Tutorial Workbook

Engineering Mathematics–II

B.E. Semester-II
All Branches

MANOJ R. PATEL
Assistant Professor in Mathematics
Science and Humanites Department
LDRP Institute of Technology and Research
Gandhinagar

VIJAY K. PATEL
Assistant Professor in Mathematics
Science and Humanites Department
LDRP Institute of Technology and Research
Gandhinagar

LDRP Institute of Technology and Research

Sector-15, Near KH-5 Circle, Gandhinagar -382015
Constituent College of

Kadi Sarva Vishwavidyalaya

Gandhinagar
 Published by

LDRP Institute of Technology and Research

Sector-15, KH-5, Gandhinagar -382015
Constituent College of
Kadi Sarva Vishwavidyalaya, Gandhinagar

Tutorial Workbook Engineering Mathematics–II

Copyright c Reserved by the Manoj R. Patel and Vijay K. Patel

Publication, Distribution and Promotion rights reserved by the Publisher.
First Edition : 2018
ISBN Number : 978-81-937188-0-3
Rs: 50

All Rights Reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the publisher and authors.

Technical content typeset using LaTex

Dedicated to Our Parent

and

Almighty God
“ Om Namo Bhagavate Hasmukhananday ”
“Take up one idea. Make that one idea your life-think of it, dream of it, live on that idea. Let
the brain, muscles, nerves, every part of your body, be full of that idea, and just leave every
other idea alone. This is the way to success.”
—Swami Vivekananda
4
 BLESSINGS FROM CHAIRMAN
Today’s young generation needs proper guidance for their overall development. For making this
possible everyone who is associated with the young generation will have to contribute positively. One
such contributor in the life of the youth is Teacher. All through life the students have been brought up
performing various activities in schools which includes home works. But as the students graduate to the
stage of College the system of home work either does not exist or exists in a very minimal way. Further
it is also noticed that the students also lack seriousness in doing their homework.

To improve the students performance and enhance their knowledge I am happy that Shri Manoj
Patel and Shri Vijay Patel both working as Faculty at LDRP Institute of Technology and Research have
come out with an initiative of preparing a Tutorial Workbook in Engineering Mathematics. I am also
happy that in preparing this workbook the whole Department of Mathematics at LDRP-ITR has been
proactive. I hope this workbook brings out the various aspects of learning Engineering Mathematics and
help in improving the mathematical skills of students pursing engineering and make them more learned. I
congratulate both Mr. Manoj and Mr. Vijay for their efforts in bringing out this workbook.

Vallabhbhai M. Patel
Chairman, Sarva Vidyalaya Kelvani Mandal, Kadi and Gandhinagar
President, Kadi Sarva Vishwavidyalaya, Gandhinagar

5
 PREFACE

Feeling butterflies at the thought of beginning our Tutorial Workbook of Engineering Mathematics-II
[Link] Tutorial Workbook is based on our teaching experience at undergraduate level in Engineering
as well as in post graduate level in [Link] at Kadi Sarva Vishwavidyalaya. These demands
motivate us to present a Tutorial Workbook on Engineering Mathematics-II. In Engineering branches
problem solving is an essential key to learn Mathematics and to enhance the student ability of logical
thinking. For that purpose tutorial component is included in the syllabus of Engineering Mathematics.
Tutorial Workbook is useful in class room teaching and is regarded as laboratory work in Mathematics.
This book is prepared as a laboratory manual for the students. Our aim is to provide a platform for the
students to solve problems by themselves and students actively learn the basic concepts through their own
practice.
This Tutorial Workbook is designed as per the syllabus of the semester II Engineering course offered
in LDRP-ITR Engineering college of Kadi Sarva Vishwavidyalaya. Kadi Sarva Vishwavidyalaya is estab-
lished under Gujarat State Government Act(No.21 of 2007) & Recognised by UGC.
This Tutorial Workbook is prepared in an innovative way to serve those students who will study
Mathematics as a part of their Engineering curriculum. There are several text-books and literature on the
subject of Engineering Mathematics-II. This book provides rigorous problems on Mathematical concepts
and the application of Mathematics to Engineering problems. Our aim is to provide a platform for the
students to use their own ideas to solve problems. In this workbook we have included Illustrations and
examples that help students to gain clear understanding of the involved concepts. Mathematics can help
us unlock the mysteries of our universe, but beyond that, conquering it can be personally satisfying. We
developed this Tutorial Workbook of Engineering Mathematics-II with the goal of helping students to
achieve a feeling of accomplishment to solve different types of simple as well difficult problems which are
designed to quench the thirst of the entire spectrum of students pursuing the course.
The Chapters in this book are divided into seven units which covers the entire syllabus as per the
requirements of the curriculum of LDRP-ITR Engineering college of Kadi Sarva Vishwavidyalaya. In this
book each Tutorial in the units are labeled as Tasks and We have included explanation of topics and solved
examples and as well as topics related to examples in Task to understanding the relevant mathematical
tools required for solving problems. Appropriate blank space is also provided for solving each problem
in the task with answers provided in the last page of each unit. Every task Problems are chosen with
different difficulty levels.
Using Tutorial Workbook students can solve problems as well as discuss their difficulties in the tu-
torial sessions. It is also be useful for preparing the student for their University examinations. During
the process of preparing the manuscripts, we have referred several reference books and textbooks for En-
gineering Mathematics-II. We acknowledge all of them, without however including here the lengthy and
exhaustive list. We have also included problems asked in various examinations to give the students suf-
ficient exposure for getting a deep understanding of the concepts they learn during the course. It is our
pleasure to present this kind of quality content for the student.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to our organisation, Kadi Sarva Vishwavidyalaya , The
Chairman [Link] [Link], Principal of our LDRP-ITR Engineering college [Link] Rajpara,
for giving permission to prepare the Tutorial Workbook and also provide an environment of growth and
development. We are thankful to the University for publishing Tutorial Workbook for the students.

6
 We have a deep sense of gratitude towards our all time mentor [Link] A. Patel(Shertha) for
his valuable suggestions and guidance for preparing this book and also thank Manibhai K. Prajapati for
his active support and guidance for publishing this book.
The entire credit for motivating us to create this piece of work for our students goes to our teacher
and a wonderful motivator Prof. N. N. Roghelia (M. G. Science Institute, Ahmedabad).

This work which looks like a masterpiece because of expert comments and suggestions from Dr. H
C Patel (L. D. Engineering College, Ahmedabad), Dr. Paras D. Uchat (IITE, Gandhinagar), Dr. Anand
Vyas (Pramukhswami Arts and Science College, Kadi)
Our sincere thanks to the entire team of faculties of LDRP-ITR who have directly or indirectly
helped us in preparing this workbook. We are also thankful to Dr. Kumkum Jain (HOD), [Link]
Patel, [Link] Victor, [Link] Rathod , [Link] Mandavia, [Link] Pandit, [Link] Patel,
[Link] Solanki , [Link] Shah, [Link] Patel, [Link] Patel, Tejas Shah and [Link]
Chaudhary.
We look forward for constructive criticism on our content by any of our readers or reviewers in order
to improve the upcoming editions of our work.

Key Features:

• It includes all the question papers of final examination of KSV university.

• It contain all the types of problems based on content syllabus and its application.

• All tasks are designed accordingly to the daily homework and daily assessment system that can be
useful to grade the student for CIA component.

• It is helpful and easy to maintain for the students after completion of the semester for the preparation
of higher studies and competitive exam such as GATE etc.

• The notations are Modern and Standards

• Technical content typeset using LaTeX

Manoj R. Patel Vijay K. Patel

manojmaths.127@[Link] vkpatel1986@[Link]

7
“An equation means nothing to me unless it expresses a thought of God.”
—Srinivasa Ramanujan
8
 KADI SARVA VISHWAVIDYALAYA
LDRP Institute of Technology and Research
Sector-15, KH-5, Gandhinagar
CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr./Ms.

Enrollment No. of semester

Branch has satisfactorily completed

his/her term work in subject

for the academic year

Mid-Term Work Submission:

Signature of Faculty Date Grade

Final Term Work Submission:

Signature of Faculty Date Grade

 Syllabus Of Engineering Mathematics-II

Course Contain Teaching Weightage

Unit
hours

1 Matrix Theory and Application of Matrices: 11 15%

Definition and Special Types of matrices, Determinant, Rank,
Inverse, Row Echelon Form and Reduce Row Echelon Form,
Homogeneous and nonhomogeneous System of linear equation,
Applications: Solution of System of linear equations, Linear
dependence and Linear Independence.
2 Vectors in Rn : 3 5%
Norm, Distance, properties of vectors, angle between vectors,
Pythagorean thereom and Cauchy-Schwartz inequality in Rn
3 Vector Space: 12 20%
Definition, Subspace, Linear Combination, Linear dependence
and Linear Independence of vectors, Span, Basis, Reduction and
Extension to Basis, Dimension, Change of Basis, Rank Nullity
Theorem Column space, Row space and Null space.
4 Linear Transformation: 9 15%
Definition, Basic Properties, Linear Transformation as Rotation,
Reflection, Expansion, Contraction, Projection, Matrix of Lin-
ear transformations, Kernel, Range, Change of Basis and Simi-
larity, Rank Nullity Theorem.
5 Eigenvalue and Eigenvector: 10 15%
Definition, Properties, Diagonalization, Algebraic Multiplicity,
Geometric Multiplicity, Similarity of Matrices.
Applications: Quadratic form, Bilinear Form, Canonical
Form.
6 Vector differential Calculus: 9 15%
Tangent vector, Normal vector, Vector differentiation, Gradient,
Curl, Divergence and their Geometrical meaning, Solenoidal vec-
tor, Irrotational vector, Conservative field.
7 Vector Integral Calculus: 10 15%
Line Integral, Surface integral, Volume Integral, Green’s Theo-
rem, Stokes Theorem and Gauss Divergence Theorem.
 INDEX
No. Task Date Mark Sign.
1 Unit-I Matrix Theory and Application of Matrices
Task 1: Definition and Special Types of matrices
Task -2: Row-Echelon Form and Reduce Row-Echelon Form
Task -3: Rank of the matrix
Task -4: Inverse of the square matrix by Gauss-Jordan
Task -5: System of Linear Equations
2 Unit-II Vectors in Rn
Task -1: Vectors in Rn
3 Unit-III Vector Space
Task -1: Vector Space
Task -2: Subspace
Task -3: Linear combination, Linearly Dependent and Indepen-
dent
Task -4: Linear Span
Task -5: Basis, Reduction and Extension to Basis for Vector
Space
Task -6: Basis of Row Space, Column Space and Null (Solution)
Space
Task -7: Rank and Nullity
Task -8: Change of Basis
4 Unit-IV Linear Transformation
Task 1: Linear Transformation and Linear Operator
Task 2: Kernel & Range of Linear transformation and Rank-
Nullity Theorem
Task 3: One to one , Onto and Inverse Linear Transformation
Task 4: Change of Bases
5 Unit-V Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Task -1 Eigenvalue and Eigenvector
Task -2 Algebraic and Geometric Multiplicity of an Eigenvalue
Task -3: Diagonalization
Task -4: Cayley-Hamilton theorem
Task -5: Quadratic Forms
6 Unit-VI Vector Differential Calculus
Task -1:Velocity and Acceleration,Tangent Vector,Arc Length of
a curve.
Task -2: Gradient of a Scalar Field and Directional Derivative
Task -3: Divergence, Curl
7 Unit-VII Vector Integral calculus
Task -1: Line Integral and Green’s Theorem
Task -2 : Surface Integral and Volume Integral
Task -3:Stokes Theorem and Gauss Theorem of Divergence
“Never stop fighting until you arrive at your destined place - that is, the unique you. Have
an aim in life, continuously acquire knowledge, work hard, and have perseverance to realise
the great life.”
—A P J Abdul kalam
12
CONTENTS

Contents
1 Unit-I Matrix Theory and Application of Matrices 15
1.1 Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2 Special Types Of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.1 Task 1: Definition and Special Types of matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3 Elementary Row or Column operations of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.3.1 Task -2: Row-Echelon Form and Reduce Row-Echelon Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.4 Rank of Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.4.1 Task -3: Rank of the matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.5 Inverse of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.5.1 Task -4: Inverse of the square matrix by Gauss-Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.6 System Of Linear Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.6.1 Task -5: System of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
1.7 Answers of Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

2 Unit-II Vectors in Rn 67
n
2.1 Vectors in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.1.1 Task -1: Vector in Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.2 Answers of Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

3 Unit-III Vector Space 74

3.1 Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.1.1 Task 1: Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2 Subspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.2.1 Task 2: Subspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.3 Linear Combination, Linear Dependence and Linear Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.3.1 Task 3: Linear combination, Linearly Dependent and Independent . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4 Linear Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.4.1 Task 4: Linear Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.5 Basis and Dimension of Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.5.1 Task 5: Basis, Reduction and Extension to Basis for Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.6 Row Space, Column Space and Null Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.6.1 Task 6: Basis of Row Space, Column Space and Null (Solution) Space . . . . . . . . 116
3.7 Rank and Nullity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.7.1 Task 7: Rank and Nullity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.8 Change of Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.9 Task 8: Change of Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.10 Answers of Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

4 Unit-IV Linear Transformation 139

4.1 Linear Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.2 Task 1 : Linear Transformation and Linear Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.3 Kernel and Range of Linear Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.4 Task 2: Kernel & Range of Linear transformation and Rank-Nullity Theorem . . . . . . . 157

13
CONTENTS

4.5 One to one , Onto and Inverse Linear Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

4.6 Task 3 : One to one , Onto and Inverse Linear Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4.7 Change of Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.8 Task:4 Change of Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.9 Answers of Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.10 Answer: Task 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

5 Unit-V Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 181

5.1 Eigenvalue and Eigenvector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.1.1 Task-1: Eigenvalue and Eigenvector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
5.2 Algebraic and Geometric Multiplicity of an Eigenvalue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.2.1 Task 2: Algebraic and Geometric Multiplicity of an Eigenvalue . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.3 Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.3.1 Task 3: Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.4 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
5.4.1 Task-4: Cayley-Hamilton theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
5.5 Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.5.1 Task 5: Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
5.6 Answers of Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

6 Unit-VI Vectors Differential Calculus 246

6.1 Derivative of vector function,Velocity and Acceleration,Tangent Vector,Arc Length of a curve246
6.1.1 Task -1: Velocity and Acceleration,Tangent Vector,Arc Length of a curve. . . . . . . 249
6.2 Gradient of a Scalar Field and Directional Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
6.2.1 Task -2: Gradient of a Scalar Field and Directional Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.3 Divergence and Curl of Vector Point Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
6.3.1 Task -3: Divergence, Curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.4 Answers of Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

7 Unit-VII Vectors Integral calculus 270

7.1 Line Integral and Green’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
7.1.1 Task:1 Line Integral and Green’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
7.2 Surface Integral and Volume Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
7.2.1 Task:2 Surface Integral and Volume Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
7.3 Stoke’s Theorem and Gauss Theorem of Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
7.3.1 Task:3 Stokes Theorem and Gauss Theorem of Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
7.4 Answers of Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

8 KSV QUESTION PAPERS 310

8.1 May 2013 to October 2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

14
1 UNIT-I MATRIX THEORY AND APPLICATION OF MATRICES

Chapter-I
Matrix Theory and Application of Matrices

1 Unit-I Matrix Theory and Application of Matrices

Matrices are one of the most powerful tools in mathematics. It is used in Algebraic structure & Physi-
cal structurer, electronic spreadsheet programs for personal computer, which in turn in different areas of
business and other sciences like projection, cost estimation, analyzing the results of an experiment etc.
The matrix notation is powerful and convenient in expressing basic relationships in many engineering
problems. There are many applications of matrices in mathematics viz. computer graphics, cryptography,
graph theory etc.
In this chapter, we discuss some special matrices, their properties and solutions of linear systems.

1.1 Matrix

A matrix A is an ordered rectangular arrangement of mn elements in m rows and n columns.

 
a11 a12 ... a1n
 a21 a22 ... a2n 
A= .
 
.. .. .. 
 .. . . . 
am1 am2 ... amn m×n

This matrix can also be expressed as A = [aij ]m×n (1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n), where a11 , a12 , a13 , ... are
elements of the matrix and these elements may be either real or complex. m × n is said to be the size of
matrix A. Matrices are denoted by capital letter A, B, C, ...

1.2 Special Types Of Matrices

1. Row matrix
Any matrix of the size 1 × n is called row matrix or row-vector.
   
e.g =⇒ 1 2 5 6 7 1×5 , 3 7 1×2

2. Column matrix
Any matrix of the size m × 
1 is called column matrix or column-vector.
2
 −5 
 
1  
e.g. =⇒  2  ,  0 
 
 
5 3×1  9 
10 5×1

3. Null matrix or Zero matrix

A matrix, whose all the elements are zero is called a null or zero matrix and it is denoted by ”O”

15
1 UNIT-I MATRIX THEORY AND APPLICATION OF MATRICES

 
0 0 0
   
0 0 0 0 0 0
 
e.g =⇒ , , 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0

2×1 2×2
 
0 0 0 4×3

4. Square Matrix
A matrix in which the number of rows√is equal to the number of columns is called square matrix.
 
  5 6 5
5 6
e.g. =⇒ A = , B =  9 −8 5 
7 8 2×2
1 2 3 3×3
√
Here elements { 5, −8, 3} of matrix B are called the main diagonal elements or principal diagonal
elements and {5, −8, 1} are called the cross diagonal elements of matrix B.

5. Upper triangular matrix

A square matrix, in which all the elements below the main diagonal are zero is called upper triangular
matrix.  
  1 4 5
7 9
e.g.=⇒ A = ,B = 0 2 6 
0 8 2×2
0 0 3 3×3

6. Lower triangular matrix

A square matrix, in which all the elements above the main diagonal are zero is called lower triangular
matrix.  
  1 0 0
7 0
e.g =⇒ A = B = 4 2 0 
9 8 2×2
5 6 3 3×3

7. Diagonal matrix
A square matrix is called diagonal matrix if it’s non-diagonal entries are zero.
 
  5 0 0
3 0
e.g.=⇒ A = ,B = 0 8
 0 
0 −7 2×2
0 0 6 3×3

8. Identity matrix or Unit matrix

A diagonal matrix whose diagonal entries are one(unit element) is called identity (unit) matrix.
 
