Topic 1 – The importance of academic writing
What is academic writing and why is it important in research?
Academic writing is a distinct style of writing that all post-graduate students must
recognize and use. This style of writing is the standard we must use when producing
outputs such as research proposals, masters of PhD dissertations, and journal articles.
Please go through each of the leaning resources in this module to learn about the distinct
features of academic writing, the purpose and intended audience/readers, and the style
and language that you must practice and hone.
Learning Activity 1
Read the content of the Webpage. “What is academic writing?” University of Leeds,
United Kingdom. Make sure to read items # 1 to 8 in the contents list to get a good
overview of academic writing.
[Link]
Academic writing skill is a key competency for undertaking research.
Academic or scientific writing skill is a key competency that all researchers must develop.
It is a skill that is important in all steps of the research process, from the development of a
research proposal, documenting the research, reporting on the results, and writing the
main report. Academic writing has certain features which post-graduate student writers
must be aware of and must be able to use effectively and appropriately.
Learning Activity 2
Watch the video “Scientific writing: a key competency” (4:45 minutes) by Dr. Thomas
Annesley, from the University of Michigan, USA.
[Link]
Dr. Annesley is a scientific paper reviewer and editor who talks about his story on how
he developed his scientific writing skills through his own efforts. Scientific writing is not
something that one is born with. It is something that must be practiced, honed, and
refined over time. His is an example of how he taught himself by finding “ways of
writing better, making use of the best resources, and bringing maximal clarity” to his
writing. Notice how he emphasizes the word “clarity” in his talk. This is one of the main
features of academic/scientific writing that is highlighted in this module. He then goes
on to talk about a few common errors committed by writers, and makes some
suggestions for improving scientific writing skills.
Guide Questions:
1. What is academic writing and why is it important for research?
2. What are the features or unique elements of academic writing that
differentiates it from other writing styles?
3. What tense and voice are appropriate for use in academic writing?
4. What are some common mistakes made by scientific writers? Which of these
have you done in the past and how might these be improved upon?
5. How can academic or scientific writing skills be developed?
Topic 2 – Some important characteristics of academic writing style.
Academic writing, particularly with application to the health sciences, has distinct
characteristics that differentiates it from personal, business, or creative writing styles. Two
important aspects to consider in distinguishing scientific writing from these other writing
styles are the audience or users of academic writing; the second is the purpose for which
academic writing is done.
Learning Activity 3
a. Watch the video “An introduction to academic writing” (7:39 minutes) by John
Kotnarowski, an English Language Fellow at the National University of Science and
Technology, Russia.
[Link]
The video presents definitions of what is academic English and academic writing, briefly
discusses the general characteristics of academic writing, and explains why academic
writing is important.
b. Video. “Academic Style” (9:05 minutes), Academic Skills Unit, University of Melbourne,
Australia
[Link]
This video further describes some features of the academic style. General features, tone (formality),
consistency, use of gender-neutral language, and some things to avoid and ‘things to do’ in academic
writing. It also gives an example on how to achieve a narrative thread or connection of ideas.
c. Read the webpage “Writing for science” of the University of Leicester.
[Link]
Clarity is an essential feature of academic writing, as highlighted in the video in Learning
Activity 1. This resource identifies other important characteristics of what good scientific
writing should be: simple, impartial, structured logically, accurate, and objective. It also
describes other aspects of writing style such as the choice of words, voice, tenses,
sentence length, and approach.
d. Read pages 3 – 10 in “Academic Writing: A handbook for International Students,”
written by Stephen Bailey (2011) from the University of Nottingham, UK.
[Link]
students-3rd-ed%20(2).pdf
Optional - This 293-page eBook contains basic information as well some quizzes or
practical exercises. You can use this as a detailed reference throughout the course or as
a reference/practice material when you are writing your research proposal or report.
Answers to the quizzes/exercises can be accessed at:
[Link]
Guide Questions:
1. What is academic English and what are the features of academic writing that
distinguishes it from other writing styles?
2. List and describe at least 6 characteristics of good scientific or academic
writing. Explain why these features of academic writing are important.
3. How does a writer ensure that research writing is consistent with these good
characteristics?
