Nanoparticles are particles having size ranges of 1-100nm with a surrounding interfacial layer,
which is an integral part of nanoscale matter, affecting all of its properties. The interfacial
nanoparticles consist of ions, inorganic and organic molecules. Organic molecules coating
inorganic nanoparticles are known as stabilizers, capping and surface ligands, or passivating
..agents [1]
In nanotechnology, ultrafine particles are the same as nanoparticles between 1-100nm size
ranges; fine particles are between 100-2,500nm; coarse particles are of 2,500 and 10,000 size
ranges [3]. Nanoscale materials have unique optical, electronic, or mechanical properties [7].
Many materials such as gold, silver, magnesium, titanium and copper can be prepared into
nanoscale particles by using various methods. Among them, copper nanoparticles are popular
.due to their low-cost and unique properties [4]
Copper nanoparticles display unique characteristics including catalytic and
antifungal/antibacterial activities that are not observed in commercial copper. First of all,
copper nanoparticles demonstrate a very strong catalytic activity, a property that can be
attributed to their large catalytic surface area. With the small size and great porosity, the
nanoparticles are able to achieve a higher reaction yield and a shorter reaction time when
.utilized as reagents in organic and organometallic synthesis [2]
A copper nanoparticle is a copper based particle 1 to 100nm in size [8]. Copper nanoparticles
received much attention due to its high electrical conductivity, high melting point, low
electrochemical migration behavior and low cost. Copper is a Block D, Period 4 element, which
other colors [5]. Copper nanoparticles are very popular in biomedical field and act as
antibacterial agent than any other nanomaterials. The antimicrobial activity is induced by their
close interaction with microbial membranes and their metal ions released in solutions [10]
particular interest is the biological role of copper. It is an important chemical trace element,
serving as a constituent of enzymes associated with a number of crucial processes, including
hydroxylation, oxygen and electron transfer, and oxidative catalysis. Copper is a structural or
catalytic cofactor of numerous significant enzymes, including ascorbate oxidase, tyrosinase,
cytochrome c oxidase, superoxide dismutase, dopamine β-monooxygenase, and others [12].
Copper is a component of hemocyanin , which is a hemoglobin analog molecule found in
mollusks and crustaceans [13]. Another crucial biological function of copper is its involvement
.in iron deposition in the liver and subsequent hemoglobin synthesis
Conversely, high concentrations of soluble copper compounds have been observed to have
toxic effects on living organisms. It is established that chronic intoxication of the human body
with copper and its salts during manufacture can result in functional disorders of the nervous
system, liver, and kidneys. Impairment of copper metabolism in the human body is associated
with pathological manifestations and a number of diseases, including Konovalov–Wilson
.disease and Menkes disease [14]
1
The antibacterial efficacy of copper oxide nanoparticles (CuONPs) has attracted the attention of
several investigators. This may be attributed to that CuONPs are secure, comparatively stable,
can be facilely removed from the body, and have lower cost as compared to silver nanoparticles
which are the most popular antimicrobial agent [[29], [30], [31]]. CuONPs of small diameter and
large surface area are characterized by high efficiency in combating numerous of microbial
.diseases, involving nosocomial contagions [32]
:Several antibacterial mechanisms for nanoparticles have been identified, as summarized below
Biofilm disruption: Nanomaterials can break down biofilms, which are key contributors to )a(
drug- resistant microorganisms. Biofilm formation significantly increases mortality, morbidity,
and treatment duration. Traditional antibacterial agents are often ineffective against biofilms in
human wounds [42].but nanomaterials show potential in overcoming bacterial resistance to
. antibiotics [43]
Generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS): Nanoparticles produce ROS that damage DNA, )b(
,RNA
. and proteins, ultimately destroying microorganisms [44]
Inhibition of DNA replication: By binding to bacterial DNA, nanoparticles can prevent DNA )c(
replication. Smaller nanoparticles exhibit higher binding rates and greater antibacterial activity
compared
. to larger ones [45]
Release of metal ions: Metal nanoparticles release positively charged metal ions, which )d(
interact with
the negatively charged microbial cell membrane. These ions penetrate the cell membrane,
react with
sulfhydryl groups (-SH) on microbial proteins, and inhibit protein and nucleic acid synthesis. The
antibacterial properties of nanoparticles are influenced by their size and surface charge. Smaller
nanoparticles with a larger surface-to-volume ratio demonstrate superior antibacterial effects
without
. compromising the mechanical properties of materials [44], [46]
In addition to these mechanisms, nanoparticles can kill bacteria by releasing loaded
antibacterial
. agents, offering an alternative approach to combating bacterial resistance [44]
2
Figure (1): The antimicrobial action of metal nanoparticles involves several steps: (a) Bacteria in
their natural state, without exposure to metal nanopartides . (b) Metal nanoparticles
compromise the integrity of the bacterial cell membrane. (c) These nanoparticles disrupt
bacterial DNA.(b) Metal nanoparticles generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) 56