  1 0 0
1 0
e.g =⇒ A = ,B = 0 1 0 
0 1 2×2
0 0 1 3×3

9. Scalar matrix
A diagonal matrix whose diagonal entries are equal is called scalar matrix.
 
  4 0 0
3 0
e.g.=⇒ A = B = 0 4 0 
0 3 2×2
0 0 4 3×3

10. Determinant
 of Matrix

a11 a12
Let A = . Then the determinant of A, written as det(A) or |A|, is defined by
a21 a22
det(A) = |A| = a11 a22 − a12 a21 .

16
1 UNIT-I MATRIX THEORY AND APPLICATION OF MATRICES

 
a11 a12 a13
Let B =  a21 a22 a23 . Then the determinant of B, is defined by
a31 a32 a33
a a a a a a
det(B) = |B| = a11 22 23 − a12 21 23 + a13 21 22
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
11. Singular matrix
A square matrix whose determinant is zero is called singular matrix.
 
1 2 3
e.g=⇒ A =  4 5 6 
7 8 9 3×3

1 2 3
det(A) = |A| = 4 5 6
7 8 9
= 1(45 − 48) − (36 − 42) + 3(32 − 35)
= −3 + 12 − 9
=0
∴ |A| = 0

12. Non-Singular matrix or Invertible matrix

A squre matrix whose determinant is non-zero is called non-singular matrix.
 
1 2 3
e.g=⇒ A =  3 0 1 
−2 1 −1 3×3

1 2 3
det(A) = |A| = 3 0 1
−2 1 −1
= 1(0 − 1) − 2(−3 + 2) + 3(3 − 0)
= −1 + 2 + 9 = 10 6= 0

13. Trace of a matrix The sum of main diagonal entries of the square matrix A is called trace of a
matrix. Trace of a matrix is denoted by tr(A).
 
1 2 3
e.g. =⇒ A =  4 5 6 
7 8 9
tr(A) = 1 + 5 + 9 = 15

14. Transpose of a matrix

Transpose of a matrix A is obtained by interchanging rows and columns of a given matrix A. It is
0
denoted by AT or A
 
  1 3
1 4 5
e.g. =⇒ A = , AT =  4 2 
3 2 7 2×3
5 7 3×2

15. Symmetric matrix

A square matrix A is said to be symmetric matrix if AT = A.
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   
1 4 7 1 4 7
e.g.=⇒ A =  4 6 3  , AT =  4 6 3 
7 3 9 3×3 7 3 9 3×3

∴ AT = A

16. Skew-symmetric matrix

A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if AT = − A.
e.g =⇒

0 −1 −2
 

A = 1 0 7 
2 −7 0 3×3
 
0 1 2
AT =  −1 0 −7 
−2 7 0 3×3
0 −1 −2
 

= − 1 0 7 
2 −7 0 3×3

∴ AT = − A
Comment: The diagonal entries of skew-symmetric matrix must be zero.

17. Conjugate of a Matrix: A matrix obtained from any given matrix A, on replacing its elements
by the corresponding conjugate complex numbers is called conjugate of A. It is denoted by A.

18. Transposed Conjugate of a Matrix: The conjugate of the transpose of matrix A is called
transposed conjugate of matrix or conjugate transpose of a matrix and it is denoted by Aθ .

Aθ = (A)T = (AT )

19. Hermitian Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be Hermitian if Aθ = A.

20. Skew Hermitian Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be skew Hermitian if Aθ = −A.

21. Orthogonal Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if AAT = AT A = I. Thus an

orthogonal matrix is necessarily invertible with A−1 = AT .

22. Unitary Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be unitary matrix if AAθ = Aθ A = I. Thus unitary
matrix is necessarily invertible with A−1 = Aθ .

Remark

1. Every square matrix A can be uniquely expressed as the sum of a symmetric matrix and skew
symmetric by A = 21 (A + AT ) + 12 (A − AT )

2. Every square matrix A can be uniquely expressed as the sum of a Hermitian matrix and skew
Hermitian by A = 12 (A + Aθ ) + 12 (A − Aθ )

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1.2.1 Task 1: Definition and Special Types of matrices

(i) Write the definition of the following with an appropriate example.

(i) Scalar Matrix (ix) Symmetric Matrix

(ii) Unit Matrix (x) Skew-Symmetric Matrix
(iii) Upper Triangular Matrix (xi) Orthogonal Matrix
(iv) Lower Triangular Matrix (xii) Hermitian Matrix
(v) Square Matrix (xiii) Skew-Hermitian Matrix
(vi) Trace of Matrix (xiv) Unitary Matrix
(vii) Transpose of a Matrix (xv) singular Matrix
(viii) Determinant of a Matrix (xvi) Inverse Matrix

(ii) Express the following matrix as the sum of symmetric and skew symmetric matrix.

4 2 −3
   
1 5 7
(a)  1 3 −6  (b)  −1 −2 −4 .
−5 0 7 8 2 13

(iii) Express the following matrix as the sum of Hermitian and skew Hermitian symmetric matrix.
 
2 + 3i 0 4i
(a)  5 i 8 
1 − i −3 + i 6

−i
 
1 1+i
(iv) Express the Hermitian matrix A =  i 0 2 − 3i  as P + iQ where P is a real symmetric
1 − i 2 + 3i 2
matrix and Q is a real skew symmetric matrix.
 √ √
2 −i 2 0

√ √
(v) Prove that matrix A =  i 2 − 2 0  is unitary and hence find A−1
0 0 2

(vi) Verify if the following matrices are orthogonal and hence find their inverses

cos θ − sin θ 0
   
1 2 2
(a) 31  2 1 −2  (b)  sin θ cos θ 0 .
−2 2 1 0 0 1

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1.3 Elementary Row or Column operations of a matrix

1. Interchanging of ith row & j th row by using symbol Rij .

2. Multiplication of ith row by non-zero scalar k by using symbol k · Ri .

3. Multiplication of all the elements of ith row by non-zero scalar k then add-to the j th row by using
symbol Rij (k) or
Rj −→ k · Ri + Rj

Similarly column operations are denoted by Cij , k · Ci and Cij (k)

Row-Echelon Form

A matrix A is said to be row-echelon form if it satisfies the following properties

1. Every zero row of the matrix A occurs below a non-zero row.

2. In any non-zero row, first left element of this row should be 1. This is called a leading 1.

3. All entries in a column below a leading entry are zero.

4. Each leading 1 is to the right of the leading 1 in the previous row.

Comment: In each non-zero row leading entries 1(one) is required (at least one )
For Examples,

−1
     
1 2 0 1 2 3 0 1 6 8 3
 0 1 3  ,  0 7 1 6   0 0 1 −2 0 
0 0 1 3×3 0 0 0 1 3×4 0 0 0 5 1 3×5

Reduce Row-Echelon Form

A given matrix is said to be in Reduce Row-Echelon form if all following conditions are satisfied

1. The matrix must have to be in Row-Echelon form.

2. Every element above and below of leading one must be zero in its column.

For Examples,
   
1 0 6 0 1 −2 0 1 2
 0 1 2 0 0 0 1 −5 1
   
, 
  
 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
  
  
0 0 0 0 4×4
0 0 0 0 0 4×5

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 
1 −1 2 1 0 1
1 2 3 0 0 1
 
1.1 Example. Find a Row-Echelon form of a given matrix 
 
0 3 1 2 1 2

 
1 2 3 1 0 0 4×6
Solution: Here given matrix is,
 
1 −1 2 1 0 1
 1 2 3 0 0 1
 

 0 3 1 2 1 2
 

1 2 3 1 0 0
 
1 −1 2 1 0 1
 0 3 1 −1 0 0
 
 R12 (−1), R14 (−1)

∼ 
 0 3 1 2 1 2 
0 3 1 0 0 −1
 
1 −1 2 1 0 1
 0 3 1 −1 0 0
 
 R23 (−1) , R24 (−1)

∼ 
 0 0 0 3 1 2 
0 0 0 1 0 −1
 
1 −1 2 1 0 1
 0 3 1 −1 0 0
 
 (−1)R4

∼ 
 0 0 0 3 1 2 
0 0 0 −1 0 1

 
1 −1 1 0 2
2 −2 0 2 2
 
1.2 Example. Obtain the reduced row-echelon from of the matrix 
 
−1 1 2 −3 1

 
−2 2 1 −3 −1 4×5
Solution: Here given matrix is
 
1 −1 1 0 2
 2 −2 0 2 2
 

 −1 1 2 −3 1
 

−2 2 1 −3 −1
 
1 −1 1 0 2
 0 0 −2 2 −2 
 
∼   R12 (−2), R13 (1), R14 (2)
 0 0 3 −3 3 
0 0 3 −3 3
 
1 −1 1 0 2
      
 0 0 1 −1 1  −1 −1 1

∼  R2 , R3 , R4
 0 0 −1 1 −1  2 3 3

0 0 1 −1 1
 
1 −1 0 2 1
 0 0 1 −1 1 
 
∼   R21 (−1), R23 (1), R24 (−1)
 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0

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which is required reduced row-echelon form.

1.3.1 Task -2: Row-Echelon Form and Reduce Row-Echelon Form

(i) Find row echelon form of the following matrices.

   
1 3 −1 2
 
1 2 0 0 1 1 1 −2 0 2
 0

3 1 2 −1 
 (b)  −1 1 1 2  
−1 0 −1 −3 2

(a)  (c) 
 
 1 5 1 3 2  2 2 1 6 2 2 1 2 1
 
 
−1 −2 0 −2 1 4×5 −2 1 2 −3 −1

(ii) Find the reduce row echelon form of the following matrices.
   
3 −6 6 4 −5
 
1 9 0 0 −2 0 6 1 3 8
 0 0 1

0 6 
 (b)  3 −7 8 −5 8 9   4 2 6

2

(a)  (c) 

 3 5 4 1 1  3 −9 12 −9 6 15  10 3 9 4
 

0 1 3 3 0 16 4 12 1

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1.4 Rank of Matrix

The positive integer r is said to be the rank of matrix A if it satisfies the following properties
1. There is at least one minor of order r which is non zero.

2. Every minor of order grater then r is zero .

The rank of matrix is denoted by ρ(A)

Rank of Matrix by Row Echelon Form

The rank of a matrix in row echelon form is number of non zero rows in the matrix. The rank of
matrix is denoted by ρ(A)

Rank of Matrix by Normal Form

   
Ir 0 Ir
If a matrix A of order m×n can be reduced the form or [Ir ] or [Ir 0] or by elementary
0 0 0
transformation then it is called normal form where r is rank of the [Link] form is also known as first
canonical form of a matrix.

1.3 Example. Find non singular matrices P and Q such that P AQ is in the normal form where A =
 
1 1 1
 1 −1 −1 
3 1 1
 
1 1 1
Solution: Here given matrix is A =  1 −1 −1 
3 1 1
we want to find P and Q such that P AQ is in normal form, for that

A = I3 A I3
     
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
 1 −1 −1  =  0 1 0  A  0 1 0  R12 (−1), R13 (−3)
3 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
     
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
 0 −2 −2  =  −1 1 0  A  0 1 0  (− 1 )R2 , (− 1 )R3
2 2
0 −2 −2 −3 0 1 0 0 1
     
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
 0 1 1  =  1 −1 0  A  0 1 0  (C23 (−1)
2 2
3
0 1 1 2
0 − 12 0 0 1
     
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
 0 1 0  =  1 −1 0  A  0 1 −1  R21 (−1), R23 (−1)
2 2
3
0 1 0 2
0 − 12 0 0 1

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   1 1   
1 o 0 2 2
0 1 0 0
 0 1 0  =  1 −1 0  A  0 1 −1 
2 2
1
0 o 0 1 2
− 12 0 0 1
 
I2 0
= P AQ.
0 0
 1 1   
2 2
0 1 0 0
1 1
∴ P = 2 −2
 0  Q= 0  1 −1 
1 1
1 2
−2 0 0 1

1.4.1 Task -3: Rank of the matrix

(i) Find the rank of the following matrices by reducing them to row echelon forms.
     
−1 2 3 4 1 2 3 −1 3 −2 0 −1
(a)
1 0 3 −4  −2 −1 −3 −1 
 
 0

2 2 1 

(c)  (e) 
 1 0 1 1   1 −2 −3 2 
 
0 1 1 −1 0 1 2 1
3 3 −4 2 −1 −4
     
1 2 3 1
(b)  1 1 −1  (d)  2 3 4  (f)  2 4 3 5 
2 1 −3 3 5 7 −1 −2 6 −7

(ii) Find the rank of the following matrices by reducing them to normal forms.
     
−1 2 3 −4 1 −1 2 −3 1 2 3 −1
(a)
1 0 3 4  4 1 0 2   −1 −1 −3 −1
   
(c)  (e) 

 0 3 0 4   1 0 1 1
 

0 1 0 2 0 1 1 −1
2 −1 −4
     
2 3 4 1 2 3 1
(b)  4 3 1  (d)  2 3 4  (f)  2 4 3 5 
1 2 4 3 5 7 −1 −2 6 −7

(iii) Find nonsingular matrices P and Q for following matrices A such that P AQ are in normal form.

1 0 −2 1 −1 2 −1
     
2 1 1 3
(a)  2 3 −4  (b)  1 0 1 2  (c)  4 2 −1 2 
3 3 −6 3 1 2 5 2 2 −2 0

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1.5 Inverse of a Matrix

Let A be any square matrix and if there exists matrix B such that AB = BA = I, then A is said to
be invertible matrix and B is called inverse of A vice versa and it is denoted by A−1 .

Adjoint of a Square Matrix

The transpose of a matrix of the cofactor is called the adjoint of the matrix and it is denoted by
adj(A).
 T
A11 A12 ... A1n
 A21 A22 ... A2n 
adj(A) =  .
 
.. .. ..
 ..

. . . 
An1 An2 ... Ann
Where Aij = (−1)i+j |aij |, i, j = 1, 2, 3, · · · , n
Aij is cofactor elements of ith row and j th column and |aij | is minor of the element of aij .

Inverse of a matrix by Adjoint (Determinant) method

If A is an invertible matrix then A−1 = 1

det(A)
adj(A). The inverse of a matrix A exists if and only if
det(A) 6= 0.

Inverse of a matrix by Gauss-Jordan method using row operation.

Let A be a given square matrix with det(A) 6= 0 then inverse of matrix A can be obtained by following
steps.
(I) From the given square matrix write augmented matrix [A | I], where I identity matrix of same order
of matrix A.

(II) This augmented matrix [A | I] convert into matrix [I | B] by using elementary row operations.

(III) At last we get matrix B, which is inverse of matrix A, so B = A−1 .

1.4 Example. Find the inverse of the following matrix by using Gauss-Jordan method.
 
0 1 2
A= 1 2 3 
3 1 1

Solution: First we have to check the existence of A−1 . we know that A−1 exist if and only if det(A) 6= 0.
here we have,

0 1 2
A= 1 2 3
3 1 1
= 0(2 − 3) − 1(1 − 9) + 2(1 − 6)
= 8 − 10
= −2 6= 0.

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Now we write augmenting matrix [A | I] as

 
0 1 2 1 0 0
[A | I] =  1 2 3 0 1 0  R12
3 1 1 0 0 1
 
1 2 3 0 1 0
∼  0 1 2 1 0 0  R13 (−3)
3 1 1 0 0 1
 
1 2 3 0 1 0
∼ 0 1 2 1 0 0  R23 (5)
0 −5 −8 0 −3 1
 
1 2 3 0 1 0
1
∼ 0 1 2 1 0 0  R32 (−1), R3
2
0 0 2 5 −3 1
 
1 2 3 0 1 0
∼  0 1 0 −4 3 −1  R21 (−2)
5 −3 1
0 0 1 2 2 2
8 −5
 
1 0 3 2
∼  0 1 0 −4 3 −1  R31 (−3)
5
0 0 1 2
− 23 1
2
1 1 1 
−2

1 0 0 2 2
∼  0 1 0 −4 3 −1 
5
0 0 1 2
− 23 1
2
= [I | B]
 1
− 12
2
1 
2
Hence A−1 = B =  −4 3 −1 
5
2
− 32 1
2

1.5.1 Task -4: Inverse of the square matrix by Gauss-Jordan

(i) Using Gauss-Jordan method find inverse of matrix for following square matrices.
   
2 6 6 1 −1 0 2
(a)  2 7 6   0

1 1 −1 

(c) 
2 7 7  2 1 2 1 

3 −2 1 6
 
3 −2 0 −1
 
2 3 4  0 2 2 1 
 
(d)
 1 −2 −3 −2 
 
(b)  4 3 1 
1 2 4 0 1 2 1

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1.6 System Of Linear Equation

A system of m linear equations in n variables x1 , x2 , ...., xn can be written as

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x3 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
.. .. ... .. ..
. . . .
am1 x1 + am2 + · · · + amn xn = bm
where aij ( 1 ≤ i ≤ m , 1 ≤ j ≤ n ) are constants

Note: In the above system if at least one bi ; 1 ≤ i ≤ m are not zero, then the system is called non-
homogeneous linear equations and if all bi ; 1 ≤ i ≤ m are zero, then the system is called homogeneous
linear equations.

=⇒ The system of m linear equations in n variables can be written in the Matrix form as AX = B ,
where     
a11 a12 ... a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 ... a2n   x2   b2 
A = . , X = .  , B = . 
     
.. .. .. 
 .. . . .   ..   .. 
am1 am2 ... amn m×n
xn n×1
bm m×1

Here A = Coefficient matrix

B = Matrix of constants
X = Matrix of unknown variables

Augmented Matrix

The matrix formed by the combination of coefficient matrix A and constant matrix B is called the
Augmented matrix. It is denoted by [A : B] or [A , B] or [A|B] and it is defined as follow
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n b1
 a21 a22 · · · a2n b2 
[A : B] =  .
 
. . . .
 .. .. .. .. .. 
am1 am2 · · · amn bm

Comment: This matrix is used to solve the system of linear equations.

