INTRODUCTION

TO
INTELLIGENCE

INTRODUCTION
Intelligence is a key construct employed to know how
individuals differ from one another. It also provides an
understanding of how people adapt their behaviour
according to the environment they live in.
Intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge, to
think and reason effectively, and to deal adaptively
with the environment.

PSYCHOLOGISTS’ VIEWS AND DEFINITION

ABOUT INTELLIGENCE
ALFERD BINET- He was one of the first psychologists
who worked on intelligence. He defined intelligence as
the ability to judge well, understand well, and reason
well.
WECHSLER- His intelligence tests are most widely used.
He defined it as the global and aggregate capacity of an
individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and to deal
effectively with her/his environment.
GARDNER AND ROBERT STENBERG- They suggested
that an intelligent individual not only adapts to the
environment, but also actively modifies or shapes it.
 APPROACHES OF INTELLIGENCE
PSYCHOMETRIC/ INFORMATION
STRUCTURAL APPROACH PROCESSING APPROACH
Considers intelligence Considers how
as an aggregate of intelligence is used in
abilities. reasoning and problem
solving.

Talk about the structure Focuses on how an

of intelligence that what intelligent person acts.
intelligence is made of.

There are 5 theories There are 3 theories

under this approach- under this approach-
[Link] or One factor [Link] of multiple
theory intelligence
[Link] factor theory [Link] theory
[Link] of primary [Link] model theory
mental ability
[Link] model
of intelligence
having two levels
[Link] of-intellect
mode
PSYCHOMETRIC/ STRUCTURAL APPROACH
1. UNI OR ONE FACTOR THEORY-
- Given by Alfert Binet
- He describes intelligence as one similar set of
abilities which can be used for solving any or every
problem in an individual’s environment.
2. TWO FACTOR THEORY-
- In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed a two-factor
theory of intelligence employing a statistical
method called factor analysis.
- He showed that intelligence consisted of a
general factor (g-factor) and some specific
factors (s-factors).
g- factor s- factor
It is the universal They are learned and
inborn ability. aquired in the
environment.
It is general mental It varies from practice-
energy, constant, need to- practice and activity-
no practice. to- activity in an
individual.
Greater the g in an Specific abilities
individual, greater the
success in his life.
Eg- Walking style Eg- Exellent singers,
scientists, athelets, ect
3. THEORY OF PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITY-
- Given by Louis Thurnstone
- It states that there are seven primary mental
abilities, each of which is relatively independent
of each other:-
 (i) Verbal Comprehension (grasping
meaning of words, concepts, and
ideas),
(ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and
accuracy in numerical and
computational skills),
(iii) Spatial Relations (visualising patterns
and forms),
(iv) Perceptual Speed (speed in
perceiving details),
(v) Word Fluency (using words fluently
and flexibly),
(vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling
information), and
(vii) Inductive Reasoning (deriving
general rules from presented facts).
4. HIERARCHICAL MODEL OF INTELLIGENCE-
- Given by Arthur Jensen
- He said that intelligence works at two levels-
(i)LEVEL I- ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING- In which output
is more or less similar to the input. Example- rote
learning and memory.
(ii) LEVEL II- COGNITIVE COMPETENCE, involves
higher-order skills as they transform the input to
produce an effective output. Example- Abstarct
learning
5. STRUCTURE OF-INTELLECT MODE-
- It was given by J.P Guildford.
- He classified intellectual traits among three
dimensions:-
(i)OPERATIONS- They include all the intellectual
activities like, understanding, memory,
 attention, thinking, ect. They are what the
respondent does. They are 6 in number.
(ii) CONTENTS- Contents refer to the nature of
materials or information on which intellectual
operations are performed. These include visual,
auditory, symbolic (e.g., letters, numbers),
semantic (e.g., words) and behavioural (e.g.,
information about people’s behaviour, attitudes,
needs, etc.). They are 5 in number.
(iii)PRODUCTS- These refers to how the
information is processed by the respondent such
as units, classes, ect. They are 6 in number.
- This classification includes 6X5X6 categories. The
model has 180 units.
INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
1. THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE-
- Proposed by Howard Gardener
- According to him, intelligence is not a single entity;
rather distinct types of intelligences exist. Each of
these intelligences are independent of each other.
- It is possible to be high on one type of intelligence
and low on other.
- Sometimes, different types of intelligence interact
and work together for solutions. For example- A
surgeon scores high on many types of intelligence,
i.e. scholastic, special, bodily- kinaesthetic.
- Gardner gave 8 types of intelligence-
(i)LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE- Ability to use
language efficiently.
 -Persons high on thus intelligence are word
smart, sensitive to different shades of word
meaning. Eg- Journalists, Poets, ect
(ii) LOGICAL MATHEMATICAL- Ability to think
logically and scientifically.
