls on the mirror is called the incident ray.
‰ The point where it strikes the mirror is the point of incidence.

fl Reflected Ray
➡ The ray of light that is bounced back from
the mirror is called the reflected ray.

fl Normal
% An imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the mirror’s surface at the point
of incidence is called the normal.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

ø 10.4 What Is a Lens?

✅ A lens is a piece of transparent material (glass or plastic) bounded by
curved surfaces.
Like mirrors, lenses are of two main types:
1. Convex lens
2. Concave lens

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

( Convex Lens
1. Definition: A lens that is thicker at the middle
and thinner at the edges is called a convex lens.
2. Representation: The shape bulges outward on
both sides.
3. Nature:
• Converges (brings together parallel rays of light.)
• Also called a converging lens.
4. Example:
⚫ Magnifying glass. ⚫ Camera lense ⚫Human eye lens
✳ Our eye has a natural convex lens that can change its shape to focus light
— enabling us to see near and far objects.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

I ) Concave Lens
1. Definition: A lens that is thinner at the middle and thicker at the edges is
called a concave lens.
2. Representation: The surface curves inward on both sides.
3. Nature:
• Diverges (spreads out parallel rays of light.)
• Also called a diverging lens.
4. Example:
• Spectacles for correcting short-sightedness
• Peepholes, laser devices
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

OQ Activity 10.8 – Water Drop as a Lens

> Concept:
When we put a drop of water on a glass or plastic surface, it
forms a curved (bulging) shape.
E What Happens:
I The curved water drop bends the light rays passing through
it.
I The letters or objects beneath the drop appear larger and clearer.
^ Conclusion:
✅ The water drop acts as a simple convex lens.
✅ It magnifies objects, just like a magnifying glass.?

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

Q Activity 10.9 – Observing Objects Through Lenses

Object Nature of Image Image
Lens Type
Distance Image Size Orientation
Convex
Close to lens Virtual Enlarged Erect
Lens
Convex
Far from lens Real Small Inverted
Lens
Concave
Any distance Virtual Small Erect
Lens

Conclusion:
• A convex lens can form both real and virtual images.
• A concave lens always forms a virtual, erect, and diminished image.
• The distance of the object affects image size and nature.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

Q Activity 10.10 – Convergence and Divergence of Light

When we pass parallel beams of light through different materials ( glass,
plastic )
—Use the comb to create multiple parallel beams of light from the torch.
Material Behaviour of Light Type

Thin glass plate Light passes straight through No convergence/divergence

Convex lens Light rays converge (come together) Converging lens

Concave lens Light rays diverge (spread apart) Diverging lens

Hence, a convex lens acts as a converging lens, while a concave lens acts
as a diverging lens. ^✨

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

☀ Activity 10.11 – Focusing Sunlight Using a Convex Lens

☀ Concept: A convex lens bends and focuses sunlight to a single point
known as the focus.
^ Process:
When we hold a convex lens facing the Sun and
place a paper sheet behind it, the sunrays
passing through the lens get converged at one
point.
2 Observation:
After a few seconds, the paper starts to smoke
or burn at the bright spot where light is focused.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

✅ Conclusion:
I The convex lens concentrates sunlight at a single point (focus).
I The heat energy at this point is strong enough to ignite paper.
I Hence, a convex lens acts as a converging lens that can focus and
concentrate light energy.
Ê Uses of Lenses in Daily Life

Lens Type Common Uses

Convex Lens Magnifying glass, Cameras, Microscopes, Telescopes, Human eye, Solar concentrators

Concave Lens Spectacles for myopia (short-sightedness), Laser devices, Peepholes, Projectors
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

æ Summary Table: Concave vs. Convex Lens

Feature Convex Lens Concave Lens

Shape Thicker in the middle Thinner in the middle

Light Behaviour Converges rays Diverges rays

Type of Image Real or virtual Always virtual

Image Orientation Inverted (real) / Erect (virtual) Always erect

Image Size Large (close) / Small (far) Always smaller

Common Uses Magnifying glass, Cameras, Eyes Spectacles, Peepholes

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 10 : Light: Mirrors and Lenses

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

Á Chapter 11 — Keeping Time with the Skies

ΠBASIC POINTS
1 Motion of the Moon
• The Moon revolves around the Earth.
• One complete round takes about one month.
Ë What We See from Earth
! The Moon’s rotation period is equal to its revolution
period.(27.3 days)

! Because of this, the same side ( near side ) of the

Moon always remains directed toward the Earth. And
we never see other side of moon ( far side ) from earth.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

H Visible and Hidden Sides of Moon Ë

➤ The face we see is called the near side, and it is always visible from Earth.
➤ The opposite side,called the far side or dark side,is never visible from Earth
➤ So, whenever we look at the Moon, we always see the same portion( near
side ) , and the back side remains hidden.
➤ sunlight falls on both side ( near side and far side ) but we see light on near
side of moon from earth .