Solution of a System of Non-Homogeneous Linear Equations

For a system of m linear equations in n unknowns variables, there are three possibilities of the
solutions to the system.
1. The system has unique solution.

2. The system has infinite solution.

3. The system has no-solution.

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Solution of a System of Homogeneous Linear Equations

For a system of m linear equations in n unknowns variables, there are three possibilities of the solutions
to the system.

1. The system has unique solution. That is x1 = x2 = · · · = xn = 0 (Trivial solutions)

2. The system has infinite solution. (Non-Trivial solutions)

Remark: If the linear equations have unique solution or infinite solution then the system is called
Consistent and system with no solution is called Inconsistent.

Gauss-Elimination Method

(I) First write the given system of linear equation into matrix form as , AX = B

Where A = coefficient matrix

B = matrix of constants
X = matrix of unknown variables

(II) Write the augmented matrix form [A | B] from the matrix form of linear equation.

(III) Apply elementary row operation on this augmented matrix and obtain row-echelon matrix.

(IV) Write the linear equation from this row-echelon matrix form.

(V) Finally solve the linear equations by using back substitution of variables.

Comment: In Gauss Elimination method augmented matrix is converted in-to upper triangular matrix.

Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

(I) First write the given system of linear equation into matrix form as , AX = B

Where A = coefficient matrix

B = matrix of constants
X = matrix of unknown variables

(II) Write the augmented matrix form [A | B] from the matrix form of linear equation.

(III) Apply elementary row operation on this augmented matrix and obtain reduced row-echelon form of
this matrix.

(IV) Write the linear equation from this reduced row-echelon matrix form.

(V) Finally solve the linear equations by using substitution of variables.

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Remarks For row echelon and reduced row echelon of augmented matrix [A|B] where n is number
of variable in the system and r is number of leading ones in row echelon and reduced row echelon of
augmented matrix [A|B].

1. If n = r with last entry of constant matrix B is non zero then system has unique solution.

2. If n > r then system has infinite solution.

3. If in row entry

1.5 Example. Solve the system by Gaussian Elimination method

x + y + 2z = 9
2x + 4y − 3z = 1
3x + 6y − 5z = 0
Solution: First convert the given system of linear equation into matrix form AX = B as follow
     
1 1 2 x 9
2 4 −3 y  = 1
3 6 −5 z 0
Now we write the augmented matrix
 
1 1 2 9
[A : B] =  2 4 −3 1 
3 6 −5 0
 
1 1 2 9
v  0 2 −7 −17  R12 (−2), R13 (−3)
0 3 −11 −27
 
1 1 2 9  
v 0 1 −7 −17  1 R2
2 2 2
0 3 −11 −27
 
1 1 2 9
v  0 1 −7
2
−17 
2
R23 (−3)
−1 −3
0 0 2 2
 
1 1 2 9
v  0 1 −7
2
−17 
2
(−2)R3
0 0 1 3

which is required, row echelon form. Now reduced into equation form.
x + y + 2z = 9
7 −17
y− z=
2 2
z=3
Put value of z in above two equation, we obtain the value of x & y as follow
y = 2 & x = 1.
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1.6 Example. Solve the following system by gauss Elimination method

2x + 2y + 2z = 0
−2x + 5y + 2z = 1
8x + y + 5z = −1

Solution: First write the system of equation into matrix form

AX = B
    
2 2 2 x 0
 −2 5 2   y  =  1 
8 1 4 z −1
Now write the augmented matrix
 
2 2 2 0
[A : B] =  −2 5 2 1 
8 1 4 −1
 
1 1 1 0  
1
v −2 5 2
 1  R1
2
8 1 4 −1
 
1 1 1 0
v 0 7 4 1  R12 (2), R13 (−8)
0 −7 −4 −1
 
1 1 1 0
v  0 7 4 1  R23 (1)
0 0 0 0
 
1 1 1 0  
1
v  0 1 74 17  R2
7
0 0 0 0

which is required, row-echelon form, now we write the linear equation system from that row echelon matrix.

x+y+z =0
4 1
y+ z= &
7 7
put z = t

solve this equation using back-substitution, we find the value of x & y .

1 4
y = − t
7 7

∴ x = −y − z
1 4
= − t− t
7 7
∴ This system has infinite solution.

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1.7 Example. Solve the system of linear equations by Gauss-Jordan method

−2y + z = 1
3x + 6y − 3z = −2
6x + 6y + 3z = 5

Solution: First we convert the system of linear equation into matrix form AX = B as follow

0 −2 3
     
x 1
3 6 −3 y  = −2
6 6 3 z 5

Now, write the augmented matrix

0 −2
 
3 1
[A : B] =  3 6 −3 −2 
6 6 3 5
6 −3 −2
 
3
v  0 −2 3 1  R12
6 6 3 5
6 −3 −2
 
3
v  0 −2 3 1  R13 (−2)
0 −6 9 9
2 −1 − 23
 
1  
1
v 0 −2
 3 1  R1 , R23 (3)
3
0 0 0 6
1 2 −1 − 23
 
 
−1
v  0 1 − 23 − 12  R2
2
0 0 0 6
 4 
1 0 2 3
v  0 1 − 23 − 12  R21 (−2)
0 0 0 6

which is required, reduced row echelon form and write equation from that matrix.
4
x + 0y + 2z =
3
3 −1
y− z =
2 2
0z =6
∴ 0=6 which is not possible.

∴ The system has no-solution.

1.6.1 Task -5: System of Linear Equations

(i) Solve the following system of equations by Gauss Elimination method.

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x − y + 2z = 3 3x + 2y + z = 3 −1 3 4
+ + = 30
x y z
(a) x + 2y + 3z = 5 (c) 2x + y + z = 0
3 2 −1
3x − 4y − 5z = −13 6x + 2y + 4z = 6 (e) + + =9
x y z
2 −1 2
+ + = 10
x y z
x + 2y − z = 1 3x1 + 2x3 + 2x4 = 0 x+y+z =3
(b) 3x − 2y + 2z = 2 (d) −x1 + 7x2 + 4x3 + 9x4 = 0 (f) x + 2y − z = 4
7x − 2y + 3z = 5 7x1 − 7x2 − 5x4 = 0 x + 3y + 2z = 4

(ii) Solve the following system of equations by Gauss-Jordan Elimination method.

−2y + 3z = 3 3x + 2y − z = −15
(a) 3x + 6y − 3z = −2 5x + 3y + 2z = 0
(b)
6x + 6y + 3z = 5 3x + y + 3z = 11
−6x − 4y + 2z = 30

(iii) For which value of ”a” will be following system has (i) unique solution (ii) Infinitely many solution
and (iii) no solution.
x + 2y − 3z = 4
3x − y + 5z = 2
4x + y + (a2 − 14)z = a + 2

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1.7 Answers of Tasks

Answers : Task-1
3
−4 0 12 1 0 6 −1
       
4 2
2 4 15
(ii) (a)  23 3 −3  +  − 12 0 −3  (b) 21  4 −4 −2  + 12  −6 0 −6 
−4 −3 7 −1 3 0 15 −2 26 1 6 0

−5 −1 + 3i
   
4 5 1 + 5i 6i
(iii) (a) 12  5 0 5 − i  + 12  5 2i 11 + i 
1 − 5i 5 + i 12 1 + 3i −11 + i 0

0 −1 1
   
1 0 1
(iv) P =  0 0 2  + 21  1 0 −3 
1 2 2 −1 3 0
 √ √
2 −i 2 0

√ √
(v) A−1 =  i 2 − 2 0 
0 0 2

1 2 −2
   
cos θ sin θ 0
(vi) (a) A−1 = AT = 31  2 1 2  (b) A−1 = AT =  − sin θ cos θ 0 
2 −2 −1 0 0 1

Answer: Task: 3

(i) (a) ρ(A) = 2 (c) ρ(A) = 2 (e) ρ(A) = 4

(b) ρ(A) = 3 (d) ρ(A) = 2 (f) ρ(A) = 3

(ii) (a) ρ(A) = 3 (c) ρ(A) = 2 (e) ρ(A) = 3

(b) ρ(A) = 4 (d) ρ(A) = 2 (f) ρ(A) = 3

1 0 −1
   
1 0 0
(iii) (a) P =  −2
3
1
3
0  Q= 0 1 0 
−1 0 31 0 0 − 21
 
  1 0 −1 −2
0 1 0
 0 1 1 1 
 
(b) P =  1 −2 0  Q =
 0 0 1 0 
 
−1 2 −3
0 0 0 1
 
  1 1 0 − 12
1 0 0 3 
 0 1 −1

(c) P = − 23
 1
6
− 1 
2
Q = 2 
 0 0 0 1 
 
− 31 1
3
−21
0 0 1 0

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Answer:Task 4

7
 
0 −3
 
2 2 −1 1 −1
(a)  −1 1 0  
−5 −3 1 1 

(c) 

0 −1 1 2 3 −1 0 


−3 −1 0 1
 
1 1 −2 −4
−10 0 −1 
 
4 9 0 1
 
(d) 

(b) 15  15 −4 −14  −1 −1 3 6 


−5 1 6 2 1 −6 −10

Answer: Task 5

13
(i) (a) x = −1, y = 0, z = 2 (f) x = 5
, y = 53 , z = − 15
(b) x = − 4t + 34 , y = 5t
8
+ 18 , z = t 7
(ii) (a) x = 3
− 2t, y = − 32 + 3t
2
, z=t
(c) No solution
(b) x = −4, y = 2, z = 7
(d) x1 = − 23 (s + t), x2 = 1
21
(−14s − 29t),
x3 = s, x4 = t (iii) (i) unique solution for a 6= 4, (ii) infinite for
1 1 1
(e) x = 2
, y= 4
, z= 5
a = 4 (iii) no solution a = −4

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Chapter-2
Vectors in Rn

2 Unit-II Vectors in Rn
2.1 Vectors in Rn
An ordered set of n real numbers (u1 , u2 , u3 , · · · , un ) represent a vector u in the vector space Rn .
The real number uk is called the k th component or coordinate of u. This vector u represents a point in n
dimensional space Rn .

Vector Addition and Multiplication by Scalars

If u = (u1 , u2 , u3 , · · · , un ) and v = (v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vn ) are two vectors in Rn then vectors addition of

u and v is define by u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , u3 + v3 , · · · , un + vn ) and if k is any scalar then scalar
multiplication is define by ku = (ku1 , ku2 , ku3 , · · · , kun ).

Norm or Length or Magnitude of a Vectors

n
p norm or length of a vectors u = (u1 , u2 , u3 , · · · , un ) in R is denoted by kuk and defined by
The
kuk = (u1 2 + u2 2 + u3 + · · · + un 2 )
=⇒ A vector with norm one(1) is called a unit vector.

Distance in Rn

The distance between the points u = (u1 , u2 , u3 , · · · , un ) and v = (v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vn ) in Rn is denoted

by d(u, v) and defined by
p
d(u, v) = (u1 − v1 )2 + (u2 − v2 )2 + (u3 − v3 )2 + · · · + (un − vn )2
= ku − vk

Angle between Vectors in Rn

If u and v are two non zero vectors in Rn and if θ is the angle between them then
u·v
cos θ =
kukkvk

Orthogonality in Rn

If two vectors u and v are orthogonal in Rn then u · v = 0.

Pythagoras Theorem in Rn

If u and v are two orthogonal vectors in Rn then

ku + vk2 = kuk2 + kvk2

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Cauchy - Schwarz Inequality

If u and v are two vectors in Rn then

|u · v| ≤ kukkvk

Triangular inequality Rn

If u and v are two vectors in Rn then

ku + vk ≤ kuk + kvk

2.1.1 Task -1: Vector in Rn

(i) Let x = (2, 3, 4), y = (3, 0, 5), u = (2, 3, 4, 5) and v = (4, 6, 9, 2) then find (i) x + y,
(ii) 3v + 4v, (iii) 3u − 4v

(ii) Let u = (4, 1, 2, 3), v = (0, 3, 8, −2) and w = (3, 1, 2, 2) then evaluate
1
(a) kuk + kvk (b) k3u − 5v + wk (c) k kwk wk (d) ku + vk

(iii) Find the distance between the following vectors

(a) u = (0, 2, 3), v = (1, 2, −4) (b) u = (3, 4, 0, 1), v = (2, 2, 1, −1)

(iv) Determine whether the following vectors are orthogonal

(a) u = (−1, 3, 2), v = (4, 2, −1) (c) u = (1, 2, 3, −4), v = (0, −3, 1, 0)
(b) u = (4, 2, 6, −8), v = (−2, 3, −1, −1)

(v) Find the angle between the following vectors

(a) u = (2, −1, 3), v = (2, 5, −5) (b) u = (2, 6, 3, 3, −1), v = (−5, 2, 2, −2, 2)

(vi) Verify Cauchy- Schwarz inequality for following vectors

(a) u = (−4, 2, 1), v = (8, −4, −2) (c) u = (0, −5, 6), v = (4, 7, 3)
(b) u = (−3, 1, 0), v = (2, −1, 3) (d) u = (0, −2, 2, 1), v = (−1, −1, 1, 1)

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2.2 Answers of Tasks

Answer: Task 1

(i) (i)(5, 3, 9), (ii)(20, 30, 43, 26), (iii)(−10, −15, −24, 7)
√ √ √ √
(ii) (a) 77 + 30 (b) 1811 (c) 1 (d) 133
√ √
(iii) (a) 50 (b) 10

(iv) (a) yes (b) yes (c) no

√
(v) (a) θ = 125.58o or cos−1 ( −863 21 ) (b) θ = 90o

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Chapter-3
Vectors Space

3 Unit-III Vector Space

3.1 Vector Space

Let V be a non-empty set of elements called vectors and F be the field. If set V satisfied the following
properties under the vector addition + : V × V −→ V and scalar multiplication · : F × V −→ V then
(V, +, ·) is said to be Vector Space. Let u, v, w ∈ V and k, m ∈ F

(1) Closure
V is closed under addition, i.e ∀ u, v ∈ V =⇒ u + v ∈ V

(2) Commutativity
u+v =v+u

(3) Associativity
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w

(4) Existence of Identity

There exist an element e ∈ V such that u + e = u + e = e.

(5) Existence of Inverse

For each vector u ∈ V there is a vector −u ∈ V such that u + (−u) = (−u) + u = e.

(6) Closure of Scalar Multiplication

V is closed under scalar multiplication, i.e ∀u ∈ V and k ∈ F =⇒ k · u ∈ V

(7) Distributivity of Scalar Multiplication over Addition

k(u + v) = ku + kv.

(8) Distributivity of Scalar Multiplication in F

(k + m)u = ku + mu

(9) Associativity of Scalar Multiplication

k(mu) = (km)u

(10) Unity for Multiplication

1·u=u

=⇒ The scalars may be real numbers or complex numbers. When the scalar are real numbers then vector
space is called real vector space and when the scalars are complex numbers then vector space is called
complex vector space.

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Standard Vector Space

(i) The set Rn is vector space under standard vector addition and scalar multiplication. ( Euclidian
space )

(ii) The set Mm×n of all m × n matrices of real numbers are vector space under matrix addition and
scalar multiplication. (Matrix space)

(iii) The set Pn of all polynomials of degree≤ n is vector space under the addition and scalar multiplication
of polynomials. (Polynomial space)

(iv) The set F (−∞, ∞) be the set of all real valued function is vector space under standard function
addition and scalar multiplication. ( Function space )

3.1 Example. Check whether set V = R2 is a vector space with respect to the operation (x1 , x2 )+(y1 , y2 ) =
(x1 + y1 − 2, x2 + y2 − 3) and k(x1 , x2 ) = (kx1 + 2k − 2, kx2 − 3k + 3), where k ∈ R.

Solution: Let u = (u1 , u2 ), v = (v1 , v2 ) and w = (w1 , w2 ) are vectors in R2 and k, m ∈ R

(1) Closure

u + v = (u1 , u2 ) + (v1 , v2 )
= (u1 + v1 − 2, u2 + v2 − 3) ∈ R2
∴ V is closed under addition

(2) Commutativity

u + v = (u1 , u2 ) + (v1 , v2 )
= (u1 + v1 − 2, u2 + v2 − 3)
= (v1 + u1 − 2, v2 + u2 − 3)
= (v1 , v2 ) + (u1 , u2 )
=v+u

(3) Associativity

u + (v + w) = (u1 , u2 ) + [(v1 , v2 ) + (w1 , w2 )]

= (u1 , u2 ) + (v1 + w1 − 2, v2 + w2 − 3)
= (u1 + v1 + w1 − 2 − 2, u2 + v2 + w2 − 3 − 3)
= (u1 + v1 + w1 − 4, u2 + v2 + w2 − 6) .............(i)
(u + v) + w = [(u1 , u2 ) + (v1 , v2 )] + (w1 , w2 )
= (u1 + v1 − 2, u2 + v2 − 3) + (w1 , w2 )
= (u1 + v1 − 2 + w1 − 2, u2 + v2 − 3 + w3 − 3)
= (u1 + v1 + w1 − 4, u2 + v2 + w2 − 6) .............(ii)
from the equation (i) and (ii) we have, u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w

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(4) Existence of Identity Let e = (e1 , e2 ) be the identity of given set.

u+e = u
(u1 , u2 ) + (e1 , e2 ) = (u1 , u2 )
(u1 + e1 − 2, u2 + e2 − 3) = (u1 , u2 )
∴ u1 + e1 − 2 = u1 and u2 + e2 − 3 = u2
∴ e1 = 2 and e2 = 3
∴ e = (e1 , e2 ) = (2, 3) ∈ R2 .

There exist an element e ∈ V such that u + e = u + e = e.

(5) Existence of Inverse Let I = (i1 , i2 ) be the inverse of u = (u1 , u2 ) then

u+I = e
(u1 , u2 ) + (i1 , i2 ) = (2, 3)
(u1 + i1 − 2, u2 + i2 − 3) = (2, 3)
∴ u1 + i1 − 2 = 2 and u2 + i2 − 3 = 3
∴ i1 = 4 − u1 and i2 = 6 − u2
∴ I = (i1 , i2 ) = (4 − u1 , 6 − u2 ) ∈ R2 .