Topic 3 – Research Writing: Structure
A. Preparing a Research Proposal
The presentation and approval of the research proposal for IH 300 is often the first major
research hurdle for students taking the Master of International Health degree program in
the U.P. Open University. This is typically achieved after an iterative process of writing
initial drafts, back and forth reviews and revisions with the main research adviser, more
revisions, and finally, making a presentation of the research proposal to a panel of faculty
members. This may seem like a long and daunting process, but if you carefully build on
writing your research proposal by taking small incremental writing steps at a time, this
hurdle can be surpassed. If you have already identified a possible research topic,
conducted a literature review, and have obtained approval from your adviser or the
program chair, your writing process for IH 300 can already begin now. On the other hand,
if you are still tentative about your research topic, you can use this topic to get pointers on
how to hone your academic writing skills in writing a research proposal.
The first questions that are faced by the student are often basic ones. What is a research
proposal and what is its purpose? More importantly, what should be in a research
proposal and how should it be written so that it will be approved?
Learning Activity 4
a. Watch the video “How to Develop a Successful Research Proposal" (9:11 minutes)
[Link]
This video briefly describes some important tips on writing an effective research
proposal that immediately captures the attention of readers or reviewers. It
describes the key conceptualization and execution steps that a researcher must
undertake in identifying a good research question, and the importance of defining
the focus that your research will make. It describes the "Kinney Three
Paragraphs" - a useful guide for writing good research proposals.
b. Watch the video “The research proposal” (13:50 minutes) presented by Dr. Lilia
Savellano, Massey University in Auckland, New Zealand.
[Link]
The video defines what is a research proposal and describes how to identify a
research topic. It then discusses how a research proposal should be organized and
gives tips on how it should be written.
c. Read the webpage “Writing a Research Proposal” of the University of Southern
California.
[Link]
This resource gives another definition of a research proposal and suggests a
general approach to writing, including some helpful tips on common errors to
avoid. It also provides guidance on the structure and style of a research proposal
by identifying the main headings and some key pointers for each section.
The Conceptual Framework
In your research proposal, you are expected to clearly illustrate your research theory, the
variables (particularly the independent, dependent, and any confounding variables) and
the relationships between them. Having a diagram and a brief narrative of your
conceptual framework will help to clearly illustrate these relationships. As you do the initial
analysis of these variables and their relationships, having this conceptual framework in
the form of a diagram can also help you identify any gaps or variables you need to include
in your research. Thus, the conceptual framework is an essential part of your research
proposal that helps you to communicate your proposed research to your adviser and
others in the faculty panel. While there is no uniform standard on how the conceptual
framework should be presented, the diagram typically contains boxes and arrows to
illustrate relationships.
Learning Activity 5
Read the webpages:
a. Watch the Video. “Study Conceptual Framework,” (7:10 minutes). Prof. Shady Attia,
University of Liege, Belgium
[Link]
i_ok7yw&index=1
b. “Conceptual Frameworks” from John Latham, an international consultant and social
scientist.
[Link]
The above resources (a. & b.) briefly explain what conceptual frameworks are, their
usefulness, shows a few examples, and describes steps in constructing one.
The resources listed below can help you develop the first part of your research proposal
(i.e. the Introduction, Literature Review, and Methodology). These sections will also
comprise your Faculty Marked Assignment (FMA) for this course. You are encouraged to
bookmark or download these resources so you can review these later when you are
already focused on writing the FMA.
B. Preparing a Research Report
The research report is generally written during or after the conduct of your approved
research study for your MIH course IH 300. The first question that often arises is “what
should be in the research report and how should it be written?” How should the report be
structured or organized? What information do I need?
Learning Activity 6
Watch the video “Writing the Thesis” (19:49 minutes) by Dr. Lilia Savellano from Massey
University, Auckland, New Zealand.
[Link]
The video presents suggestions for a well-presented thesis report, the style and
structure, how to make a clear argument, how to demonstrate knowledge about relevant
literature, and gives writing tips.
The research thesis is written while you are conducting or soon after you have conducted
your IH 300 research study. As a substantial written report, it should be divided into
chapters and written in a logical and cohesive manner. The next learning activity presents
the thesis headings and the details on what should be contained in each chapter.
Learning Activity 7
a. Introduction Chapter
Watch the video “Writing the Introduction Chapter to the Thesis,” (9:07 minutes) narrated
by Dr. Cecile Badenhorst, Faculty of Education, Memorial University, Newfoundland,
Canada
[Link]
The video presents an overview of the content of the introductory chapter to a thesis and
gives useful tips on what information should be included and given emphasis.
b. Literature Review Chapter
Watch the video “The Literature Review,” (25:05 minutes) presented by Dr. Lilia
Savellano, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
[Link]
The video describes how to write the literature review for a research thesis and explains
the elements that must be included in this chapter.
c. Methodology Chapter
Watch the video “Structuring and Writing the Methods Section for an APA Style
Manuscript,” (22:06 minutes) presented by Dr. Todd Grande, Wilmington University,
Delaware, USA.