ÈÁ Phases of the Moon ÍË

☀ The Moon appears differently over time because of the angle of sunlight
falling on the near side:

Á Full Moon ➤ When the entire near side is illuminated, we see a Full Moon.
Í New Moon ➤ When the near side receives no sunlight( far side received
lights ) , it is a New Moon.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

ËÎ Partial Phases
➤ When part of the near side is illuminated, we see partial phases: crescent or
gibbous.

➤ So, even though the same side always faces Earth, the visible brightness
changes, creating the phases of the Moon.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

! ) Phases of the Moon

• The changing shapes of the Moon’s bright part as seen from Earth are
called phases of the Moon.
• In about a week, it changes from a full circle to a half circle.
• In the next week, it shrinks further until it is not visible.( new moon )
• After the new Moon, the bright part grows again.
• In about a week, it becomes half bright, and in another week, full bright
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

È Moon’s 30-Day Magic

✨ First 15 Days : The Moon changes from bright to dark (waning phase )
✨ Next 15 Days : The Moon changes from dark to bright ( waxing phase )

Ï Special days:
• Full Moon day (Purnima) Moon visible fully
bright.( Near side)
• New Moon day (Amavasya) Moon is not visible
( near side and far)
RThe half part of the Moon is always illuminated by the Sun.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

RPHASES OF MOON .
( Waning Period (Krishna Paksha)
• The period when the Moon’s bright part
decreases
• Takes about two weeks to go from full Moon
new Moon.
) Waxing Period (Shukla Paksha)
• The period when the Moon’s bright part
increases
• Takes about two weeks to go from new Moon full Moon.
* Gibbous Phase of the Moon
• The period when more than half of the Moon’s visible surface is
illuminated, but it is not yet a full moon.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

, Crescent Phase of the Moon

• The period when less than half of the Moon’s visible surface is
illuminated, appearing as a thin curved shape in the sky

* Moon Cycle
• The changing phases of the Moon from new moon to full moon and back to
new moon are called the Moon cycle or Lunar cycle.

• One full cycle (from full Moon to full Moon) takes about a month.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

R Ball and Lamp Activity

• The lamp represents the Sun.
• The ball represents the Moon.
• You represent the Earth.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

Á Full Moon
• Ball is kept opposite to the lamp (Position A).
• The entire bright part of the ball is visible.
• This situation is like a Full Moon day.

Í New Moon
• Ball is kept towards the lamp (Position E).
• The bright part cannot be seen at all.
• This situation is like a New Moon day.
È Half Moon: overhead at sunrise.
È Other Moon Shapes
• On other positions, only part of the bright side is seen.
• This is why the Moon looks different on different days.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

( Gibbous phase: More than half of the Moon is bright.

• Seen at positions B and H.

) Crescent phase:Less than half of the Moon is bright.

• Seen at positions D and F.

* Waning phase: Bright part decreases.

• From A C E.

,• Waxing phase: Bright part increases.

• From E G A.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

1 Same Phase Seen Everywhere

• Earth rotates in 24 hours. Moon revolves and rotates in about one
[Link], on the same day, people on Earth see nearly the same Moon
phase.

☀ Moon’s Distance from the Sun

• On New Moon day ➡ the Moon appears closest to the Sun.
• On Full Moon day ➡the Moon appears farthest from the Sun.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

Ì Change in Moon’s Position Daily

• The Moon’s position at sunrise or
sunset changes daily.

è This happens because:

• The Moon moves forward in its orbit.
• Earth completes one rotation in 24
hours.
• Earth must rotate a little more to see the
Moon at the same place in the sky.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

Œ A Step Further — Why Moon Phases Happen

❌ Common Misconception
• Moon phases do NOT happen because Earth’s shadow falls on the Moon.
•. This explanation is incorrect.

✔ Correct Reason for Moon Phases

• Moon phases happen because of the changing positions of the Sun,
Moon, and Earth.
• As the Moon revolves around Earth, we see different portions of its
illuminated [Link] changing orientation causes the phases.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

Í Earth’s Shadow Causes Something Else

• When Earth’s shadow falls on the Moon, it causes a lunar eclipse, not the
daily phases.
Type of Eclipse Occurs On Cause
Í Solar Eclipse New Moon Day The Moon comes between the Earth and the Sun,

Á Lunar Eclipse Full Moon Day The Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon,

.⁄ Why Eclipses Don’t Happen Every Month

• The Moon’s orbit is slightly tilted compared to Earth’s orbit around the Sun.
• Because of this tilt, Sun, Earth, and Moon do not line up perfectly every
month. So eclipses are rare, not monthly.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

Ó Section 11.2 — How Did Calendars Come into Existence

Ï 1. The Origin of a Day
• The Sun appears to rise in the East and set in the West. This happens
because the Earth spins on its axis.
• The time taken by the Sun to go from its highest point (noon) one day to
the next is called a solar day.