For each vectors u ∈ V there is a vector I ∈ V such that u + I = I + u = e.

(6) Closure of Scalar Multiplication

ku = k(u1 , u2 )
= (ku1 + 2k − 2, ku2 − 3k + 3) ∈ Rn
∴V is closed under scalar multiplication.

(7) Distributivity of Scalar Multiplication over Addition

k(u + v) = k[(u1 , u2 ) + (v1 , v2 )]

= k(u1 + v1 − 2, u2 + v2 − 3)
= (k(u1 + v1 − 2) + 2k − 2, k(u2 + v2 − 3) − 3k + 3)
= (ku1 + kv1 − 2k + 2k − 2, ku2 + kv2 − 3k − 3k + 3)
= (ku1 + kv1 − 2, ku2 + kv2 − 6k + 3) ............(i)
ku + kv = k(u1 , u2 ) + k(v1 , v2 )
= (ku1 + 2k − 2, ku2 − 3k + 3) + (kv1 + 2k − 2, kv2 − 3k + 3)
= (ku1 + kv1 + 4k − 2, ku2 + kv2 − 6k + 6) ............(ii)
from equation (i) and(ii)we have, k(u + v) 6= ku + kv

∴ scalar multiplication is not distributive with respect to vector addition in R2 .

Hence R2 in not a vector space under the given operation.

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3.1.1 Task 1: Vector Space

(i) Let V be the set of all pairs of all pairs (x, y) of real numbers and let R be the field of real numbers.
In each of the following examine whether V is a vector space over the field of real numbers or not.

(a) (x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) and k(x1 , x2 ) = (|k|x1 , |k|x2 )

(b) (x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) and k(x1 , x2 ) = (0, kx2 )
(c) (x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) and k(x1 , x2 ) = (k 2 x1 , k 2 x2 )
(d) (x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 + 1, x2 + y2 + 1) and k(x1 , x2 ) = (kx1 , kx2 )
     
a 1 a 1 c 1
(ii) The set of all 2 × 2 matrices of the form with the operation define as + =
1 b 1 b 1 d
     
a+c 1 a 1 ka 1
and k =
1 b+d 1 b 1 kb

(iii) Check wether the set of all pair of real numbers of the form (1, x) with operations (1, x) + (1, y) =
(1, x + y) and k(1, x) = (1, kx) is vector space or not.

(iv) Check wether the set V = {(x, y)|x, y ∈ R, y > 0} of real numbers (1, x) with operations (x1 , x2 ) +
(y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 y2 ) and k(x1 , x2 ) = (kx1 , x2 k ) is vector space or not.

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3.2 Subspace

Let V be a vector space and W be any non empty subset of V . Then W is called a subspace of V if
W itself is a vector space under the operation define on V .

Necessary and Sufficient Condition for Subspace

If W is a non-empty subset of a vector space V then W is a subspace of V if W satisfy the following

condition.
1. W is closed under addition, i.e u, v ∈ W =⇒ u + v ∈ W.

2. W is closed under scalar multiplication, i.e u ∈ W, k ∈ R =⇒ ku ∈ W.

Subspaces of R2 and R3

Subspace of R2 Subspace of R3
1 {0} {0}
2 Line passing through the origin. Line passing through the origin.
planes passing through the origin.
3 R2 itself R3 itself

3.2 Example. Show that W = {(x, y)|x = 4y} is subspace of R2 .

Solution: Let u = {(u1 , u2 )|u1 = 4u2 } and v = {(v1 , v2 )|v1 = 4v2 } ∈ W and k ∈ R, for subspace

Properties 1 u + v = (u1 , u2 ) + (v1 , v2 )

= (u1 + v1 , u2 + u2 )
but u1 = 4u2 and v1 = 4v2
∴ u1 + v1 = 4(u2 + v2 )
∴ u + v = {(u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 )|u1 + v1 = 4(u2 + v2 )}
Thus u + v ∈ W
Properties 2 ku = k(u1 , u2 )
= (ku1 ku2 )
but u1 = 4u2
∴ ku1 = 4(ku2 )
∴ ku = {(u1 , u2 )|ku1 = 4(ku2 )}
Thus ku ∈ W

Hence , W is a subspace of R2 .

3.2.1 Task 2: Subspace

(i) Check wether the following are subspace of R2 or R3 . Justifies your answer.

(a) W = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≤ 1}
(b) W = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | ax + by + cz = 0; a, b, c ∈ R}
(c) W = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x2 = y 2 }
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(d) W = {(x, 0, 0) ∈ R3 | x ∈ R}

(ii) Check wether W = {A ∈ M22 | det(A) 6= 0} is subspace of M22 .

  
a b
(iii) Check wether W = ∈ M22 where a + b + c + d = 0 is subspace of M22 .
c d

(iv) Check wether W = {a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 ∈ P3 | a0 = 0} is subspace of P3 .

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3.3 Linear Combination, Linear Dependence and Linear Independence

A vector w is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vn if there exist scalars

k1 , k2 , k3 , · · · , kn such that
w = k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3 + · · · + kn vn

Algorithm to Check Linear Combination

To check whether a vector w is a linear combination of vectors v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vn by the following rules.

(I) First write the w as linear combination of given vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , vn that is w = k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3 +
· · · + kn vn .

(II) From the step-I write the system of linear equation in terms of scalars k1 , k2 , k3 , · · · , kn by comparing
the corresponding components.

(III) Solve this linear equations by Gauss elimination or Gauss Jordan elimination method.

(IV) If the linear equation is consistent, then w is a linear combination of v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vn . If the linear
equation is an inconsistent, then w is not a linear combination of v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vn .

Linear Dependence of Vectors

The vectors v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vn are said to be linear dependent if there exist scalars k1 , k2 , k3 , · · · , kn not all
are zero such that
k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3 + · · · + kn vn = 0
.
Linear Independence of Vectors

The vectors v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vn are said to be linear independent if for any scalars k1 , k2 , k3 , · · · , kn such
that
k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3 + · · · + kn vn = 0 =⇒ k1 = k2 = · · · = kn = 0.
.
Remark: Following statement is true only for square coefficient matrix of system of linear equations.

If the determinant of the coefficient matrix of system of scalars is zero then vectors are lin-
ear dependent, otherwise they are linearly independent.

Linear Independence of Functions

Let the n functions f1 , f2 , f3 , · · · , fn have (n − 1) times continuous derivative in (−∞, ∞). If the
determinant of Wronskian is not identically zero in (−∞, ∞) then this functions are linearly independent
in (−∞, ∞) where Wronskian denoted by W (f1 , f2 , · · · , fn ) is define by
f1 f2 ··· fn
f1 0 f2 0 ··· fn 0
W (f1 , f2 , · · · , fn ) = f1 00 f2 00 ··· fn 00
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
f1 n−1 f2 n−1 · · · fn n−1
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Remark: Given two functions f (x) and g(x) that are differentiable on some interval I.

f (x) g(x)
1. If W (f (x), g(x)) = 6= 0 for some x0 in I, then f (x) and g(x) are linearly
f 0 (x) g 0 (x)
independent on the interval I.

2. If f (x) and g(x) are linearly dependent on I then W (f, g)(x) = 0 for all x in the interval I.

3. If W (f, g)(x) = 0 for all x in the interval I then that does not mean f and g are dependent.

3.3 Example. Show that vector v = (3, 1, 5) is a linear combination of the vectors v1 = (0, −2, 2) and
v2 = (1, 3, −1).
Solution: Here we want to prove that v is linear combination of v1 and v2 , for that
v = k1 v1 + k2 v2
(3, 1, 5) = k1 (0, −2, 2) + k2 (1, 3, −1)
= (0k1 + k2 , −k1 + 3k2 , 2k1 − k2 )
Equating corresponding components,
k2 = 3
−2k1 + 3k2 = 1
2k1 − k2 = 5
Now solve this linear equation by Gauss elimination method. For that we write the augmented matrix of
the system.
 
0 1 3
[A|B] =  −2 3 1  R12
2 −1 5
−2
 
3 1
1
∼ 0 1 3  (− )R1
2
2 −1 5
1 − 32 − 12
 

∼ 0 1 3  R13 (−2)
2 −1 5
1 − 2 − 12
3
 

∼ 0 1 3  R23 (−2)
0 2 6
1 − 33 − 12
 

∼ 0 1 3 
0 0 0
From the above form we write equation as,
3 1
k1 − k2 = −
2 2
k2 = 3
∴ k1 = 4
Hence system is consistent, so v is linear combination of v1 and v2 .
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3.4 Example. Check whether the vectors v1 = (0, −2, 2) and v2 = (1, 3, −1) are linearly dependent or
independent.
Solution: Here we want to check that v1 and v2 are linearly dependent or independent, for that

k1 v1 + k2 v2 = 0
k1 (0, −2, 2) + k2 (1, 3, −1) = (0, 0, 0)
(0k1 + k2 , −k1 + 3k2 , 2k1 − k2 ) = (0, 0, 0)

Equating corresponding components,

k2 = 0
−2k1 + 3k2 = 0
2k1 − k2 = 0

Now solve this linear equation by Gauss elimination method. For that we write the augmented matrix of
the system.
 
0 1 0
[A|B] =  −2 3 0  R12
2 −1 0
−2
 
3 0
1
= 0 1 0  (− )R1
2
2 −1 0
1 − 32 0
 

= 0 1 0  R13 (−2)
2 −1 0
1 − 32 0
 

= 0 1 0  R23 (−2)
0 2 0
1 − 33 0
 

= 0 1 0 
0 0 0
From the above form we write equation as,
3
k1 − k2 = 0
2
k2 = 0
∴ k1 = 0

Hence given vectors are linearly independent.

3.5 Example. Check whether the set of vectors {1, ex , e2x } are linearly dependent or independent.
Solution: Here we want to check that the set of vectors {1, ex , e2x } are linearly dependent or
independent, for that we check that the Wronskian of the set of function. let f1 = 1, f2 = ex and f3 = e2x .

f1 = 1, f2 = ex , f3 = e2x
f1 0 = 0, f2 0 = ex , f3 0 = 2e2x
f1 00 = 0, f2 00 = ex , f3 00 = 2e2x

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Now the Wronskian of the given function is,

1 ex e2x
W = 0 ex 2e2x
0 ex 4e2x
= 1(4e3x − 2e3x ) − ex (0) + e2x (0)
= 2e3x

Since, W = 2e3x is the function is not zero for all values of x in the interval (−∞, ∞), so the given
functions are linearly independent.

3.3.1 Task 3: Linear combination, Linearly Dependent and Independent

(i) Show that v = (9, 2, 7) is a linear combination of the vectors v1 = (1, 2, −1) and v2 = (6, 4, 2).

(ii) Express a vectors v = (7, 4, −3) is a linear combination of the vectors v1 = (1, −2, −5) and
v2 = (2, 5, 6).

(iii) Express a vectors p(x) = 9x2 + 8x + 7 is a linear combination of the vectors p1 = 4x2 + x + 2 ,
p2 = 3x2 − x + 1 and 5x2 + x + 2.
     
6 −8 1 −1 0 2
(iv) Show that v = is a linear combination of the vectors v1 = , v2 = and
−1 −8 2 3 1 4
 
4 0
v3 = .
−2 −2

(v) Which of the following vectors are linearly dependent or independent.

(i) v1 = (−2, 0, 1), v2 = (3, 2, 5), v3 = (6, −1, 1), v4 = (7, 0, −2)
(ii) v1 = (0, 0, 2, 2), v2 = (3, 3, 0, 0), v3 = (1, 1, 0, −1)
       
1 2 0 −1 0 2 0 0
(iii) v1 = , v2 = , v3 = , v4 = .
1 −2 −1 0 3 1 −1 2
       
1 0 0 3 1 1 2 6
(iv) v1 = , v2 = , v3 = , v4 = .
0 2 1 2 1 2 4 6
(v) p1 = x2 + x + 2, p2 = 3x2 + 2x + 2, p3 = 2x2 + x
(vi) f1 (x) = x, f2 (x) = sin(x)
(vii) f1 = x2 ex , f2 = xex , f3 = ex

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3.4 Linear Span

Let V be a given vector space. If S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vr } be a set of vectors of V and W be the

subspace of V consisting of all linear combination of vectors in S is called the space span by vectors
v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vr and we say that the vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , vr span W . It is denoted by

W = span(S)
= span{v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vr }
= {k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3 + · · · + kr vr | k1 , k2 , k3 , · · · , kr ∈ R}

Algorithm to Check Linear Span

To check whether a vectors v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vn is a linear Span the given vector space V by the following
steps.
(I) First write the arbitrary vector u ∈ V as linear combination of v1 , v2 , · · · , vn that is u = k1 v1 + k2 v2 +
k3 v3 + · · · + kn vn .

(II) From the step-I we write the system of linear equations in terms of scalar k1 , k2 , k3 , · · · , kn by com-
paring the corresponding components.

(III) Solve this system of linear equations by Gauss elimination or Gauss Jordan elimination method.

(IV) If the system of linear equations is consistent, then the vectors v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vn span the given vector
space V. If the system of linear equations is an inconsistent, then the vectors v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vn do
not span the given vector space V.

Remark: Let A be the matrix of coefficient of linear equations and if |A| =

6 0 then system of linear
equation are consistent.

3.6 Example. Determine whether the vectors v1 = (2, 2, 2), v2 = (0, 0, 3), v3 = (0, 1, 1) span vector space
R3 .

Solution: To determine whether the vectors v1 = (2, 2, 2), v2 = (0, 0, 3), v3 = (0, 1, 1) span vector space
R3 or not, for that we check arbitrary vector u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) of R3 can be expressed as a linear combination
of v1 , v2 , v3 .

u = k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3
(u1 , u2 , u3 ) = k1 (2, 2, 2) + k2 (0, 0, 3) + k3 (0, 1, 1)
(u1 , u2 , u3 ) = (2k1 , 2k1 + k3 , 2k1 + 3k2 + k3 )

∴ 2k1 + 0k2 + 0k3 = u1

2k1 + 0k2 + k3 = u2
2k1 + 3k2 + k3 = u3

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Now we check the determinant of coefficient matrix of above linear equation

2 0 0
2 0 1 = 2(0 − 3)
2 3 1
= −6 6= 0
Hence given vectors v1 , v2 and v3 span R3

3.4.1 Task 4: Linear Span

(i) Determine whether the vectors v1 = (2, −1, 3), v2 = (4, 1, 2), v3 = (8, −1, 8) span vector space R3 .

(ii) Determine whether the vectors p1 = 2x2 − x + 2, p2 = 2x2 − 2x + 2, p3 = 4x2 − x + 5 span vector
space P2 .
       
1 2 0 −1 0 2 0 0
(iii) Show that vectors v1 = , v2 = , v3 = and v4 = span vector
1 −2 −1 0 3 1 −1 2
space M22 .

(iv) Check whether the vectors v1 = (2, 2, 0), v2 = (1, 0, 0), v3 = (3, 3, 3) span vector space R3 or not.

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3.5 Basis and Dimension of Vector Space

Basis

If V is any vector space and B = {v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vn } is a set of vectors in vector space V then B is
called a basis for V if B satisfies the following conditions.

(i) B is linearly independent set of V .

(ii) B spans V.

Dimension

Let V be vector space and B be basis of V . Then dimension of vector space of V is the number of
vectors in basis B. It is denoted by dim(V ).

Standard Basis of Some Vector Space

Vector space Basis Basis vectors

1 R2 {e1 , e2 } e1 = (1, 0), e2 = (0, 1)
2 R3 {e1 , e2 , e3 } e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0) e3 = (0, 0, 1)
3 Rn {e1 , e2 , · · · , en } e1 = (1, 0, 0, · · · , 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0, · · · , 0), en = (0, 0, 0, · · · , 1)
       
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
4 M22 {e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 } e1 = , e2 = , e3 = , e4 =
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
2 4 n
2 Pn {e1 , e2 , · · · , en } e1 = 1, e2 = x e3 = x , e4 = x , · · · , en = x

Some Facts About Basis

Let V be finite dimensional vector space and B = {v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vn } be any basis

(i) If a set has more than n vectors, then the set is linearly dependent.

(ii) If a set has fewer than n vectors, then it does not span vector space V .

(iii) If a set has more than n or fewer than n vectors, then the set cannot be a basis of V.

(iv) Every vector of V can be uniquely expressed as a linear combination of basis vectors.
i.e if u ∈ V then u can be written as u = k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3 + · · · + kn vn .

Reduction to Basis

Let V be vector space with dim(V ) = m and let S = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } be a set of n vectors in V ,
where m < n. If V = span(S) then S can be reduced to basis for vector space V by following Steps.

(I) First write the linear combination of vectors of S.

i.e. k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3 + · · · + kn vn = 0

(II) From the step-I, Write system of linear equations.

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(III) From system of linear equations write the augmented matrix form [A | B].

(IV) Apply elementary row operation on this augmented matrix and obtain row-echelon matrix.

(V) From row-echelon matrix, the columns containing the leading 1’s whose corresponding column vectors
in augmented matrix are basis vectors for V .

Extension to Basis

Let V be vector space with dim(V ) = m and let S = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } be the linearly independent set
with n vectors, where m > n. Then S can be extended to basis for vector space V by the following Steps.

(I) First construct set B with some standard basis vectors for remaining vectors.
i.e. B = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn , e1 , e2 , e3 , · · · , em }

(II) Write the linear combination of vectors of B with zero vectors.

i.e. k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3 + · · · + kn vn + kn+1 e1 + kn+2 e2 + kn+3 e3 + · · · + km em = 0

(III) From the step-II, Write system of linear equations.

(IV) From system of linear equations write the augmented matrix form [A | B].

(V) Apply elementary row operation on this augmented matrix and obtain row-echelon matrix.

(VI) From row-echelon matrix, the columns containing the leading 1’s whose corresponding column vec-
tors in augmented matrix are basis vectors for V .