-Engage in abstract reasoning.
-Eg- Scientists, ect.
(iii) SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE- An ability to form
visual images and patterns. Eg- architects,
designer
(iv) MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE- Ability to sense,
sound, rythym, ect.
(v) BODILY KINEASTHETIC- Ability to use
whole/ portion of the body flexibly and
creatively. Eg- Dancers, athelets
(vi) INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE- Ability
to sense and understand motive, feelings, or
behaviours of other. Eg- Counsellers,
politicians
(vii) INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE- Ability
to understand our ownself. Eg- Philosopher,
ect
(viii)NATURALIATIC INTELLIGENCE- Ability to
relate to the natural surroundings. Eg-
Biologist, farmer, ect..
2. TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE-
- Given by Robert Sternberg in 1985.
- According to him, intelligence is the ability to
adapt, to shape and to select environment.
- According to him, intelligence is made up of three
elements-
 (i)CONPONENTIAL/ ANALYTICAL
INTELLIGENCE- It refers to the analysis of
information to solve problems.
It has three components-
 KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION – Learning new
ways of doing things.
 META OR HIGH ORDER COMPONENT- The
intellectual process like thinking, problem
solving, planning, concerning what to do
and how to do, ect. Eg- Which formula to
solve a maths sum
 PERFORMANCE COMPONENT- Actually doing
things.
(ii) EXPERIENCIAL/ CREATIVE
INTELLIGENCE- The relation between past
experiences and intelligence, and using these
experiences creatively to solve new problems.
For Eg- Scientists who are engaged in new
discoveries are high on this intelligence.
(iii) CONTEXTUAL/ PRACTICAL
INTELLIGENCE- The ability to deal with
environmental demands that are encountered
on daily basis. Being street smart or having a
good business sense. For eg- shopkeepers,
sales executives are high on thus intelligence
as they daily encounter new customers.
3. PASS MODEL OF INTELLIGENCE-
- Given by J.P Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby in 1994
- It means Planning, Attention/ Arousal, and
Simultaneous and Successive.
- It says that intelligence can be understood as a
result of the interdependent functioning of 3
neurological systems which are responsible of the
following-
(i)AROUSAL/ ATTENTION- No intellectual
activity can begun without attention. Arousal
is necessary for any activity. It forces us to
focus attention in one direction. We attend to
only selective stimuli which help us to reach
our goal.
(ii) SIMULTANEOUS AND SUCCESIVE
PROCESSING-
SIMULTANEOUS SUCCESSIVE
It takes place when It takes place when
you perceive the you remember all
relations among the information
various concepts and serially so that the
integrate them into a recall of one lead to
meaningful pattern recall of another.
for comprehension.
For eg- In Raven’s For eg- Learning of
Progressive Metrices digits, alphabets,
(RPM) test, a design multiplication tables,
is presented from ect.
which a part has
been removed. You
are required to
choose one of the
options that
completes the
design.
(iii) PLANNING- Allows us to think of the
possible courses of action, implement them
to reach a target, and evaluate their
effectiveness.
 -If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit
the requirements of the situation or task.
-These PASS processes operate on a
knowledge base. These processes are
interactive and dynamic in nature.
HISTORY
1. Early Theories:
(i)Sir Francis Galton (Late 1800s): Galton
was one of the first to study intelligence
scientifically. He believed intelligence was based
on sensory ability (e.g., reaction time)
(ii)Alfred Binet (1905): Binet developed the
first practical intelligence test to help identify
children who needed educational support. His
test focused on cognitive abilities like memory,
attention, and problem-solving. He introduced
the concept of mental age.
2. Intelligence Testing:
(i)Charles Spearman (1904): Spearman proposed
the "g-factor" theory, suggesting that intelligence is
a general ability (g) that affects performance across
different tasks. He also recognized specific abilities
(s) in areas like math or language.
(ii)Louis Thurstone (1930s): Thurstone disagreed
with Spearman and proposed that intelligence is
made up of several primary mental abilities, such as
reasoning, verbal ability, and spatial ability.
3. Modern Views:
(i)Howard Gardner (1983): Gardner introduced the
Theory of Multiple Intelligences, suggesting
 there are different kinds of intelligence (e.g.,
linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial,
interpersonal, etc.) rather than a single general
ability.
(ii)Robert Sternberg (1985): Sternberg developed
the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, which
includes three types of intelligence: analytical
(problem-solving), creative (innovation), and
practical (street smarts).
4. Contemporary Intelligence Testing:
(i)Wechsler Scales (1939-present): David
Wechsler created intelligence tests like the WAIS
(Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) and WISC
(Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children). These
tests measure both verbal and non-verbal abilities
and are widely used today.
TIMELINE-
1. 1869 – Francis Galton: Introduced the idea of measuring intelligence based on sensory
ability and heredity.