When the Sun is at its highest, shadows are shortest.

1 solar day = time from one noon to the next ≈ 24 hours
The Earth’s actual rotation on its axis = 23 : 56 hrs,called a sidereal day.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

Ï 2. The Origin of a Month

• The Moon changes its shape (phases) during one complete revolution in
about 29.5 days. • These repeated changes make one month.

Ï 3. The Origin of a Year

• The Earth moves around the Sun in about 365¼ days, which is called
one year.• This movement also gives us the different seasons.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

R 11.2.1 – Lunar Calendar

( A lunar calendar is a calendar that is based on the Moon’s phases.
• It counts days according to the Moon’s cycle from New Moon Full
Moon New Moon.
• 1 month = about 29.5 days (time for one complete Moon cycle).
• 1 year = 12 lunar months = 354 days (shorter than a solar year).
⚫ Problem with the Lunar Calendar
• A lunar year (354 days) is shorter than the solar year (365 days).
• Because of this difference, over the years, the lunar months slowly shift
out of sync with the seasons.
• For example, a month that used to be in winter might slowly move to
autumn after many year

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

) Solar Calendar (Gregorian Calendar ➡ modern solar calendar):

è A solar calendar is based on the Sun’s movement and the Earth’s
revolution around the Sun.

Key points:
1. 1 day = time for Earth to rotate once (~24 hours)
2. 1 year = time for Earth to complete one revolution around the Sun
(365¼ days)
3. 1 month ≈ 1/12 of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun
4. A solar calendar keeps months and seasons aligned, so the same month
always occurs in the same season

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

fl Leap Year Concept

• Earth takes ≈ 365.25 days to orbit the Sun.
• Extra 0.25 × 4 = 1 day added every 4 years (Leap Year Feb = 29
days).1700, 1800, 1900 not leap but 1600, 2000 are the leap yrs
*11.2.3 – Luni-Solar Calendars
• Combine both lunar months & solar year.
• 12 lunar months = 354 days 11 days shorter than solar year.
• Every 2–3 years, an extra month (Adhika Maasa) is added to align with
the [Link] widely in India.
Ô Traditional Indian Months
Chaitra, Vaishakha, Jyeshtha, Ashadha, Shravana, Bhadrapada, Ashwin,
Kartika, Margashirsha, Pausha, Magha, Phalguna.
 Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

R☀ Solstices & Equinoxes

( Solstices
• Solstices are the two days in a year when the Sun is at its highest or lowest
point in the sky at noon.

) Equinoxes
• Equinoxes are the two days in a year when day = night
• On these days: The Sun is directly above the Equator
Event Date Meaning
Summer Solstice June 21 Longest day , Sun rises farthest north.
Winter Solstice Dec 21 Shortest day , Sun rises farthest south.
Day = Night Sun rises exactly in the
Equinox Mar 21 & Sep 23
east.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11: Keeping Time with the Skies

R" 11.3 — Festivals & Astronomy

Á Lunar-Based Festivals
Many Indian festivals depend on the Moon’s phase.
Festival Basis Month Phase
Diwali Lunar Kartika New Moon
Holi Lunar Phalguna Full Moon
Buddha Purnima Lunar Vaisakha Full Moon
Eid-ul-Fitr Lunar Ramazan Crescent after New Moon
Dussehra Lunar Ashwin 10th day

• Lunar months are 29.5 days, so festival dates change every year.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

R‘ 11.4 — Why Do We Launch Artificial Satellites in Space?

Ï Natural & Artificial Satellites
Type Example Description
Natural Satellite Moon Orbits the Earth naturally.
Orbits the Earth for various purposes such as
Artificial Satellite Man-made (spacecraft)
communication, weather study, and research.

• Artificial satellites orbit ≈ 800 km above Earth.

• Each orbit ≈ 100 minutes.
• Visible as fast-moving bright points in the night
sky.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

Ï Uses of Satellites
1. Communication & Internet
2. Navigation (GPS, GAGAN)
3. Weather monitoring
4. Disaster management
5. Scientific research and astronomy
ÏÒ ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation) Missions
Mission Purpose
Chandrayaan 1, 2, 3 Moon exploration
Aditya L1 Studies of the Sun
Mangalyaan (MOM) Mars exploration

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

Ï A Step Further – Space Debris

• Defunct satellites and rocket parts become space junk.
• Collisions may damage working satellites.
• Small debris burns in the atmosphere; large ones may crash on Earth.
• Countries are developing ways to remove space debris safely.

ÚVikram Sarabhai (1919–1971)❤➡Father of Indian Space Programme;

founded ISRO; VSSC named after him

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

NCERT Class 8 | Curiosity Z Chapter 12 —How Nature Works in Harmony

Y Introduction
In many Indian states such as Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Assam, and
Chhattisgarh, elephants often enter farms and villages.