3.7 Example. Determine whether the given vectors v1 = (1, −1, 1), v2 = (0, 1, 2), v3 = (3, 0, 1) form
basis vectors of R3 .

Solution: Here given vectors are B = {v1 = (1, −1, 1), v2 = (0, 1, 2), v3 = (3, 0, 1)} and we want to check
that given vectors are basis vector of R3 or not, for that we check that set B is linearly independent and
B spans R3 .
Now for linearly independent,

k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3 = 0
k1 (1, −1, 1) + k2 (0, 1, 2) + k3 (3, 0, −1) = (0, 0, 0)
(k1 + 3k3 , −k1 + k2 , k1 + 2k2 − k3 ) = (0, 0, 0)
∴ k1 + 3k3 = 0
−k1 + k2 = 0
k1 + 2k2 − k3 = 0

By Gauss’s elimination method we get, k1 = 0, k2 = 0 and k3 = 0 then v1 , v2 , v3 are linearly independent.

Now for span, we check determinant of coefficient matrix of above linear equations.

1 0 3
−1 1 0 = 1(−1 − 0) − 0 + 3(−2 − 1)
1 2 −1
= −1 − 9
= −10 6= 0.

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Here system is consistent so given vectors spans the vector space R3 . Hence set B{v1 , v2 , v3 } is basis of
given vector space.

3.8 Example. Reduce the set B = {(0, 3, 6), (−2, 6, 6), (3, −3, 3), (1, −2, 5)} to obtain a basis for vector
space R3 , where span(B) = R3

Solution: Here given vectors are v1 = (0, 3, 6), v2 = (−2, 6, 6), v3 = (3, −3, 3), v4 = (1, −2, 5) and
we want to reduce the given vectors to basis vectors, for that

k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3 + k4 v4 = 0
k1 (0, 3, 6) + k2 (−2, 6, 6) + k3 (3, −3, 3) + k4 (1, −2, 5) = (0, 0, 0)
(0k1 − 2k2 + 3k3 + k4 , 3k1 + 6k2 − 3k3 − 2k4 , 6k1 + 6k2 + 3k3 + 5k4 ) = (0, 0, 0)

∴ 0k1 − 2k2 + 3k3 + k4 = 0

3k1 + 6k2 − 3k3 − 2k4 = 0
6k1 + 6k2 + 3k3 + 5k4 = 0

From this linear equation we write augmented matrix as follow,

0 −2
 
3 1 0
[A : B] =  3 6 −3 −2 0 
6 6 3 5 0
6 −3 −2 0
 
3
v  0 −2 3 1 0  R12
6 6 3 5 0
6 −3 −2 0
 
3
v  0 −2 3 1 0  R13 (−2)
0 −6 9 9 0
2 −1 − 23 0
 
1  
1
v  0 −2 3 1 0  R1 , R23 (3)
3
0 0 0 6 0
1 2 −1 − 32 0
 
 
3 1 −1
v  0 1 −2 −2 0  R2
2
0 0 0 6 0
 4 
1 0 2 3
0
v  0 1 − 23 − 12 0  R21 (−2)
0 0 0 6 0
 4 
1 0 2 3
0
1
v  0 1 − 23 − 12 0  ( )R3
6
0 0 0 1 0

which is required reduced row echelon form that matrix a column contains leading 1’s, whose corresponding
columns in augmented matrix are basis vectors.
∴ v1 = (0, 3, 6), v2 = (−2, 6, 6), v4 = (1, −2, 5) are basis vectors.

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3.9 Example. Find a standard basis vector that can be added to the set B = {(1, 0, 3), (2, 1, 4)} to
produce a basis in R3 .

Solution: Here given vectors set are B = {v1 = (1, 0, 3), v2 = (2, 1, 4)} and we want to extend the
set as vectors of basis, for that first we added standard basis vectors of R3 .

k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 e1 + k4 e2 + k5 e3 = 0
k1 (1, 0, 3) + k2 (2, 1, 4) + k3 (1, 0, 0) + k4 (0, 1, 0) + k5 (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0)
(k1 + 2k2 + k3 , k2 + k4 , 3k1 + 4k2 + k5 ) = (0, 0, 0)

∴ k1 + 2k2 + k3 = 0
k2 + k4 = 0
3k1 + 4k2 + k5 = 0

From this linear equation we write augmented matrix as follow,

 
1 2 1 0 0 0
[A : B] =  0 1 0 1 0 0  R13 (−3)
3 4 0 0 1 0
 
1 2 1 0 0 0
v 0 1 0 1 0 0  R23 (2)
0 −2 −3 0 1 0
 
1 2 1 0 0 0
1
v 0 1 0 1 0 0  (− )R3
3
0 0 −3 2 1 0
 
1 2 1 0 0 0
v 0 1 0 1 0 0 
0 0 1 − 23 − 13 0

which is required reduced row echelon form that matrix a column contains leading 1’s, whose corresponding
columns in augmented matrix are basis vectors.
∴ v1 = (1, 0, 3), v2 = (2, 1, 4), e1 = (1, 0, 0) are basis vectors.

3.5.1 Task 5: Basis, Reduction and Extension to Basis for Vector Space

(i) Determine whether the vectors v1 = (1, −1, 1), v2 = (0, 1, 2), v3 = (3, 0, −1) form the basis vectors
of R3 .
       
1 2 0 −1 0 2 0 0
(ii) Determine whether the set of vectors B = , , , form
1 −2 −1 0 3 1 −1 2
the basis vectors of M22

(iii) Determine whether the set of vectors B = {−1 + 4x + 2x2 , 4 + 6x + x2 , 5 + 2x − x2 } form the basis
vectors of P2

(iv) Reduce the set B = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 4, −3), (0, 1, −1), (0, 2, 0)} to obtain a basis for R3 .

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1 0 0 1 1 1 −1 1
(v) Reduce the set B = , , , to obtain a basis for M22 .
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 −1

(vi) Find a standard basis vectors that can be added to B = {(1, −2, −2), (−1, 2, 3)} to produce a basis
for R3 .

(vii) Find a standard basis vectors that can be added to B = {(0, 1, −1), (0, 0, 2)} to produce a basis for
R3 .

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3.6 Row Space, Column Space and Null Space

 
a11 a12 ... a1n
 a21 a22 ... a2n 
Consider an m × n matrix as, A =  then the row vectors of matrix A are
 
.. .. ... .. 
 . . . 
am1 am2 ... amn m×n

r1 = [a11 a12 · · · a1n ]

r2 = [a21 a22 · · · a2n ]
.. ..
. .
   
a11 a12
 a21   a22 
rm = [am1 am2 · · · amn ] and column vectors of matrix A are, c1 =   , c2 =  , ··· ,
   
.. ..
 .   . 
am1 am2
 
a1n
 a2n 
cn =  .
 
 ..


amn

Row Space

If A is m × n matrix, then the subspace of Rn spanned by the row vectors of matrix A is called the
row space of A.

Column Space

If A is m × n matrix, then the subspace of Rm spanned by the column vectors of matrix A is called
the column space of A.

Null Space

If A is m × n matrix, then the solution space of homogeneous system of equation AX = 0, which is

subspace of Rn , is called the null space of matrix A.

Algorithm to find Basis of Row Space and Column Space

To find the basis of row space and column space, follow the following steps.
(I) Now convert a given matrix A into row-echelon forms by using elementary row operations.

(II) In row-echelon form of given matrix, a row contains leading 1’s whose corresponding rows in given ma-
trix are basis vectors of Row space and similarly for columns contain leading 1’s whose corresponding
columns in given matrix are basis vectors of Column space.

Algorithm to Find Basis of Null Space

To find the basis of null space , for the solution space AX = 0 then follow the following steps.
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(I) First write the augmented matrix form the given solution space AX = 0.

(II) Now convert augmented matrix into row-echelon form by using elementary row operations.

(III) From this row-echelon re-write equations and solve this equations.

(IV) A linearly independent solution of step-III equations are basis vectors of null space or solution space.

3.10 Example. Find a basis for the row space and column space of the matrix
 
1 −1 1 0 2
 2 −2 0 2 2 
 
A=
 −1 1 2 −3 1 

−2 2 1 −3 −1 4×5

Solution: Here given matrix is

 
1 −1 1 0 2
2 −2 0 2 2
 
 
−1 1 2 −3 1
 
 
−2 2 1 −3 −1
Now reducing the matrix A to row echelon form,
 
1 −1 1 0 2
 0 0 −2 2 −2 
 
∼   R12 (−2), R13 (1), R14 (2)
 0 0 3 −3 3 
0 0 3 −3 3
 
1 −1 1 0 2
      
 0 0 1 −1 1  −1 −1 1

∼  R2 , R3 , R4
 0 0 −1 1 −1  2 3 3

0 0 1 −1 1
 
1 −1 0 2 1
 0 0 1 −1 1 
 
∼   R21 (−1), R23 (1), R24 (−1)
 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0

which is required reduced row-echelon form. In this form 1st and 2nd rows contains leading 1’s and 1st and
3rd columns contains leading 1’s,so row space 
basisvectors are r1 = [1 − 1 1 0 2], r2 = [2 − 2 0 2 2] and
1 1
 2   0 
   
column space basis vectors c1 =  , c2 =  
 −1   2 
−2 1
3.11 Example. Find a basis for the solution space of the system

x1 − x2 + x3 + 2x5 = 0
2x1 − 2x2 + 2x4 + 2x5 = 0
−x1 + x2 + 2x3 − 3x4 + x5 = 0
−2x1 + 2x2 + x3 − 3x4 − x5 = 0

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Solution: Here given solution space equation are

x1 − x2 + x3 + 2x5 = 0
2x1 − 2x2 + 2x4 + 2x5 = 0
−x1 + x2 + 2x3 − 3x4 + x5 = 0
−2x1 + 2x2 + x3 − 3x4 − x5 = 0

From the given equation we write augmented matrix as follow,

 
1 −1 1 0 2 0
 2 −2 0 2 2 0
 
[A|B] = 

 −1 1 2 −3 1 0


−2 2 1 −3 −1 0
Now reducing the matrix [A|B] into row echelon form,
 
1 −1 1 0 2 0
 0 0 −2 2 −2 0
 
 R12 (−2), R13 (1), R14 (2)

∼ 
 0 0 3 −3 3 0 
0 0 3 −3 3 0
 
1 −1 1 0 2 0
      
 0 0 1 −1 1 0  −1 −1 1

∼  R2 , R3 , R4
 0 0 −1 1 −1 0  2 3 3

0 0 1 −1 1 0
 
1 −1 0 2 1 0
 0 0 1 −1 1 0 
 
∼   R21 (−1), R23 (1), R24 (−1)
 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0

From this row-echelon form we write equation as,

x1 − x2 + 2x4 + x5 = 0
x3 − x4 + x5 = 0

solving this two equations by taking x2 = r, x4 = s and x5 = t, where s, t ∈ R

∴ x3 = s − t and x1 = r − 2s − t

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   
x1 r − 2s − t

 x2  
  r 

∴X= x3 = s−t
   

   
 x4   s 
x5 t
     
1 −2 1
 1   0   0 
     
= r 0  + s 1  + t −1
     

     
 0   1   0 
0 0 1
= rv1 + sv2 + tv3

Hence we get v1 , v2 , v3 are basis vectors of solution space.

3.6.1 Task 6: Basis of Row Space, Column Space and Null (Solution) Space

(i) Find the basis for row space and column space of the following matrices
     
1 4 5 6 9 2 2 −1 0 1 1 4 5 4
 3 −2 1 4 −1   −1 −1 2 −3 1   2 9 8 2
     
(a)   (b)   (c) 

 −1 0 −1 −2 −1   1 1 −2 0 −1   2 9 9 7


2 3 5 7 8 0 0 1 1 1 −1 −4 −5 −4

(ii) Determine a basis for the following solution spaces of the homogeneous system.

(a) (b)
3x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0 2x1 − 4x2 + x3 + 2x4 − 2x5 − 3x6 = 0
5x1 − x2 + x3 − x4 = 0 −x1 + 2x2 + 0x3 + 0x4 + x5 − x6 = 0
10x1 − 4x2 − 2x3 + 4x4 − 2x5 + 4x6 = 0

(iii) Find a basis of B = {(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )R4 | x1 + x2 = 0, x2 + x3 = 0, x3 + x4 = 0}.

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3.7 Rank and Nullity

Rank

The dimension of the row or column space of matrix A is called the rank of matrix A and is denoted
by ρ(A).

Nullity

The dimension of the null space or solution space of a matrix A is called the nullity of matrix A and
is denoted by nullity(A)

Dimension Theorem

If A is any m × n matrix then rank(A) + nullity(A) = number of column ofA (n)

 
1 −1 1 0 2
2 −2 0 2 2
 
3.12 Example. Find the rank and nullity of the matrix A = 
 
−1 1 2 −3 1

 
−2 2 1 −3 −1 4×5

Solution: Here given matrix is

 
1 −1 1 0 2
2 −2 0 2 2
 
 
−1 1 2 −3 1
 
 
−2 2 1 −3 −1
Now reducing the matrix A into row echelon form,
 
1 −1 1 0 2
 0 0 −2 2 −2 
 
∼   R12 (−2), R13 (1), R14 (2)
 0 0 3 −3 3 
0 0 3 −3 3
 
1 −1 1 0 2
      
 0 0 1 −1 1  −1 −1 1

∼  R2 , R3 , R4
 0 0 −1 1 −1  2 3 3

0 0 1 −1 1
 
1 −1 0 2 1
 0 0 1 −1 1 
 
∼   R21 (−1), R23 (1), R24 (−1)
 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0

which is required reduced row-echelon form. In this form 1st and 2nd rows contains leading 1’s, so row
space basis vectors are r1 = [1 − 1 1 0 2], r2 = [2 − 2 0 2 2]

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∴ rank(A) = 2. also by rank nullity theorem ,

nullity(A) = number of column ofA − rank(A)

=5−2
nullity(A) = 3
 
1 −1 1 0 2
2 −2 0 2 2
 
3.13 Example. Verify the dimension theorem for the matrix. A = 
 
−1 1 2 −3 1

 
−2 2 1 −3 −1 4×5

Solution: Here we want to verify the rank and nullity theorem for that we write augmented matrix
as follow,
 
1 −1 1 0 2 0
 2 −2 0 2 2 0 
 
[A|B] = 
 −1 1 2 −3 1 0 

−2 2 1 −3 −1 0
Now reducing the matrix [A|B] into row echelon form,
 
1 −1 1 0 2 0
 0 0 −2 2 −2 0
 
 R12 (−2), R13 (1), R14 (2)

∼ 
 0 0 3 −3 3 0 
0 0 3 −3 3 0
 
1 −1 1 0 2 0
      
 0 0 1 −1 1 0  −1 −1 1

∼  R2 , R3 , R4
 0 0 −1 1 −1 0  2 3 3

0 0 1 −1 1 0
 
1 −1 0 2 1 0
 0 0 1 −1 1 0 
 
∼   R21 (−1), R23 (1), R24 (−1)
 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0

which is required reduced row-echelon form. In this form 1st and 2nd rows contains leading 1’s, so row
space basis vectors are r1 = [1 − 1 1 0 2], r2 = [2 − 2 0 2 2]

∴ rank(A) = 2.

Also from this row-echelon form we write equation as,

x1 − x2 + 2x4 + x5 = 0
x3 − x4 + x5 = 0

solving this two equations by taking x2 = r, x4 = s and x5 = t, where s, t ∈ R

∴ x3 = s − t and x1 = r − 2s − t

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   
x1 r − 2s − t

 x2  
  r 

∴X= x3 = s−t
   

   
 x4   s 
x5 t
     
1 −2 1
 1   0   0 
     
= r 0  + s 1  + t −1
     

     
 0   1   0 
0 0 1
= rv1 + sv2 + tv3

Here we get v1 , v2 , v3 are three basis vectors of solution space.

∴ nullity(A) = 3

Now for given matrix the number of column is n = 5,

∴ rank(A) + nullity(A) = 2 + 3
=5
= Number of column of A

Thus dimension theorem is verify

3.7.1 Task 7: Rank and Nullity

(i) Find the rank and nullity of the following matrices.

 
1 −1
   
3 1 4 5 2 1 3 4 −2 −1
(a)  5 −4 −4  (b)  2 1 3 0  
3 7 6 2 1 

(c) 

7 −6 2 −1 3 2 2 2 4 2 4 2 


1 1 −2 6 3

(ii) Verify the dimension theorem for the following matrix.

     
1 2 3 1 1 3 3 1 2 4 −2 −1
(a)  4 5 6  (b)  0 2 2 4  
3 5 2 4 1

(c) 
 
7 8 9 −1 0 2 1 2 3 2 4 −2

 
1 3 −2 −4 −3

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3.8 Change of Basis

Coordinate Vector (Matrix) With Respect To Basis

Let V be vector space and B = {v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vn } be a basis of V . If u is any vector in vector

space V then u can be expressed as u = k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3 + · · · + kn vn , where scalar k1 , k2 , k3 , · · · , kn are
called coordinate of vector u with respect to basis B and the vector (k1 , k2 , k3 , · · · , kn ) ∈ Rn is said to be
coordinate vector of u with respect to basis B. This coordinate vector are denoted by
(u)B = (k1 , k2 , k3 , · · · , kn )
and coordinate matrix are denoted by  
k1
 k2 
[u]B = 
 
.. 
 . 
kn

Change of Basis

Any vector space has multiple basis so the question naturally arises, what is the relationship between
basis of a vector space? In the first place, there must be the same number of elements in any basis of a
vector space. Then, given two bases of a vector space, there is a way to translate vectors in terms of one
basis into terms of the other basis; this is known as change of basis. To change the basis for vector space
V , it is necessary to know the relationship between the coordinate matrix of vector u with respect to both
the bases.