2. 1905 – Alfred Binet: Developed the first practical intelligence test, introducing mental age.

3. 1916 – Lewis Terman: Created the Stanford-Binet IQ test, introducing the concept of
Intelligence Quotient (IQ).

4. 1920s-1930s – Charles Spearman: Proposed the g-factor theory, suggesting general

intelligence (g) underlies all cognitive abilities.

5. 1930s-1940s – Louis Thurstone: Proposed that intelligence consists of multiple distinct

abilities (e.g., verbal ability, reasoning).

6. 1950s – David Wechsler: Developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), focusing
on verbal and non-verbal intelligence.

7. 1983 – Howard Gardner: Proposed the Theory of Multiple Intelligences, highlighting

different types of intelligence (e.g., linguistic, musical, spatial).

8. 1985 – Robert Sternberg: Introduced the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, which includes
analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

9. 1995 – Daniel Goleman: Popularized Emotional Intelligence (EQ), expanding the definition
of intelligence beyond cognitive abilities.
 ADVANTAGES
1. Understanding Different Types of Intelligence:
Recognizes emotional, social, and analytical
intelligences.
2. Cognitive Development: Guides educational
methods through theories like Piaget’s stages.
3. Learning Strategies: Offers techniques like spaced
repetition and metacognition for enhanced learning.
4. Problem-Solving Skills: Fosters critical thinking
and effective solution generation.
5. Emotional Regulation: Improves interpersonal
skills and decision-making through emotional
intelligence.
6. Mental Health: Links mental well-being with
cognitive performance; promotes stress
management.
7. Social Learning: Enhances communication and
collaboration for group intelligence.
8. Adaptability: Encourages resilience and a growth
mindset for continuous learning.
 DISADVANTAGES
1. Narrow Definition: Intelligence is often defined by
cognitive abilities (logical reasoning, problem-
solving), neglecting emotional, social, and creative
intelligence.
2. Critique of IQ Tests: Standardized IQ tests are
criticized for cultural biases and not capturing the full
spectrum of intelligence.
3. Cultural Influence: Cultural norms shape
perceptions of intelligence, leading to varied
definitions and measurements.
4. Static vs. Dynamic: Intelligence is often viewed as
fixed, but it can develop through learning and
experience.
5. Emotional and Social Intelligence: These aspects
are crucial for overall success and are often
overlooked in traditional definitions.
6. Environmental Influences: Socioeconomic status
and access to resources significantly affect cognitive
development and assessment performance.
7. Cognitive Biases: Cognitive biases can impair
judgment and limit effective problem-solving.
8. Functional Intelligence: Practical application of
intelligence can be hindered by stress, anxiety, or
lack of motivation.
9. Role of Creativity: Creativity is often excluded from
traditional measures, limiting the understanding of
problem-solving and innovation.
 REFERENCES
Gardner, H. (2011). Frames of mind: The theory
of multiple intelligences (3rd ed.).
Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Wisdom, intelligence,
and creativity synthesised. Cambridge University
Press.
Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A
survey of factor-analytic studies. Cambridge
University Press.
Spearman, C. (1904). General intelligence,
objectively determined and measured. American
Journal of Psychology, 15(2), 201-293.
Das, J. P., Naglieri, J. A., & Kirby, J. R. (1994).
Introduction to the PASS theory of intelligence.
Psychological Assessment, 6(1), 18-23.