✔Reasons
• Shrinking forest cover due to construction of roads and buildings.
• Changes in rainfall and temperature reduced vegetation and water
• Drying waterholes force elephants to move in search of water and food.
✔ Effects
• Elephants enter fields to eat bananas, sugarcane, and crops.
• Leads to crop damage and human–animal conflict.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

✔Wildlife Corridors
èIt is a safe passage made for animals to move between different forest
è Ecologists identify and mark elephant corridors, which connect forest
patches and allow animals to move safely without encountering villages.

⁄ 12.1 — How Do We Experience and Interpret Our

Surroundings?
Û What is a Habitat?
A habitat is a place where an organism lives (e.g., pond,
forest, agricultural field, tree bark).

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

Components of a Habitat
1. Biotic components ( living ) — plants, animals, microbes
2. Abiotic components (Non living) — air, water, sunlight, temperature, soil ,
nutrients
Q Activity 12.1 — Exploring Two Habitats
Habitat Biotic Components Abiotic Components
Pond Fish, frogs, algae, insects Water, sunlight, temperature
Forest Trees, birds, snakes, insects Soil, air, sunlight

D Key Learning
• Every organism requires specific conditions to survive.
• Even in the same habitat, different species use resources in different ways:
è Snakes may be active at night & Rodents may be active during the day.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

Ù 12.2 — Who All Live Together in Nature?

w Population
A group of organisms of the same kind living in a habitat.
Example: 20 mustard plants in a 1m × 1m area.

ı Community
All different populations living together in a habitat.
Example: Fish + frogs + algae + snails + insects in a pond.

ˆ 12.3 — Does Every Organism in a Community Matter?

Observations:
• Pond A (with fish) more flowering plants around it
• Pond B (without fish) fewer flowering plants

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

Why?
• Fish eat dragonfly larvae. Fewer dragonflies
• Fewer dragonflies more bees and butterflies
• More pollinators more flowers & seeds.
D Conclusion
• Fish have an indirect positive effect on seed production.
• Shows how biotic and abiotic components interact.
• Overfishing by humans can disturb this natural balance.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

˜ 12.4 — Types of Interactions Among Organisms

ZT Interactions in an Ecosystem
living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components interact with each other in
many [Link] interactions help living organisms survive, grow, and
reproduce.

( Biotic ↔ Abiotic Interactions

` Living things depend on non-living things.
á Examples:
Y Plants (biotic) need sunlight, water, and CO₂
(abiotic) for photosynthesis.
v Fish (biotic) lay eggs in water (abiotic).
¯ Earthworms (biotic) live in moist soil (abiotic)
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

) Abiotic ↔ Abiotic Interactions

⚪ Non-living things interact with each other too.
á Examples:
☀ Sunlight (abiotic) increases temperature (abiotic) during daytime.
= Wind/air (abiotic) creates waves (abiotic) on the water surface.

* Biotic ↔ Biotic Interactions

ø Living organisms interact with other living organisms.
á Examples:
˘ Frog (biotic) eats insects (biotic).
˙ Snake (biotic) eats frog (biotic).
˘v Frogs and fish (biotic) compete for insect larvae (biotic) as food.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

& Ecosystem Formation

Ecosystem : It is a place where living(Biotic) and non living
(Abiotic) live together and depends on each other. .
Types of Ecosystems
1. Aquatic Ecosystems — ponds, rivers, lakes
2. Terrestrial Ecosystems — forests, grasslands, farms, big trees
Biotic ↔ Abiotic Interdependence
Biotic → Abiotic Dependence Abiotic → Biotic Dependence
Z Plants → produce oxygen Y Soil → gives nutrients
Y Roots → prevent soil erosion > Water → supports aquatic life

Z Plants → maintain moisture & temperature ☀ Sunlight → supports photosynthesis

◾Rivers, mountains, forests, and farmlands overlap and influence each other

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

¸ 12.5 — Food Relationships: Who Eats Whom?

I Feeding Relationships
• Every organism depends on others for food.
• These feeding links form connections among organisms within an
ecosystem.
Category / Term Meaning Examples

Organisms that make their own food through

1. Producers (Autotrophs) Plants
photosynthesis

Organisms that cannot make their own food and Animals,

2. Consumers (Heterotrophs )
depend on other organisms humans
3. Herbivores Organisms that eat only plants Deer, hare
4. Carnivores Organisms that eat only animals Leopard
Crow, fox,
5. Omnivores Organisms that eat both plants and animals
mouse
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

I What is a Food Chain?

A food chain is a linear sequence that shows who eats whom.
(how energy passes from one organism to another.)
Key Features:
• Always starts with producers (green plants).
• Shows feeding relationships among organisms.
• Energy flows in one direction only.
m Example — Grassland Ecosystem
¯ Example Food Chains
( ¸ Grass Rabbit Fox Hawk

) Grass Grasshopper Frog Snake Eagle

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

Note: ➡ Each arrow ( ) shows the flow of energy — “who eats whom”.
I Trophic Levels (Steps in a Food Chain where each organism gets
energy)
Trophic Level Type of Organism Examples
Make their own
( Producers Grass, plants
food

) Primary Consumers Herbivores Hare, deer

* Secondary
Small carnivores Frog
Consumers
Tiger, Eagle,
, Tertiary Consumers Large carnivores
Vulture

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

º Flow of Energy in an Ecosystem

Sunlight Plants Herbivores Carnivores Decomposers

• Energy always flows in one direction.