Relationship Between the Coordinate Matrices With Respect to Bases

Let V be the vector space with B1 = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } and B2 = {u1 , u2 , · · · , un } be two bases of
vector space V . If u is any vector in vector space V then u can be expressed with respect to B2 as,
u = k1 u1 + k2 u2 + k3 u3 + · · · + kn un
and in terms of coordinate matrix as
 
k1
 k2 
[u]B2 =   ..............(i)
 
..
 . 
kn
Now we write coordinate matrix of vector u with respect to basis B1 as,
[u]B1 = [k1 u1 + k2 u2 + k3 u3 + · · · + kn un ]B1
= [k1 u1 ]B1 + [k2 u2 ]B1 + · · · + [kn un ]B1
= k1 [u1 ]B1 + k2 [u2 ]B1 + · · · + kn [un ]B1 ...............(ii)
Now we define coordinate matrix of basis vector ui of B2 with respect to basis B1 as,
 
a1i
 a2i 
[ui ]B1 =  . 
 
.
 . 
ani
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From the equation (ii), we write

     
a11 a12 a1n
 a21   a22   a2n 
[u]B1 = k1   + k2   + · · · + kn 
     
.. .. .. 
 .   .   . 
an1 an2 ann
 
k1 a11 + k2 a12 + · · · + kn a1n
 k1 a21 + k2 a22 + · · · + kn a2n 
=
 
.. .. .. 
 . . . 
k1 an1 + k2 an2 + · · · + kn ann
  
a11 a12 · · · a1n k1
 a21 a22 · · · a2n   k2 
= .
  
. .. . . ..   .. 
 . . . .  . 
an1 an2 · · · ann kn
[u]B1 = P [u]B2 (by equation (i))
The matrix P is called the transition matrix from basis B2 to basis B1 and the columns of transition
matrix of P are the coordinate matrices of the basis vectors B2 with respect to basis B1 .
 
P = [u1 ]B1 [u2 ]B1 · · · [un ]B1

Remark

1. If P is transition matrix from basis B2 to basis B1 then P −1 is transition matrix from B1 to

B2
mathematically, for every vector v ∈ V we have [v]B1 = P [v]B2 and [v]B2 = P −1 [v]B1 .

3.14 Example. Find the coordinate matrix of v = (5, −1, 9) relative to basis B = {v1 , v2 , v3 } of vector
space R3 , where v1 = (1, 2, 1), v2 = (2, 9, 0), and v3 = (3, 3, 4).
Solution: Here given basis is B = {v1 , v2 , v3 } of vector space R3 , where v1 = (1, 2, 1), v2 = (2, 9, 0),
and v3 = (3, 3, 4) and we want to find the coordinate matrix of v = (5, −1, 9) with respect to given basis,
for that

v = k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3
(5, −1, 9) = k1 (1, 2, 1) + k2 (2, 9, 0) + k3 (3, 3, 4)
= (k1 + 2k2 + 3k3 , 2k1 + 9k2 + 3k3 , k1 + 4k3 )
comparing the corresponding components, we get
k1 + 2k2 + 3k3 = 5
2k1 + 9k2 + 3k3 = −1
k1 + 4k3 = 9
Solving these equations we get k1 = 1, k2 = −1, and k3 = 2
∴ the coordinate matrix of v with respect to given basis vectors are
   
k1 1
[v]B =  k2  =  −1 
k3 2
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
1
Hence required coordinate matrix is  −1 
2
3.15 Example. Consider the bases B = {u1 , u2 } and B 0 = {v1 , v2 } of R2 , where u1 = (1, −1), u2 =
(0, 6), v1 = (2, 1), and v2 = (−1, 4) then find the transition matrix from B 0 to B.
Solution: Here given bases are B = {u1 , u2 } and B 0 = {v1 , v2 }, where u1 = (1, −1), u2 = (0, 6), v1 =
(2, 1), and v2 = (−1, 4). We want to find the transition matrix from B 0 to B, for that
Let P be the transition matrix from B 0 to B then
 
P = [v1 ]B 0 [v2 ]B 0 ..........(i)

for that we find the coordinate matrices [v1 ]B 0 & [v2 ]B 0

let
 
k1
[v1 ]B 0 =
k2
∴ v1 = k1 u1 + k2 u2
(2, 1) = k1 (1, −1) + k2 (0, 6)
= (k1 , −k1 + 6k2 )

comparing the corresponding components, we get

k1 = 2
−k1 + 6k2 = 1
1
solving this equation we get k1 = 2 and k2 = 2
   
k1 2
∴ [v1 ]B 0 = = 1
k2 2
similarly we find
 
m1
[v2 ]B 0 =
m2
∴ v2 = m1 u1 + m2 u2
(−1, 4) = m1 (1, −1) + m2 (0, 6)
= (m1 , −m1 + 6m2 )

comparing the corresponding components, we get

m1 = −1
−m1 + 6m2 = 4
1
solving this equation we get m1 = −1 and m2 = 2
   
m1 −1
∴ [v2 ]B 0 = = 1
m2 2
 
  2 −1
hence put all value in equation we get transition matrix is P = [v1 ]B 0 [v2 ]B 0 = 1 1
2 2

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3.9 Task 8: Change of Basis

(i) Find the coordinate matrix of the following vectors with respect to given basses

(a) v = (1, 2, 3) and basis B = {(2, −1, 2), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, −1)}
(b) v = 1 + x + x2 + x3 and basis B = {1, x − x2 , 1 + x2 , x + x3 }
         
2 0 −1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
(c) v = and basis B = , , ,
−1 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

(ii) Consider the bases B = {u1 , u2 } and B 0 = {v1 , v2 } of R2 , where u1 = (1, −1), u2 = (0, 6), v1 = (2, 1),
and v2 = (−1, 4) then find the transition matrix from B to B 0 .

(iii) Consider the bases B = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} and B 0 = {(1, −1, 1), (0, 1, 2), (3, 0, −1)} of R3
−2
 

then find the transition matrix from B 0 to B and compute [u]B , given that [u]B 0 =  3  .
4

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3.10 Answers of Tasks

Answer: Task 1

(i) (a) Not a vector space (ii) Yes

(b) Not a vector space
(iii) Yes
(c) Not a vector space
(d) Not a vector space (iv) Yes

Answer: Task 2

(i) (a) Not Subspace (c) Not Subspace (ii) Not Subspace (iv) Yes Subspace
(b) Yes Subspace (d) Yes Subspace (iii) Yes Subspace

Answer: Task 3

(v) (iv) Linear dependent

(i) Linear dependent (v) Linear dependent

(ii) Linear independent (vi) Linear independent
(iii) Linear independent (vii) Linear independent

Answer: Task 4

(i) Not span R3 (ii) Not span P2 (iii) Span M22 (iv) Span R3

Answer: Task 5

   
(i) Yes, Basis of R3 1 0 0 1
(v) ,
0 1 1 0
(ii) Yes, Basis of M22
(vi) {(1, −2, −2), (−1, 2, 3), (1, 0, 0)}
(iii) No, Basis of P2
or {(1, −2, −2), (−1, 2, 3), (0, 1, 0)}
(iv) {(1, 0, 0), (0, 4, −3), (0, 1, −1)}
or {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, −1), (0, 2, 0)} (vii) {(0, 1, −1), (0, 0, 2), (0, 1, 0)}

Answer: Task 6

(i) (a) Row space= 1st and 2nd rows, Column Space = 1st and 2nd columns
(b) Row space= 1st , 2nd and 3rd rows, Column Space = 1st , 3rd and 4th columns
(c) Row space= 1st , 2nd and 3rd rows, Column Space = 1st , 2nd and 4th columns
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3 UNIT-III VECTOR SPACE

         
− 14 0 −1 0 1

− 14
 
−1
  − 12   −1 
 2 
 1 
(ii) (a) v1 =   , v2 = 
       
1 0 −2  0  5
      
(b) v1 =   , v2 =   , v3 = 
       
1  0  0

0 1    
     
 0   1   0 
0 0 1
 
1
−1
 
(iii) v1 = 
 
1

 
−1

Answer: Task 7

(i) (a) rank=2, nullity=1 (b) rank=2, nullity=2 (c) rank=2, nullity=3

Answer: Task 8

   
−3

0 −1
(i) (a)  8  
0
 
1

(b)  (c) 
   
−1 1 −1
 
   
1 3
1 2
     
3 3
1 0 3 10
(ii)
− 13 4
3
(iii) P =  −1 1 0 , [u]B =  5 
1 2 −1 0

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4 UNIT-IV LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

Chapter-4
Linear Transformation

4 Unit-IV Linear Transformation

4.1 Linear Transformation

If T : V −→ W is a function from vector space V to another vector space W , then T is called a linear
transformation from V to W if for all scalar k ∈ R or C, T satisfy the following properties:

1. T (u + v) = T (u) + T (v); u, v ∈ V

2. T (ku) = kT (u); u ∈ V, k ∈ R or C

Standard Linear Transformation

Zero Transformation

Let V and W be any two vector spaces. The mapping T : V −→ W such that T (u) = 0 for every vectors
u ∈ V is linear transformation, is called a zero transformation.

Identity Transformation

Let V be any two vector space. The mapping T : V −→ V such that T (u) = u for every vectors
u ∈ V is linear transformation, is called an identity transformation.

Matrix Transformation

Let T : Rn −→ Rm be a linear transformation. Then there exists an m × n matrix A such that

T (u) = Au

This transformation is called the matrix transformation and matrix A is called the standard matrix for T .
It is denoted by [T ] or [T ]A

For example, T : R3 −→ R3 define by T (x, y, z) = (3x − 2z, x − y + 4z, 3y − 6z)

Now, matrix transformation of this linear transformation is,

0 −2
    
x 3 x
T y = 1 −1
   4   y 
z 0 3 −6 z

0 −2
 
3
∴ [T ] =  1 −1 4 
0 3 −6
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4 UNIT-IV LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

Types of Linear Operator

Reflection Operator

An operator on R2 or R3 that maps each vector into its symmetric image about some line or plane is
called a reflection operator.
For example, The linear operator T : R2 −→ R2 define by
y

(x, y)
T (x, y) = (x, −y)
x
    
x 1 0 x
T =
y 0 −1 y
(x, −y)

Reflection about x−axis

2 3
Some of the reflection operator on R and R are in following table

Standard Ma-
Operator Function Figure
trix
y

Reflection about the 

−1 0
 (−x, y) (x, y)
T (x, y) = (−x, y)
y − axis 0 1
x
y (x, y)

Reflection about the 

0 1

T (x, y) = (y, x)
y = x line 1 0 (y, x)
x

(x, y, z)
 
Reflection about the 1 0 0
T (x, y, z) = (x, y, −z)
xy−plane  0 1 0  x
0 0 −1
y (x, y, −z)
z

Reflection about the


1 0 0
 (x, −y, z)
T (x, y, z) = (x, −y, z)  0 −1 0 
xz−plane x
0 0 1
(x, y, z)
y

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4 UNIT-IV LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

Standard Ma-
Operator Function Figure
trix
z

−1 0 0
 
Reflection about the
T (x, y, z) = (−x, y, z)
yz−plane  0 1 0  x
0 0 1 (−x, y, z) (x, y, z)
y

Rotation Operators

An operator on R2 or R3 that rotates each vector anticlockwise through a fixed angle θ is called a
rotation operator. Let T : R2 −→ R2 define by T (x, y) = (x cos θ − y sin θ, x sin θ + y cos θ).
In matrix form     
x cos θ − sin θ x
T =
y sin θ cos θ y

Some of the rotation operator on R2 and R3 are in following table

Operator Function Standard Matrix

Rotation through an 
cos θ − sin θ

T (x, y) = (x cos θ − y sin θ, x sin θ + y cos θ)
angle θ on R2 sin θ cos θ
Anticlockwise rotation
about the positive x −
 
1 0 0
T (x, y, z) = (x, y cos θ − z sin θ, y sin θ + z cos θ)  0 cos θ − sin θ 
axis through an angle
θ on R3 0 sin θ cos θ
Anticlockwise rotation
about the positive y −
 
cos θ 0 sin θ
T (x, y, z) = (x cos θ + z sin θ, y, −x sin θ + z cos θ)
axis through an angle  0 1 0 
θ on R3 − sin θ 0 cos θ
Anticlockwise rotation
about the positive z − cos θ − sin θ 0
 
T (x, y, z) = (x cos θ − y sin θ, x sin θ + y cos θ, z)
axis through an angle  sin θ cos θ 0 
θ on R3 0 0 1

Projection Operators

An operator on R2 or R3 that maps each vector into its orthogonal projection on line or plane through
origin is called a projection operator. Let T : R2 −→ R2 define by T (x, y) = (x, 0).
In matrix form     
x 1 0 x
T =
y 0 0 y

Some of the projection operator on R2 and R3 are in following table

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4 UNIT-IV LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

Operator Function Standard Matrix

 
Orthogonal projection on the x−axis T (x, y) = (x, 0) 1 0
0 0
 
Orthogonal projection on the y−axis T (x, y) = (0, y) 0 0
0 1
 
1 0 0
Orthogonal projection on the xy−plane T (x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)  0 1 0 
0 0 0
 
0 0 0
Orthogonal projection on the yz−plane T (x, y, z) = (0, y, z)  0 1 0 
0 0 1
 
1 0 0
Orthogonal projection on the xz−plane T (x, y, z) = (x, 0, z)  0 0 0 
0 0 1

Dilation Operators

An operator on R2 or R3 that stretches each vector from the origin in all directions is called a dilation
operator. Let T : R2 −→ R2 define by T (x, y) = (kx, ky), k ≥ 1.
In matrix form     
x k 0 x
T =
y 0 k y

Some of the dilation operators on R2 and R3 are in following table

Operator Function Standard Matrix

 
Dilation with factor k ≥ 1 on R2 T (x, y) = (kx, ky) k 0
0 k
 
k 0 0
Dilation with factor k ≥ 1 on R3 T (x, y, z) = (kx, ky, kz)  0 k 0 
0 0 k

Contraction Operators

An operator on R2 or R3 that compresses each vector uniformly toward the origin in all directions is
called a contraction operator. Let T : R2 −→ R2 define by T (x, y) = (kx, ky), 0 ≤ k ≤ 1.
In matrix form     
x k 0 x
T =
y 0 k y
Some of the dilation operators on R2 and R3 are in following table
Operator Function Standard Matrix
Contraction with factor 0 ≤ k ≤ 1 on 
k 0

T (x, y) = (kx, ky)
R2 0 k
Contraction with factor 0 ≤ k ≤ 1 on
 
k 0 0
T (x, y, z) = (kx, ky, kz)
R3  0 k 0 
0 0 k

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Composition of Linear Transformation

Let T1 : U −→ V and T2 : V −→ W be two linear transformations. Then composition of T2 with T1

is linear transformation, denoted by T2 ◦ T1 and define

(T2 ◦ T1 )(u) = T2 (T1 (u))

In matrix notation
[T2 ◦ T1 ] = [T2 ][T1 ]

Linear Transformation on Basis

A linear transformation T : V −→ W is determine on any set of basis [Link] B = {u1 , u2 , u3 , · · · , un }

is any basis for vector space V then any vector v ∈ V is expressed as linear combination of basis vectors
u1 , u2 , u3 , · · · , un .

v = k1 u1 + k2 u2 + k3 u3 + · · · + kn un ; where k1 , k2 , · · · , kn are scalars.

Now the linear transformation T : V −→ W define on vector v ∈ V by

T (v) = T (k1 u1 + k2 u2 + k3 u3 + · · · + kn un )
= k1 T (u1 ) + k2 T (u2 ) + k3 T (u3 ) + · · · + kn T (un )

4.1 Example. Check whether the following is a linear transformation

T : R2 −→ R3 , where T (x, y) = (x + y, x − y)

Solution: Here given transformation T : R2 −→ R3 , where T (x, y) = (x + y, x − y). We want to

check that given transformation is a linear transformation or not, for that we check following properties.
Let u = (u1 , u2 ) & v = (v1 , v2 ) ∈ R2 and k ∈ R

T (u + v) = T [(u1 , u2 ) + (v1 , v2 )]
= T (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 )
= [(u1 + v1 ) + (u2 + v2 ), (u1 + v1 ) − (u2 + v2 )]
= (u1 + v1 + u2 + v2 , u1 + v1 − u2 − v2 )
= (u1 + u2 + v1 + v2 , u1 − u2 + v1 − v2 )
= (u1 + u2 , u1 − u2 ) + (v1 + v2 , v1 − v2 )
= T (u1 , u2 ) + T (v1 , v2 )
= T (u) + T (v)
Also,
T (ku) = T (k(u1 , u2 ))
= T (ku1 , ku2 )
= (ku1 + ku2 , ku1 − ku2 )
= k(u1 + u2 , u1 − u2 )
= kT (u)

Hence given transformation is a linear transformation on R2 .

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4.2 Example. Find the standard matrix for the linear operators on R2 with rotation of 90◦ followed by
reflection about the line y = x.

Solution: Here we want to find standard matrix of linear operator rotation 90◦ followed by reflection
about the line y = x, for that
Let T1 be a rotation operator of 90◦ on R2 , then T1 define as follow

T1 (x, y) = (x cos θ − y sin θ, x sin θ + y cos θ)

at θ = 90◦
= (x cos 90◦ − y sin 90◦ , x sin 90◦ + y cos 90◦ )
= (0x − y, x + 0y)

Standard matrix for T1

 
0 −1
[T1 ] =
1 0

Let T2 be a reflection operator about line y = x on R2 then T2 is define by

T2 (x, y) = (y, x)

Standard matrix for T2

 
0 1
[T2 ] =
1 0

Now the given linear operator T , rotation of 90◦ followed by reflection about the line y = x.

∴ T = T2 ◦ T1
So standard matrix for T is given by

[T ] = [T2 ][T1 ]
  
0 1 0 −1
=
1 0 1 0
 
1 0
=
0 −1
 
1 0
Hence the required standard matrix is .
0 −1

4.3 Example. Consider the basis B = {(1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 1)} and let T : R3 −→ R3 be the linear
transformation such that T (1, 1, 0) = (3, 0, 1), T (1, 0, 0) = (−1, 5, 1) T (1, 1, 1) = (2, −1, 4) then find the
formula for T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and use that formula to find T (2, 4, −1).