[Link]
The video suggests main headings to use in writing this chapter, and describes possible
sub-headings and the information that must be included. Broadly, these headings are
grouped under participants, procedures, measures, and statistical analysis.
d. Results Chapter
Watch the videos “How to write the Results – Parts 1 & 2,” by Dr. Steve Kirk, Durham
University, UK.
[Link] (part 1 – 9:26 minutes)
[Link] (part 2 – 6:46 minutes)
Part 1 discusses the purpose of the results section of the thesis and how it is organized.
Part 2 describes the language and style to be used in writing this chapter.
e. Discussion Chapter
Watch the video “Writing a Discussion for a Research Paper or Thesis,” (11:55 minutes)
by Dr. William Levack, Rehabilitation Teaching & Research Unit, University of Otago,
Wellington, New Zealand.
[Link]
The video presents a broad overview of the contents of the Discussion chapter. This
includes information on what was done, the main findings and their implications, the
strengths and limitations of the research, and recommendations for future research and
practice.
f. References/Citations
Watch the video “APA Referencing: The Basics,” (14:12 minutes) by Dr. Lilia Savellano
[Link]
The video covers two main points: first, what is referencing and its importance in
academic writing and second, it gives general guidelines for referencing.
Using citations and creating reference lists after writing the thesis report has become
much easier using reference manager applications such as EndNote, Mendeley, or
Zotero. These make bibliography writing much faster. Should you need to shift from one
referencing style to another (e.g. when a certain journal you wish to submit your research
article requires another style), reference managers allow you to change to the specific
style you wish to use.
Mendeley and Zotero are free to download through the following links.
Mendeley: [Link]
Zotero: [Link]
Before choosing the software that suits you best, watch the following video “Zotero vs.
Mendeley” (2:36 minutes) from the Portland State University Library:
[Link]
Introductory tutorial videos can be viewed through the following links:
Mendeley: [Link] (5:38 minutes)
Zotero: [Link] (7:17 minutes)
g. Writing the Abstract
Watch the video “Writing an abstract for Honours and Masters theses and dissertations,”
a resource material from the University of Western Australia.
[Link]
The video discusses why an abstract is important and identifies the information that must
be included, and then describes the sequence how the information is presented. Finally, it
gives guidance on how to go about writing a well-written abstract.
The resources listed in this section will be useful particularly when you are doing your
research project under IH 300. You are encouraged to bookmark or download these
materials to enable you to access these later as needed.
Guide Questions:
1. What is a research proposal and what is its main purpose?
2. What information should be included in a research proposal and what should be
highlighted?
3. When starting to write the research proposal, what are the "Kinney Three
Paragraphs?" Practice writing these 3 paragraphs and draft one for your proposed
topic. Is your proposed research focused enough? What should you consider in
focusing your research?
4. How should a research proposal be written and presented?
5. Explain the importance of cohesion in the Introduction, Literature Review, and
Methodology of the research proposal.
6. What are some common mistakes to avoid when writing a research proposal?
7. What are the main differences in writing a research proposal and writing the
research thesis?
8. What are the different chapters in a research thesis and what essential elements
should each chapter contain? What elements should be given emphasis?
9. What are some good practices in writing or presenting information in each chapter
of the thesis?
10. What is a reference/citation manager? How can these applications facilitate
research writing? Practice writing some paragraphs using a reference manager
such as Zotero. Then print out the bibliography using the same application. How
much time did it require you to write out the bibliography/reference list using this
approach?
Topic 4 – Features of Academic Writing Style
Key aspects of academic writing are further discussed in this section: the formal nature of
writing, voice, the word choices and general style, and the importance of cohesion.
Examine the distinct features of academic writing described in various resources listed
below:
Learning Activity 8
a. Read the following webpages:
On the formal nature of academic writing:
Read the webpage “Academic Writing in English: Formal vs. Informal,” Lund University,
Sweden.
[Link]
Read the webpage “Features of Academic Writing: Formality,” from the website of Using
English for Academic [Link]://[Link]/writing/feature/[Link]
Passive vs Active Voice:
Read the webpage “Why use the passive voice in academic writing,” University of
Wollongong, Australia.
[Link]
Read the webpage “Passive Voice: When to Use It and When to Avoid It,” University of
Toronto, Canada.