• Every organism plays a role in maintaining balance in the ecosystem.
á Each level forms a step in the Food Pyramid.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

¸ 12.6 — What Happens to Waste in Nature?

I Decomposition
Microorganisms like fungi and bacteria break down
dead plants and animals into simpler substances.
This process is called decomposition.

Importance:
• clean the environment
• Return nutrients to the soil
• Maintain the nutrient cycle
I Decomposers (Saprotrophs) : Organisms that feed on dead or
decaying matter. Examples:• Fungi , Bacteria , Beetles , Flies
D Key Idea: In nature, nothing is wasted — everything is recycled.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

œ Examples of Natural Recycling

• Mushrooms grow on dead trees.
• Beetles and flies break down elephant dung.
˝ Ever Heard Of… Migratory Birds?
I Role of Migratory Birds
• Travel thousands of kilometers to India every year.
• Escape harsh climates and find food.
• Act as pollinators and seed dispersers.
• Help farmers by controlling pest insects.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

Example:
˝ Demoiselle Crane — visits Khichan village (Jodhpur, Rajasthan) every
winter.

& 12.7 — How Does One Change Lead to Another?

Example of Chain Reaction

Pollution plants die less oxygen fish die insects increase
crop damage more pesticides environmental problems
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

Case Study: Indian Bullfrog

• Heavy export of frog legs in the 1980s
• Frog population declined
• Pest population increased
• Farmers used more pesticides
• Soil & water polluted
➡ Govt banned frog leg export.
⚖ 12.8 — How Do Interactions Maintain Balance?
Types of Interactions
Type Meaning Example
Mutualism Both organisms benefit Bee & Flower
Commensalism One benefits, other unaffected Orchid on Tree
Parasitism One benefits, other is harmed Tick on Dog

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

Competition
Organisms compete for food, water, space, sunlight helps maintain
balance.

B 12.9 — Benefits of an Ecosystem

Ecosystem Services
• Clean air, water
• Food, medicines
• Timber, fibres
• Climate regulation
• Recreation & beauty

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 11 : How Nature Works in Harmony

Threats
• Deforestation
• Pollution
• Habitat loss
• Climate change
• Invasive species
˛ Case Study: The Sundarbans
• World’s largest mangrove forest
• Located in India–Bangladesh delta
• UNESCO World Heritage Site (1987)
Importance
• Protects coasts from storms & floods , Absorbs CO₂
• Habitat for endangered species (Royal Bengal Tiger)
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

Threats
• Cutting mangroves ( trees grow in muddy , swampy and salty coastal
areas ) Illegal hunting
• Pollution, sewage, industrial waste
“ Protected Areas in India
Place State / Region
Jim Corbett National Park Uttarakhand
Manas National Park Assam
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Western Ghats
Chilika Lake Odisha
Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary Arunachal Pradesh
Hemis National Park Ladakh
Keibul Lamjao National Park Manipur
Pirotan Island Marine National Park Gujarat

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

Y 12.9.1 — Human-Made Ecosystems

Examples:
• Agricultural fields
• Fish ponds
• Parks
• Gardens
• Zoos
They need human care and management.
¸ 12.9.2 — Healthy Ecosystems & Farming
Green Revolution (1950–1965)
• Increased food production
− Caused soil degradation, water pollution, loss of biodiversity

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

Problems with Unsustainable Farming

• Soil fertility loss
• Soil erosion
• Reduced beneficial microbes
• Pesticide-resistant pests
• Loss of natural predators
• Water pollution
Sustainable Farming Practices
• Organic manure
• Crop rotation
• Mixed cropping
• Less chemical use
• water conservation (Drip irrigation)
• Natural pest control (ladybirds, beetles)
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

1 Chapter 13 — Our Home: Earth, a Unique Life-Sustaining Planet

ˇ Introduction: The Wonder of Planet Earth
• Earth is the only known planet that supports life.

I 13.1 Why Is Earth a Unique Planet?