Solution: Here given basis B = {v1 , v2 , v3 }, where v1 = (1, 1, 0), v2 = (1, 0, 0), v3 = (1, 1, 1) and
transformation is T : R3 −→ R3 such that T (1, 1, 0) = (3, 0, 1), T (1, 0, 0) = (−1, 5, 1) T (1, 1, 1) =
(2, −1, 4). We want to find the formula for T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and T (2, 4, −1). For that,

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4 UNIT-IV LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

let v = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) as linear combination of basis vectors v1 , v2 , v3 as,

v = k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = k1 (1, 1, 0) + k2 (1, 0, 0) + k3 (1, 1, 1)
= (k1 + k2 + k3 , k1 + k3 , k3 )
∴ k1 + k2 + k3 = x1
k1 + k3 = x2
k3 = x3
Solving these equations
k1 = x2 − x3
k2 = x1 − x2
k3 = x3
Thus (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x2 − x3 )v1 + (x1 − x2 )v2 + x3 v3

Apply linear transformation on both side

T (x1 , x2 , x2 ) = (x2 − x3 )T (v1 ) + (x1 − x2 )T (v2 ) + x3 T (v3 )
= (x2 − x3 )(3, 0, 1) + (x1 − x2 )(−1, 5, 1) + x3 (2, −1, 4)
= (−x1 + 4x2 − x3 , 5x1 − 5x2 − x3 , x1 + 3x3 )
Using this formula, we get
T (2, 4, −1) = (−2 + 4(4) − 1(−1), 5(2) − 5(4) − (−1), 2 + 3(−1))
= (15, −9, −1)

4.2 Task 1 : Linear Transformation and Linear Operator

(i) Determine whether the following function is a linear transformation. Justify your answer.

(a) T : R2 −→ R3 , define by T (x, y) = (x − y, x + 2y, 6y)

(b) T : R2 −→ R2 , define by T (x, y) = (x + y, xy)
(c) T : R2 −→ R3 , define by T (x, y) = (3x, x + y, 6)
(d) T : M22 −→ R, define by T (A) = tr(A)
(e) T : P −→ P, define by T (p(x)) = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3

(ii) Find the standard matrix of a rotation of 45◦ about the y− axis, followed by a dilation with the
√
factor k = 2 2 of linear operators on R3 .

(iii) Find the standard matrix of a rotation of 30◦ about the x− axis, followed by a rotation of 30◦ about
the z−axis, followed by a contraction with the factor k = 12 of linear operators on R3 .

(iv) Consider the basis B = {(−2, 1), (1, 3)} and let T : R2 −→ R3 be the linear transformation such that
T (−2, 1) = (−1, 2, 0), T (1, 3) = (0, −3, 5). Then find the formula for T (x1 , x2 ) and use this formula
to find T (2, −3).

(v) Consider the linear transformation T : P2 −→ P2 such that T (1) = 1 + x, T (x) = 1 + x, T (x2 ) =
5 + 3x − 2x2 . then find the formula for T (a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 ) and use it to find T (2 + 3x − 5x2 ).
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4.3 Kernel and Range of Linear Transformation

In this topic we shall develop some important properties of linear transformations. That is the gen-
eralize properties of matrix transformations which where obtained earlier in this chapter.

Kernel of Linear Transformation

If T : V −→ W is a linear transformation or linear mapping. Then kernel of T , denoted as ker(T ),

is the set of all vectors in V that is mapped by T into 0 in W ; that is,

ker(T ) = {v ∈ W : T (v) = 0}

Hence,We can say that ker(T ) is the null space of T

Range of Linear Transformation

If T : V −→ W is a linear transformation or linear mapping. Then range(or image) of T , denoted

as R(T ) or Im(T ), is the set of all vectors in W that are images under T of at least one vector in V ; that
is,
R(T ) = {u ∈ V : there exists v ∈ V for which T (v) = u}
As earlier in this chapter, T : Rn −→ Rm be a linear Transformation then we have matrix associated
to linear transformation T such that
T (u) = Au
where A is m × n matrix and it is known as standard matrix for T . It is denoted by [T ] or [T ]A

Remarks:

1. Kernel and Range of the Matrix Transformation: The kernel of T is the null space of
A and The range of T is the column space of A.

2. Kernel and Range of the Zero Transformation: Let T : V −→ W be the zero transfor-
mation. ker(T ) = V , Since T maps every vector in V into [Link] we have R(T ) = {0}, Since
0 is only image under T of vectors in V .

3. Kernel and Range of the Identity Transformation: Let T : V −→ V such that T (u) = u
for every vector u ∈ V . ker(T ) = {0},Since T (u) = u for only vector that T maps into 0 is 0.
And also we have R(T ) = V , Since every vector in V is the image of vector to itself.

4. Kernel and Range of the Rotation:Let T : R2 −→ R2 be the Linear Transformation that

rotates each vector in the xy-plane through the angle θ. R(T ) = R2 , Since every vector in
the xy-plane can be obtained by rotating some vector through an angle θ.and also we have
ker(T ) = {0},Since the only vector that rotates into 0 to 0.

Theorem If T : V −→ W is the linear transformation, then

1. The kernel of T is a subspace of V .

2. The range of T is a subspace of W .

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4 UNIT-IV LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

Rank of and Nullity of linear transformation.

If T : V −→ W is a linear transformation, then the dimension of the range of T is called the rank
of T and is denoted by rank(T ); the dimension of the kernel is called the nullity of T and is denoted by
nullity(T ).

Theorem: If T : Rn −→ Rm be a linear Transformation, then there exists an m × n matrix A such

that

1. nullity([T ]A ) = nullity(A)

2. rank([T ]A ) = rank(A).

Dimension Theorem or Rank and Nullity Theorem If T : V −→ W is a linear Transformation

for an n-dimensional vector space V to a vector space W , then

rank(T ) + nullity(T ) = dim(V )

4.4 Task 2: Kernel & Range of Linear transformation and Rank-Nullity

Theorem

(i) Find the kernel and range of the following linear transformation

(a) T : R2 −→ R2 define by T (x, y) = (2x − y, −8x + 4y)

(b) T : R4 −→ R3 define by T (x, y, z, w) = (4x + y − 2z − 3w, 2x + y + z − 4w, 6x − 3z + 9w)
 
1 4 5 0 9
 3 −2 1 0 −1 
 
(ii) Let T be multiplication by the matrix A =   then find the basis of kernel
 −1 0 −1 0 −1 
2 3 5 1 8
and range of T .

(iii) Find the basis of kernel and range of the following linear transformation

T : P2 −→ P2 define by T (a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 ) = 2a0 + a1 (x + 2) + a2 (x + 2)2

   
a b a+b b+c
(iv) let T : M22 −→ M22 be the linear transformation defined by T =
c d a+d b+d
Find the basis for ker(T ) and R(T )

(v) Verify the Rank-Nullity Theorem of the linear transformation, T : R4 −→ R3 define by

T (x, y, z, w) = (x − y + z + w, x + 2z − w, x + y + 3z − 3w).

(vi) Verify the Rank-Nullity Theorem of the linear transformation T : P3 −→ P2 defined by T (ax3 +
bx2 + cx + d) = 3ax2 + 2bx + c.

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4.5 One to one , Onto and Inverse Linear Transformation

One to one Linear Transformation

Let U and V be two vectors spaces. A linear transformation T : U −→ V is one to one if T maps
distinct vectors of U into distinct vectors in V . A one to one transformation is also called injective trans-
formation.

Theorems

1. A linear transformation T : U −→ V is one to one if and only if ket(T ) = {0}.

2. A linear transformation T : U −→ V is one to one if and only if dim(ket(T )) = 0.

3. A linear transformation T : U −→ V is one to one if and only if rank(T ) = dim(U ).

4. If A is n × m matrix of linear transformation T : Rm −→ Rn is one to one if and only if

rank(A) = m.

5. If A is n × m matrix of linear transformation T : Rm −→ Rn is one to one if and only if A is

an invertible matrix.

Onto Linear Transformation

Let U and V be two vectors spaces. A linear transformation T : U −→ V is onto if the range of T is
V . A linear map T is onto if for every v ∈ V , there exists u ∈ U such that T (u) = v. Onto transformation
is also called surjective transformation.

Theorems

1. A linear transformation T : U −→ V is onto if and only if rank(T ) = dim(V ).

2. If A is n × m matrix of linear transformation T : Rm −→ Rn , then T is onto if and only if

rank(A) = n.

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Remark

1. Let T : U −→ V be a linear transformation with dim(U )=dim(V ). Then

(a) If T is one to one then it is onto.

(b) If T is onto then it is one to one.

2. If a linear transformation T : U −→ V is both one to one and onto, then it is called bijective
transformation.

3. A bijective transformation from V to W is also known as Isomorphism between V and W .

Inverse Linear Transformation

If T : U −→ V is a linear transformation then the range of T is the subspace of V consisting all

images of vectors in U under T . If T is one to one then each vector v ∈ R(T ) is the image of a unique
vector u ∈ U . Hence, Inverse linear transformation T −1 : V −→ U maps v back into u.
Theorem
If T1 : U −→ V and T2 : V −→ W are one to one transformation, then

1. T2 ◦ T1 is one to one

2. (T2 ◦ T1 )−1 = T1−1 ◦ T2−1

4.6 Task 3 : One to one , Onto and Inverse Linear Transformation

(i) Determine whether the following linear transformations are one to one and onto.

(a) T : R2 −→ R3 define by T (x, y) = (x, y, x + y)

(b) T : R2 −→ R3 define by T (x, y) = (x − y, y − x, 2x − 2y)
(c) T : R3 −→ R2 define by T (x, y, z) = (x + y + z, x + y)
(d) T : R4 −→ R3 define by T (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (4x1 +x2 −2x3 −3x4 , 2x1 +x2 +x3 −4x4 , 6x1 −9x3 +9x4 )

(ii) Determine inverse linear transformation of the following linear transformation.

(a) T : R3 −→ R3 define by T (x, y, z) = (x − y + z, 2x − z, 2x + 3y)

(b) T : R3 −→ R3 define by T (x, y, z) = (x + 4y − z, x + 2y + z, −x + y)

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4.7 Change of Bases

Let V be a finite dimensional vector space. let B = {v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vn } be a old basis of vector space
and B 0 = {u1 , u2 , u3 , · · · , un } be another new basis for V. Then transition matrix P from old basis B to
new basis B 0 is define by
 
P = [v1 ]B 0 [v2 ]B 0 · · · [vn ]B 0
 
a1i
 a2i 
, where [vi ]B =  .  is coordinate matrix with respect to basis B.
 
 .. 
ani
If Q is transition matrix from new basis B 0 to old basis B then Q = [u1 ]B [u2 ]B · · · [un ]B .
 

Remarks

If P is the transition matrix from the old basis to the new basis and Q is the transition matrix
from the new basis to the old basis then Q = P −1 .

Theorems

1. Let P be the transition matrix from a old basis B to new basis B 0 . Then for any vectors v ∈ V ,
we have
P [v]B 0 = [v]B or [v]B 0 = P −1 [v]B

2. If T be the linear operator on vector space V , T : V −→ V and P be the transition matrix

from a old basis B to new basis B 0 then linear operator matrix relative to B 0 is

[T ]B 0 = P −1 [T ]B P

−3 4
 
7
4.4 Example. Let T : V −→ V be a linear operator such that [T ]B  1 0 −2 . Let B = {v1 , v2 , v3 }
0 1 0
0
and B = {u1 , u2 , u3 } be two bases of V , define by u1 = v1 , u2 = v1 + v2 , u3 = v1 + v2 + v3 then find [T ]B 0

−3 4
 
7
Solution: Here given linear operator T : V −→ V , such that [T ]B =  1 0 −2  and
0 1 0
B = {v1 , v2 , v3 } and B 0 = {u1 , u2 , u3 } be two bases of V , with u1 = v1 , u2 = v1 + v2 , u3 = v1 + v2 + v3
then we want to find [T ]B 0 , for that
From the basis vectors relation we write

u1 = v1 , u2 = v1 + v2 u3 = v1 + v2 + v3
∴ u1 = v1 + 0v2 + 0v3 , u2 = v1 + v2 + 0v3 u3 = v1 + v2 + v3
     
1 1 1
∴ [u1 ]B = 0 , [u2 ]B = 1 [u3 ]B = 1 
    
0 0 1

Hence, the transition matrix from B 0 to B is

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4 UNIT-IV LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

 
P = [u1 ]B [u2 ]B [u3 ]B
 
1 1 1
= 0 1 1 
0 0 1

1 −1
 
0
thus P −1 = 0 1 −1 
0 0 1

The transition matrix of T relative to basis B 0 is

[T ]B 0 = P −1 [T ]B P
1 −1 −3 4
   
0 7 1 1 1
= 0 1 −1   1 0 −2   0 1 1 
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
−4 0
 
9
=  1 0 −2 
0 1 1

4.8 Task:4 Change of Bases

(i) Let T : R2 −→ R2 be linear operator define by T (x1 , x2 ) = (5x1 −x2 , 2x1 +x2 ) and B = {(1, 0), (0, 1)},
B 0 = {(1, 4), (2, 7)} be two bases then find transition P from B to B 0 and transition Q from B 0 to
B.

(ii) Let T : R2 −→ R2 be linear operator define by T (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 − 2x2 , −x2 ) and B = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} ,
B 0 = {(2, 1), (−3, 4)} be two bases then find [T ]B and [T ]B 0 .

(iii) Let T : R2 −→ R2 be linear operator define by T (x1 , x2 ) = (2x1 +x2 , x1 −3x2 ) and B = {(1, 2), (1, 3)}
, B 0 = {(−1, 1), (0, 1)} be two bases then find [T ]B and [T ]B 0 .

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4.9 Answers of Tasks

Answer: Task 1

 √ √ 
3 3 1
(i) (a) Yes, Linear transformation 4
− 8 √8
(iii)  1 3
− √83
 
(b) Not, Linear transformation 4 8 
1 3
0 4 4
(c) Not, Linear transformation
(d) Yes, Linear transformation (iv) T (x1 , x2 ) = ( 3x71 − x72 , − 9x71 − 4x2 5x1
7
, 7 + 10x2
7
),
(e) Not, Linear transformation & T (2, −3) = ( 97 , − 67 , − 20
7
)

(v) T (a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 ) = (a0 + 2a1 + 5a2 ) + (a1 +

 
2 0 2
√
(ii)  0 2 2 0  3a2 )x + (−a1 − 2a2 )x2 , & T (2 + 3x − 5x2 ) =
−2 0 2 −17 − 12x + 7x2

Answer: Task 2

(i) (a) ker(T ) = {t( 12 , 1)| t ∈ R} R(T ) = {t(2, −8)| t ∈ R}

(b) ker(T ) = {t( 32 , −4, 1, 0)| t ∈ R} R(T ) = {p(4, 2, 6), q(1, 1, 0), r(−2, −1, −9)| p, q, r ∈ R}
   

 −1 −1 

 
 −1   −2 

     

(ii) ker(T ) =  1  ,  0  and R(t) = {a(1, 3, −1, 2) + b(0, 1, −2 , 5 ) + c(0, 0, 0, 1)| \ a, b, c ∈ R}
   
      7 14
 0   0 

 
 

0 1
 

(iii) Basis of R(T ) = {2, (x + 2), (x + 2)2 } and Basis of ker(T ) = {0}
         
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
(iv) Basis of R(T ) = , , , and ker(T ) =
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

4.10 Answer: Task 3

(i) (a) One to one and not onto
(b) Not one to one and not onto
(c) Not one to one and onto
(d) Not one to one and onto

(ii) (a) T −1 (x, y, z) = (3x + 3y − z, −2x − 2y + z, −4x − 5y + 2z)

(b) T −1 (x, y, z) = ( 81 x + 18 y − 43 z, 18 x + 18 y + 14 z, − 83 x + 58 y + 14 z)

Answer: Task 4

   
1 2 −7 2
(i) P = , Q=
4 7 4 −1
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3 56
   
1 −2 − 11 − 11
(ii) [T ]B = , [T ]B 0 = 2 3
0 −1 − 11 11
   
17 23 1 −1
(iii) [T ]B = , [T ]B 0 =
−13 −18 −5 −2

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Chapter-5
Eigenvalue and Eigenvector

5 Unit-V Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

In engineering applications, eigenvalue problems are among the most important problems connected with
matrices and eigenvalues and eigenvectors play an important role in the study of ordinary differential
equations. In this section we give the basic definitions of eigenvalues and eigenvectors and some of the
basic results.

5.1 Eigenvalue and Eigenvector

Eigenvalue and Eigenvector

Let A be any square matrix, X be any non zero vectors and λ be any scalar such that AX = λX.
Then λ is said to be eigenvalue and X is said to be corresponding eigenvector.

Remarks

1. Eigenvalue
Let A be any square matrix, λ be a scalar and I be a identity (unit) matrix of same order of A.
Then the matrix [A−λI] is called characteristic matrix of A. The determinant of characteristic
matrix |A − λI| is called the characteristic polynomial of A
=⇒ |A − λI| = 0 is known as the characteristic equation of matrix A.
The roots of characteristic equation are known as eigenvalues or characteristic roots or char-
acteristic values or proper values of matrix A.

2. Eigenvector
Suppose λi is a root of characteristic equation |A − λI| = 0 then |A − λi I| = 0. If we find a
non zero column vector X such that [A − λi I]X = 0 then such column vector X is called the
eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue λi .

Short Method to Find Eigenvalue

 
a11 a12
1. Let A = be the 2 × 2 matrix. Then characteristic equation of matrix A is λ2 − S1 λ + |A|.
a21 a22

where S1 = sum of principal diagonal entry

= a11 + a22
|A| = determinant of matrix A

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 
a11 a12 a13
2. Let A =  a21 a22 a23  be the 3 × 3 matrix. Then characteristic equation of matrix A is λ3 −
a31 a32 a33
2
S1 λ + S2 λ − |A|.

where S1 = sum of principal diagonal entry

= a11 + a22 + a33
S2 = sum of minors of principal diagonal elements
a22 a23 a11 a13 a11 a12
= + +
a32 a33 a31 a33 a21 a22
|A| = determinant of matrix A

3. Eigenvalues of diagonal matrix, upper triangular and lower triangular matrices are diagonal entries.
     
a 0 0 a p q a 0 0
i.e P = 0 b 0 , Q = 0 b r , R = p
     b 0  then eigenvalues of matrix P, Q, R
0 0 c 0 0 c q r c
are a, b, c.