[Link]
Read the webpage. “Choosing Passive Voice,” Online Writing Lab, Purdue University,
USA.
[Link]
On writing concisely:
Read the following Webpages. “Conciseness,” Online Writing Lab, Purdue University,
USA
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
_pitfalls.html
On the word choices and general style of presentation:
Read the webpage “Academic writing: language and style,” University of Leeds, UK.
[Link]
b. Watch the video “An introduction to cohesion in academic writing,” (8:00 minutes) by
John Kotnarowski, an English Language Fellow at the National University of Science and
Technology, Russia.
[Link]
Guide Questions:
1. What are the main style features of academic writing?
2. Describe the difference between passive and active voice and give a few examples
of each.
3. What are the advantages of using active voice? Passive voice?
4. When is using passive voice considered appropriate?
5. How can cohesion in academic writing be achieved? Why is this important?
Topic 5 – Avoiding Some Common Errors in Academic Writing
1. Verbose sentences
As pointed out in the video in Learning Activity 1, clarity in academic writing is important.
Through good writing, researchers should be able to effectively convey their ideas to their
target readers. It is not uncommon to see some students and academics using wordy or
verbose style in writing. Unfortunately, the use of excessively ‘elegant’ language and too
verbose sentences can distract and prevent readers from comprehending the ideas
conveyed; they often divert from being succinct or direct to the point in expressing ideas.
In academic writing, some writers might choose complicated technical words/language at
the expense of clarity.
Learning Activity 9
Read and critique the following paragraph (an actual example written by a post-graduate
student):
This is just an example that is meant to stimulate your self-reflection. To what extent am I
also writing my ideas this way? How can I write my sentences and paragraphs in a
succinct and clear, using academic writing style?
2. Long sentences
Writing concise sentences helps writers to clearly convey ideas. Beginning writers can
practice this by reviewing what one has written and then edit the sentence with the aim of
trying to find words that may be deleted without changing the essence of the idea(s) being
conveyed. Non-native English writers often have difficulty in starting the writing process
and to begin writing ideas into sentences. In many instances, the initial sentences might
be quite long. The key is to get over any initial hesitation in beginning to write, start writing
down ideas in an initial draft or outline, and to allow time for self-editing. The first drafts
can then be reviewed and enhanced later with the aim of improving the sentences you
have written for conciseness and clarity.
If you have written paragraphs, you might rearrange the sequence of the sentences when
you find that editing your earlier draft improves the flow of ideas. Taking time to do this
process often helps to improve the quality of your written output. For a thesis manuscript,
having several drafts with multiple revisions is not unusual.
Learning Activity 10
Watch the video “Technical Writing: How to Improve Sentences,” (3:45 minutes) a video
from ACS Webinars.
[Link]
An example of how to simplify a complex sentence to convey an idea more clearly ism
shown in this video. Try to get an example of such a sentence in a paragraph or paper
you might have written in the past and try to do this exercise. This is an important (but
sometimes difficult) step in writing more clearly. As we practice writing for our work and
studies, we also hone our ability to self-edit and enhance what we have written.
3. Common Language Errors
When doing academic writing, there are some common errors that should be avoided,
especially by non-native English speakers. Being aware of these would help to improve
the quality of the written report.
Learning Activity 11
Watch the videos “Mistakes to avoid when writing your research paper,” by Editage
Insights, a website that provides knowledge resources for authors and journals.
[Link] (Part 1 – 3:34 minutes)
[Link] (Part 2 – 4:11 minutes)
4. Plagiarism
Plagiarism is not just considered an error in academic writing, it is a serious offense.
Academic writers must be aware of the practices that constitute plagiarism so that these
can be avoided.
Learning Activity 12
a. Read Section 1.3 ("Avoiding Plagiarism") and do the short practical exercises (pages
30-35) in Academic Writing: A handbook for International Students,” by Stephen Bailey
(2011) from the University of Nottingham, UK.
[Link]
students-3rd-ed%20(2).pdf
b. Read the Webpage. “Is it plagiarism yet?” Purdue University Online Writing Lab.
[Link]
t_plagiarism.html
Guide Questions
1. How would you improve or rephrase the words/sentences highlighted in Learning
Activity 9 above?
2. Identify some common academic writing errors committed by research writers,
especially those from non-native English backgrounds.
3. How can long sentences be made more concise and clearer?
4. What are some common mistakes in writing research papers?
5. Explain what constitutes plagiarism and what measures can be done to avoid this?