• Life exists only on a very thin layer of the
Earth’s crust, like the skin of an apple y.
• From the tallest mountains to deepest
oceans, this thin crust supports all living beings.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

= 2. Unique Features of Earth

Earth provides everything required for life:
• Air to breathe
• Water to drink
• Soil to grow crops
• Rocks, minerals, and timber for shelter and resources
• Gravity that holds everything in place
Õ 13.2 What Do the Planets of Our Solar System Look Like?
ˇ 8 planets orbit the Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, Neptune
• Inner planets — Mercury to Mars: small & rocky
• Outer planets — Jupiter to Neptune: large & gaseous
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

⚫Important points
• Venus is the hottest planet. Reason: Thick CO₂ atmosphere traps heat
• Neptune is the coldest planet (around –200°C).
• Mercury has no atmosphere.
• Earth (average temperature 15°C, suitable atmosphere, water).
• Largest planet: Jupiter (11 times Earth’s size).
• Smallest planet: Mercury.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

Z The Greenhouse Effect on Earth

• Earth’s greenhouse gases (CO₂, methane, water
vapour) trap some heat.
• Keeps Earth’s temperature warm and stable —
suitable for life.
• Without it, Earth would be too cold to sustain liquid
water.
@ Greenhouse vs Greenhouse for Plants
• Planetary greenhouse effect: gases trap infrared
radiation.
• Glass greenhouse: traps air (physical barrier).
➡ Both keep things warm, but in different ways.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

⁄ 13.3 What Makes the Earth Suitable for Life to Exist?

˜ 13.3.1 Position of Earth
• Earth lies in the “Goldilocks Zone” — not too hot, not
too cold.
• Temperature allows liquid water to exist.
• If closer to Sun all water evaporates Õ
• If farther all water freezes ❄

& Seen from space, Earth appears blue — hence called the
Blue Planet.
ˇ A Step Further: Did Mars Ever Support Life?
• Mars lies at the edge of the habitable zone.
• Evidence suggests past liquid water (lakes, rivers).
• No confirmed life yet, but research continues (rovers & missions).
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

1 13.3.2 Size of the Earth

✅ Earth’s position, size, atmosphere, and magnetic field together make it a
habitable planet.
⚖ Balanced Gravity
• Just enough gravity to hold atmosphere in place.
• If smaller gases would escape (like Mercury).
• If much larger gravity would crush living beings.

! Atmosphere
• Provides oxygen for respiration.
• Protects from meteors & UV radiation.
• Helps maintain temperature via greenhouse gases.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

fi Ozone Layer
• Formed from oxygen (O₃).
• Absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun. And Protects
living cells from damage.

Ò Our Scientific Heritage: Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission)

• Launched by ISRO in 2013.
• Studied Mars’ atmosphere, surface, and possible water
traces.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

í 13.3.3 Magnetic Field of Earth

• Earth behaves like a giant magnet due to molten iron in its core.
• Creates a magnetic field around the planet.
µ Importance
• Shields Earth from solar wind and cosmic rays.
• Protects the atmosphere and ozone layer from erosion.
• Prevents harmful particles from reaching the surface.

Y 13.4 What Allows Life to Be Sustained on Earth?

= 13.4.1 Air, Water, and Sunlight
˜ Role of Air
• Contains oxygen for respiration & CO₂ for photosynthesis.
• Maintains temperature through greenhouse effect.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

☀ Role of Sunlight
• Provides energy for photosynthesis and warmth.
• Drives weather, evaporation, and the water cycle.
> Role of Water (Hydrosphere)
• Covers ~70% of Earth’s surface. Supports aquatic life
• Exists as oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers, and groundwater.

Æ 13.4.2 Soil, Rocks, and Minerals (Geosphere)

• Earth’s crust = rocks, soil, minerals.
• Provides nutrients, metals, fuels, and building materials.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

" Geodiversity
• Variety in rocks, landforms, and soil types across Earth.
• Creates unique habitats and biodiversity (Fig. 13.9).

Z 13.4.3 Plants, Animals, and Microorganisms (Biosphere)

• All living things + where they live = Biosphere.
• Includes land, air, and water where life interacts.
⚖ 13.4.4 The Importance of Balance
• Earth’s systems (air, water, land, life) maintain ecological balance.
• A disturbance (e.g. deforestation) affects rainfall, soil fertility, air, and life.
• Sustainability = protecting air, water, soil, and biodiversity.
Y Life continues because everything on Earth works in harmony.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

⁄ 13.6 Threats to Life on Earth

Life on Earth depends on a delicate balance between living and non-living
[Link], human activities are disturbing this
balance.
⚠ Major Threats (Triple Planetary Crisis)
1. Climate Change
2. Biodiversity Loss
3. Pollution
1. Climate Change# Long-term changes in weather patterns
Causes:
• Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil) releases CO₂ and methane (greenhouse gases).
•These trap heat and cause global warming.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

Consequences:
• Melting ice caps rising sea levels flooding coastal cities
• Extreme weather (storms, droughts, floods)
• Loss of many species
• Changes in rainfall and temperature affect crops, health, and ecosystems
Z 2. Biodiversity Loss
Causes:
• Deforestation and destruction of habitats
• Pollution and overuse of resources
Effects:
• Loss of plant and animal species
• Disturbed food chains and ecosystems
Example: If grass disappears deer die tigers lose food.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

ñ 3. Pollution
Types and Effects:
Type Source Effects
Air Pollution Factories, vehicles, burning fuels Breathing problems, smog, acid rain
Water Pollution Factory waste, farm chemicals, plastic Harms aquatic life, makes water unsafe

Soil Pollution Fertilizers, garbage, waste disposal Reduces soil fertility, contaminates crops

$ Global Efforts to Protect Earth

Agreement Year Aim
Montreal Protocol 1987 Reduce harmful CFCs; protect ozone layer
Earth Summit 1992 Promote climate and biodiversity protection
Kyoto Protocol 2005 Limit greenhouse gas emissions
Paris Agreement 2015 Limit global warming below 1.5 °C

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

Y Protecting Earth and Sustainable Living

è What can we do?
• Use renewable energy (solar, wind)
• Reduce, reuse, repair, recycle ♻
• Save water and electricity
• Use public transport or walk
• Plant trees and protect local biodiversity
• Support sustainable farming
Ï Remember:
⁄ All Earth systems — hydrosphere, biosphere, atmosphere, geosphere — are
[Link] to one affects the others.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

Part 2 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

O 13.5 What Keeps Life from Disappearing?

( Introduction to Reproduction
I Reproduction is the process by which organisms produce new
individuals of their species.

I It is essential for the continuation of life and to prevent extinction.

Type of Reproduction Description Offspring Examples

Asexual One parent Exact copies (no variation) Amoeba, Hydra

Sexual Two parents Similar but not identical Humans, Animals, Plants

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

O 13.5.1 Asexual Reproduction

I Definition : Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction in which
only one parent is involved.
è no gametes (sex cells) are formed.
è The new organism is genetically identical to the parent.

a Asexual Reproduction in Animals (Microbes and Simple Animals)

( Binary Fission
I A single-celled organism divides into two identical
individuals.
á Examples: Bacteria, Amoeba
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

) Budding
I A small bud develops on the parent organism.
I The bud grows and later detaches to form a new
organism.
á Example: Yeast

* Fragmentation
I The body of the organism breaks into two or more
fragments.
I Each fragment grows into a new organism.
á Example: Spirogyra (algae)

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

, Spore Formation
I Spores are tiny, single-celled reproductive structures.
I Under favourable conditions, each spore grows into a
new plant.
á Examples: Fungi, Mosses, Ferns

. Regeneration
I Each body fragment has the ability to regrow into a
complete organism.
á Example: Planaria

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

! 13.5.2 Sexual Reproduction

I Definition
èSexual reproduction involves two parents (male and female).
è Each parent produces specialized reproductive cells called gametes:
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

R Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive organs include a pair of testes ,
two sperm ducts and a penis

✅ Testes –The testes produce sperms called male gametes

.
✅ Sperm Ducts – Transport sperms.
✅ Penis – Transfers sperms into the female body.

I Structure of a Sperm:
• Head – Contains nucleus.
• Middle Piece – Provides energy.
• Tail – Helps in movement.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

R Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive organs are a pair of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian
tubes) and the uterus.

✅ Ovaries – The ovary produce the female gametes

called eggs (ova).
✅ Oviducts (Fallopian Tubes) – Carry eggs to the
uterus.
✅ Uterus – Where the baby develops.

I Structure of an Ovum (Egg):

• A single large cell.
• Contains nutrients for initial development.
Note : sperm and egg are singled cell. (ostrich egg is
largest egg )
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

R Fertilization? The meting ( fusion ) of egg cell ( male gametes and sperm
cell ( female gametes) to formed zygote (fertised egg ) is called fertilisation.

When gametes fuse Fertilisation I Zygote Embryo

foetus New Individual.

M Gametes and Genetic Material

• Each parent passes half of its genetic information to the
offspring through gametes.
• Offspring receive a mix of traits from both parents.
• That’s why siblings look similar yet different — they inherit
different gene combinations.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

. Development of an Embryo
I The zygote divides repeatedly to form an embryo.

I The embryo attaches to the uterus wall for

further development.

I When the embryo forms body parts (hands,

legs, eyes, etc.), it is called a foetus.

I When fully developed, the baby is

born( after 9 months ) . &

á Example: A hen lays fertilized eggs, and

after 21 days of warmth, chicks hatch.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

' Internal and external fertilisation in Animals

( External Fertilisation When fertilisation Occurs outside the female body
then it is called External Fertilisation.

Note : Sperm meets egg outside the body, usually in water.

✔ Found only in Oviparous organisms.
✔ Example: Frogs, Fish, Amphibians lay eggs in water, and fertilisation
happens outside the body . Zygote develops into
embryo in water.

á Example:
• Frog eggs are fertilized in water by male sperms.
• Many eggs don’t survive due to predators &
environmental conditions
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

) Internal Fertilisation When fertilisation Occurs inside the female body

then it is called Internal Fertilisation.

Note : Sperm meets egg (zygote ) inside the body.

⚫ Found in Viviparous & Oviparous organisms.

✔ Viviparous animals Give birth to young ones ([Link], Cats, Dogs).

✔ Oviparous animals Lay fertilized eggs (e.g., Birds, Reptiles).

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

⚫ Birds
• Fertilised egg laid outside.
• Embryo develops using food stored in the egg.
• Baby hatches after development completes.
⚫ Mammals (including humans)
• Embryo develops inside the female’s body.
• Mother provides food and oxygen through internal connections.
• Baby is born alive — no external egg.
W Question to think: Why can’t mammals lay eggs like birds?
Because their embryos need continuous nourishment inside the mother’s
body.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

[ Sexual Reproduction and Asexual reproduction in plants

• In sexual reproduction new plants are produced by seeds.
. In Asexual reproduction new plants are produced by without seeds.

◼ Methods of Asexual Reproduction

1. Vegetative Propagation:
It is a type of asexual reproduction in which a new plant grows
from the vegetative parts of the plant (root, stem, or leaf, buds )

• Node : A node is a part of the stem/branch at which a leaf

arises.
• Bud: A bud is a small, undeveloped structure in a plant that can
grow into a flower , leaf, or shoot.
• It may be located at the tip of a stem (terminal bud) or in the axil
of a leaf (axillary bud).
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

Y Vegetative propagation in Plants (Examples)

1. Stem
• Bamboo and Sugarcane – grow without visible seeds.
• Potato – grows from “eyes” (buds) on the stem.
• Ginger – grows from pieces of its rhizome
(underground stem).
• Money Plant – grows from a stem cutting kept in moist soil or water.
2. Leaves
• Bryophyllum – new plants grow from buds on the edges
of leaves.
3. Roots
• Sweet Potato and Dahlia – grow from their roots.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

èConditions needed : (Moist soil ) Adequate sunlight * Air and water

✅ Advantages:
• Quicker method of reproduction.
• Produces identical offspring to the parent plant.

R Sexual Reproduction
• Involves the fusion of male and female gametes .
• Produces new plants through seeds.

3.1 Structure of a Flower

• The flower is the reproductive organ of a plant.
Parts of a Flower:
1. Sepals(calyx): Green, leaf-like structures that protect the
flower in the bud stage.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

2. Petals:(corolla ) Coloured parts of the flower that attract

pollinators.

3. Stamens(Androecium ) : Male reproductive part of the flower.

• Anther: Produces pollen grains which produce male gaemets.
• Filament: Holds the anther.

4. Carpel /Pistil (Gynoecium ) : Female reproductive part of the flower.

• Stigma: Sticky surface where pollen grains land.
• Style: A tube connecting the stigma to the ovary.
• Ovary: Contains ovules( contain female gamete (egg) ,
which develop into seeds after fertilisation.
Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

è Unisexual flower : Flowers which contain either only pistil or only stamens
are called unisexual flowers. Corn, papaya and cucumber l
è Bisexual Flowers : Flowers which contain both stamens and pistil are called
bisexual flowers. mustard, rose and petunia

RPollination
• The transfer of pollen from the anther to the
stigma of a flower is called pollination
✅Types of pollination:
• Self-Pollination: If the pollen lands on the stigma of
the same flower or another flower of the same plant.
• Cross-Pollination: When the pollen of a flower lands on the stigma of a
flower of a different plant of the same kind, it is called cross-pollination

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

✅Agents of Pollination:
• Insects: Bees, butterflies, etc.
• Wind: Carries lightweight pollen grains.
• Water: Carries pollen grains in aquatic plants.

R Fertilization
• The fusion of male and female gametes to form a
zygote.( new cell)
• The zygote develops into an embryo inside the seed.

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

✅ Seed and Fruit Formation

• After fertilization:
è Zygote(Ovule) develops into a seed. èOvary becomes the fruit.

✅ Germination: The phenomenon of development of seeds into baby

plants is called germination.

è When seeds get water, they use stored food to grow

roots and shoots.
è The seed contains the embryo and a food store for its
growth.
 5. Seed Dispersal
• The process of scattering seeds away from the parent plant.
• Importance:
• Reduces competition for sunlight, water, and nutrients.
• Helps plants colonize new areas.
RMethods of Seed Dispersal:
1. By Wind:
• Lightweight seeds with wings or hair-like structures.
• Examples: Dandelion, maple.
2. By Water:
• Seeds that float on water ( spongy and fibrous outer coat).
• Examples: Coconut,
3. By Animals:
• Seeds with hooks or spines attach to animal fur.
• Animals eat fruits and excrete the seeds elsewhere.
• Examples: Xanthium, urena

Ghalib sir - EXAM BOOSTER NOTES || NCERT Class 8 ( CURIOSITY ) || Chapte 13 : Our Home: Earth

4. By Explosion:
• Some fruits burst open, scattering their seeds.
• Examples: Pea, balsam, castor