Algorithm to Find Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

To find the Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors then follow the following steps.

(I) Find eigenvalues by using characteristic equation |A − λI| = 0.

(II) Now write matrix equation as [A − λI]X = 0, where X is variable column matrix.

(III) Now choose particular eigenvalue λ = λi and substitute this eigenvalue in matrix equation,
[A − λi I]X = 0

(IV) From the matrix equation, [A − λi I]X = 0, if we write at least two linearly independent equations
then solve this two equations by Crammer’s rules and put this equations variable values in column
matrix X, which is required eigen vectors for eigenvalue λ = λi .

(V) From the matrix equation, [A−λi I]X = 0, if we get only one linearly independent equation then solve
this equation by number of free variable and put this equations variable values in column matrix X,
which is required eigen vectors for eigenvalue λ = λi .

−2 −8 −12
 

5.1 Example. Find eigenvalue and eigenvector for matrix A =  1 4 4 

0 0 1

−2 −8 −12
 

Solution: Here given matrix is A =  1 4 4 

0 0 1

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Now we find the eigenvalue, for that consider the characteristic equation,

|A − λI| = 0
−2 − λ −8 −12
1 4−λ 4 =0
0 0 1−λ

∴ λ3 − S1 λ2 + S2 λ − |A| = 0
∴ λ3 − 3λ2 + 2λ − 0 = 0

Solving the above equation we get the eigenvalues, λ1 = 0, λ2 = 1, λ3 = 2.

Now to find the eigenvector, consider the matrix equation

[A − λI]X = 0
−2 − λ −8 −12
    
x1 0
 1 4−λ 4   x2  =  0  ...............(i)
0 0 1−λ x3 0

Now substituting the eigenvalues one by one in matrix equation (i) and find corresponding eigenvector.
For λ1 = 0: The matrix equation for λ1 = 0 is

−2 −8 −12
    
x1 0
 1 4 4   x2  =  0 
0 0 1 x3 0

from the above matrix equation, we write two linearly independent equation as follow

−2x1 − 8x2 − 12x3 = 0

x1 + 4x2 + 4x3 = 0

∴ x1 + 4x2 + 6x3 = 0
x1 + 4x2 + 4x3 = 0

Now we solve this two equations by Crammer’s rules as follow

x1 x2 x3
=− = =t
4 6 1 6 1 4
4 4 1 4 1 4
x1 x2 x3
=− = =t
−8 −2 0
∴ x1 = −8t, x2 = 2t, x3 = 0t

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∴ Eigenvector for eigenvalue λ1 = 0 is

 
x1
X =  x2 
x3
−8t
 

=  2t 
0t
 
4
= −2t  −1 
0
 
4
Thus Eigenvector for λ1 = 0 is  −1 
0
For λ2 = 1: The matrix equation for λ2 = 1 is

−3 −8 −12
    
x1 0
 1 3 4   x2 = 0 
 
0 0 0 x3 0
from the above matrix equation, we write two linearly independent equation as follow
−3x1 − 8x2 − 12x3 = 0
x1 + 3x2 + 4x3 = 0

∴ 3x1 + 8x2 + 12x3 = 0

x1 + 3x2 + 4x3 = 0
Now we solve this two equations by Crammer’s rules as follow
x1 x2 x3
=− = =t
8 12 3 12 3 8
3 4 1 4 1 3
x1 x2 x3
− + =t
−4 0 1

∴ x1 = −4t, x2 = −0t, x3 = t
∴ Eigenvector for eigenvalue λ2 = 1 is
 
x1
X =  x2 
x3
−4t
 

=  0t 
t
−4
 

= t 0 
1

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−4
 

Thus Eigen vector for λ2 = 1 is  0 

1
For λ3 = 2: The matrix equation for λ3 = 2 is

−4 −8 −12
    
x1 0
 1 2 4   x2 = 0 
 
0 0 −1 x3 0

from the above matrix equation, we write two linearly independent equation as follow

−4x1 − 8x2 − 12x3 = 0

x1 + 2x2 + 4x3 = 0

∴ x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 0
x1 + 2x2 + 4x3 = 0

Now we solve this two equations by Crammer’s rules as follow

x1 x2 x3
=− = =t
2 3 1 3 1 2
2 4 1 4 1 2
x1 x2 x3
=− = =t
2 1 0

∴ x1 = 2t, x2 = −t, x3 = 0t
∴ Eigenvector for eigenvalue λ3 = 2 is
 
x1
X =  x2 
x3
 
2t
=  −t 
0t
 
2
= t  −1 
0
 
2
Thus Eigenvector for λ3 = 2 is  −1 
0
 
2 2 1
5.2 Example. Find eigenvalue and eigenvector for matrix A =  1 3 1 
1 2 2

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5 UNIT-V EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS

 
2 2 1
Solution: Here given matrix is A = 1 3 1 
1 2 2
Now we find the eigenvalue, for that consider the characteristic equation,

|A − λI| = 0
2−λ 2 1
1 3−λ 1 =0
1 2 2−λ

∴ λ3 − S1 λ2 + S2 λ − |A| = 0
∴ λ3 − 7λ2 + 11λ − 5 = 0

Solving the above equation we get the eigenvalues, λ1 = 5, λ2 = 1, λ3 = 1.

Now to find the eigenvector, consider the matrix equation

[A − λI]X = 0
2−λ
    
2 1 x1 0
 1 3−λ 1   x2  =  0  ...............(i)
1 2 2−λ x3 0

Now substituting the eigenvalues one by one in matrix equation (i) and find corresponding eigenvector.
For λ1 = 5: The matrix equation for λ1 = 5 is

−3
    
2 1 x1 0
 1 −2 1   x2 = 0 
 
1 2 −3 x3 0

from the above matrix equation, we write two linearly independent equation as follow

−3x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0
x1 − 2x2 + x3 = 0

Now we solve this two equations by Crammer’s rules as follow

x1 x2 x3
=− = =t
2 1 −3 1 −3 2
−2 1 1 1 1 −2
x1 x2 x3
=− = =t
4 −4 4

∴ x1 = 4t, x2 = 4t, x3 = 4t

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∴ Eigenvector for eigenvalue λ1 = 5 is

 
x1
X =  x2 
x3
 
4t
=  4t 
4t
 
1
= 4t 1 

1
 
1
Thus Eigenvector λ1 = 5 is  1 
1
For λ2 = 1: The matrix equation for λ2 = 1 is
    
1 2 1 x1 0
 1 2 1   x2  =  0 
1 2 1 x3 0
from the above matrix equation, we write linearly independent equation as follow

x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0 ................(ii)

Now we solve this equation by taking two variables are free variable as x2 = s, x3 = t, where s, t ∈ R
from the equation (ii), x1 variable value is

x1 + 2s + t = 0
x1 = −2s − t

∴ Eigenvector for eigenvalue λ2 = 1 is

 
x1
X =  x2 
x3
−2s − t
 

= s 
t
−2s − t
 

=  s + 0t 
0s + t
−2s −t
   

= s  +  0t 
0s t
−2 −1
   

= s 1  + t 0 
0 1

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−2 −1
   

Thus λ2 = 1 has linearly independent eigenvectors are  1  and  0 

0 1

Remark

No. of free variable = V − E

where V = No. of variable in X
E = No. of Linearly independent equations

5.1.1 Task-1: Eigenvalue and Eigenvector

(i) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the following matrices.

3 −1 8 −6
     
1 2 1 2 2
(a)  −1 5 −1  (c)  −6 7 −4  (e)  0 2 1 
1 −1 3 2 −4 3 −1 2 2
     
4 6 6 0 1 1 0 1 0
(b)  1 3 2  (d)  1 0 1  (f)  0 0 1 
−1 −4 −3 1 1 0 1 −3 3

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5.2 Algebraic and Geometric Multiplicity of an Eigenvalue

Algebraic Multiplicity

If λ1 is an eigenvalue of the characteristic equation |A − λI| = 0, repeated ˝t˝ times then t is called
the Algebraic Multiplicity of eigenvalue λ1 .

Geometric Multiplicity

If λ1 is an eigenvalue of the characteristic equation |A − λI| = 0 and ˝s˝ be the number of linearly
independent eigenvectors corresponding to eigenvalue λ1 , then s is called Geometric Multiplicity of eigen-
value λ1 .

Algorithm To Find Algebraic Multiplicity and Geometric Multiplicity

(I) Consider the characteristic equation |A − λI| = 0 and find the eigenvalues λi .

(II) Declare Algebraic Multiplicity for each eigenvalue λi .

(III) For each λi find eigenvector X from [A − λI]X = 0.

(IV) Find the Geometric Multiplicity for each λi .

−2 2 −3
 

5.3 Example. Determine the Algebraic and Geometric Multiplicity of matrix A =  2 1 −6 

−1 −2 0

−2 2 −3
 

Solution: Here the given matrix is A =  2 1 −6 

−1 −2 0
Algebraic Multiplicity

To find the eigenvalue, we consider the characteristic equation,

|A − λI| = 0
−2 − λ 2 −3
2 1 − λ −6 =0
−1 −2 0 − λ

∴ λ3 − S1 λ2 + S2 λ − |A| = 0
∴ λ3 + λ2 − 21λ − 45 = 0

Solving the above equation we get the eigenvalues, λ1 = 5, λ2 = −3, λ3 = −3.

∴ The Algebraic Multiplicity of eigenvalue λ1 = 5 is 1.

The Algebraic Multiplicity of eigenvalue λ1 = −3 is 2.

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5 UNIT-V EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS

Geometric Multiplicity

To find the eigenvector, consider the matrix equation

[A − λI]X = 0
−2 − λ −3
    
2 x1 0
 2 1 − λ −6   x2  =  0  ...............(i)
−1 −2 −λ x3 0

Now substituting the eigenvalues one by one in matrix equation (i) and find the corresponding eigenvector.

For λ1 = 5: The matrix equation for λ1 = 5 is

−7
    
2 3 x1 0
 2 −4 −6   x2  =  0 
−1 −2 −5 x3 0
from the above matrix equation, we will write two linearly independent equation as follow
−7x1 + 2x2 − 3x3 = 0
2x1 − 4x2 − 6x3 = 0

Now we will solve these two equations by Crammer’s rules as given below;
x1 x2 x3
=− = =t
2 −3 −7 −3 −7 2
−4 −6 2 −6 2 −4
x1 x2 x3
=− = =t
−24 −36 −32

∴ x1 = −24t, x2 = 36t, x3 = −32t

∴ The Eigenvector for eigenvalue λ1 = 5 is
 
x1
X =  x2 
x3
−24t
 

=  36t 
−32t
−6
 

= 4t  9 
8

−6


∴ λ1 = 5 has only one linearly independent eigenvector which is  9 

8
Hence, Geometric Multiplicity of eigenvalue λ1 = 5 is 1.
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For λ2 = −3:
The matrix equation for λ2 = −3 is

2 −3
    
1 x1 0
 2 4 −6   x2  =  0 
−1 −2 3 x3 0

From the above matrix equation, we write the linearly independent equation as :

x1 + 2x2 − 3x3 = 0 ................(ii)

Now we will solve equation (ii) by taking two variables which are free variables x2 = s, x3 = t, where
s, t ∈ R from the equation (ii), value of x1 variable is

x1 + 2s − 3t = 0
x1 = −2s + 3t

∴ The Eigenvector for eigenvalue λ2 = 1 is

 
x1
X =  x2 
x3
−2s + 3t
 

= s 
t
−2s + 3t
 

= s + 0t 
0s + t
−2s
   
3t
= s  +  0t 
0s t
−2
   
3
=s  1 +t 0 
 
0 1

−2 −3
   

∴ λ2 = 1 has two linearly independent eigenvectors which are  1  and  0 

0 1
Hence, The Geometric Multiplicity of eigenvalue λ2 = −3 is 2.

5.2.1 Task 2: Algebraic and Geometric Multiplicity of an Eigenvalue

(i) Determine the Algebraic and Geometric Multiplicity of the following matrices.

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−1 4 −2
   
2 3 4
(a)  −3 4 0  (c)  0 2 −1 
−3 1 3 0 0 1
−9 4
   
4 0 1 0
(b)  −8 3 4  (d)  0 0 1 
−16 8 7 1 −3 3

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5.3 Diagonalization

The process of finding a diagonal matrix which is similar to the given matrix is known as diagonal-
ization of given matrix.

Similar Matrices

If A and B are two square matrix of the same order n, then B is said to be similar to A if there exists
an invertible matrix P such as
B = P −1 AP
Algorithm for Diagonalization

Let A be an n × n matrix then the steps for diagonalization of matrix A are :

(I) Find the eigenvalue of a given matrix A.

(II) Find the eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalues.

(III) If the Algebraic and Geometric Multiplicity of each eigenvalues are equal, then the given matrix A;
is diagonalizable otherwise not diagonalizable.

(IV) If a matrix A is diagonalizable then column arrangements of the eigenvectors is known as transform-
ing matrix P .

(V) If matrix A is diagonalizable then the diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are, the only eigen-
values of matrix A, that is the required diagonal matrix D. This diagonal matrix D will satisfy the
condition, for transforming matrix P , that is:
P −1 AP = D.

Remarks

1. If all the eigenvalues of a given matrix A are distinct then A can be diagonalizable

2. If the eigenvalues of a given matrix A are repeated then A may or may not be diagonalizable.

3. If the Algebraic and Geometric Multiplicity of the repeated eigenvalues are equal then matrix
A is diagonalizable.

4. If the Algebraic and Geometric Multiplicity of the repeated eigenvalues are not equal then
matrix A is not diagonalizable.

5. If the matrix is real symmetric then the diagonalization is known as orthogonal diagonalization.
The transforming matrix P is known as modal matrix if column arrangement of eigenvectors,
is unit eigenvectors.

5.3.1 Task 3: Diagonalization

2 −1
 
1
(i) Show that the matrix A =  1 2 −1  is diagonalizable. Also find the transforming matrix and
1 −1 2
the diagonal matrix.
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 
2 1 1
(ii) Check if the matrix  2 3 2  is diagonalizable or not. If diagonalizable then find matrix P and
3 3 4
D.
 
2 3 4
(iii) Check if the matrix  0 2 −1  is diagonalizable or not. If diagonalizable then find matrix P and
0 0 1
D.
3 −1
 
1
(iv) Find modal matrix P that diagonalizable matrix  −1 5 −1 . Also find P −1 AP
1 −1 3

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5.4 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem

Every square matrix A satisfies its own characteristic equation.

 
1 2 3
5.4 Example. Verify the Cayley-Hamilton theorem for matrix  2 −1 4  and also find A−1 and A4
3 1 −1

Solution: The characteristic equation is ,

|A − λI| = 0
1−λ 2 3
2 −1 − λ 4 =0
3 1 −1 − λ

∴ λ3 − S1 λ2 + S2 λ − |A| = 0
∴ λ3 + λ2 − 18λ − 40 = 0

According to Cayley-Hamilton theorem:

∴ A3 + A2 − 18A − 40I = 0 ..........(i)

Now we check that equation (i) satisfies Cayley-Hamilton theorem

  
1 2 3 1 2 3
A2 =  2 −1 4   2 −1 4 
3 1 −1 3 1 −1
 
14 3 8
= 12 9 −2 

2 4 14

  
14 3 8 1 2 3
A3 =  12 9 −2   2 −1 4 
2 4 14 3 1 −1
 
44 33 46
= 24 13 74 

52 14 8

Now
       
44 33 46 14 3 8 1 2 3 1 0 0
A3 + A2 − 18A − 40I =  24 13 74  +  12 9 −2  − 18  2 −1 4  − 40  0 1 0 
52 14 8 2 4 14 3 1 −1 0 0 1
 
0 0 0
= 0 0 0 
0 0 0

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Hence the Cayley-Hamilton theorem is verified. Now, we find A4 and A−1 by using the following equation.

A3 + A2 − 18A − 40I = 0 ...........(i)

A4 + A3 − 18A2 − 40A = 0 (multiplying both the sides by A)
A4 = −A3 + 18A2 + 40A
     
44 33 46 14 3 8 1 2 3
= −  24 13 74  + 18  12 9 −2  + 40  2 −1 4 
52 14 8 2 4 14 3 1 −1
     
44 33 46 252 54 144 40 80 120
= −  24 13 74  +  216 162 −36  +  80 −40 160 
52 14 8 36 72 252 120 10 −40
 
248 101 218
4
A =  272 109 50 
104 98 204

A2 + A − 18I − 40A−1 = 0 (multiplying equation (i)on both side by A−1 )

40A−1 = A2 + A − 18I
     
14 3 8 1 2 3 1 0 0
=  12 9 −2  +  2 −1 4  − 18  0 1 0 
2 4 14 3 1 −1 0 0 1
−3
 
5 11
−1 1 
A = 14 −10 2 
40
5 5 −5

5.4.1 Task-4: Cayley-Hamilton theorem

 
1 3 7
(i) Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix A =  4 2 3  and find A−1 .
1 2 1

2 −1
 
1
(ii) Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix A =  −1 2 −1  and find A4 .
1 −1 2
 
2 1 1
(iii) Find the characteristic equation of the matrix A =  0 1 0  and find the matrix represented by
1 1 2
8 7 6 5 4 3 2
A − 5A + 7A − 3A + A − 5A + 8A − 2A + I.

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5.5 Quadratic Forms

Theorem: Matrix of a Quadratic Form

Every quadratic form can be expressed in matrix notation as X 0 AX where X is a column matrix,
X 0 is the transpose of X.

Matrix Notation of Quadratic Forms

Quadratic Forms Matrix Notation

  
a h x
1 ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 [x y]
h b y
  
a h g x
2 ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 + 2hxy + 2f yz + 2gzx [x y z]  h b f   y 
g f c z
3 a11 x1 2 + a22 x2 2 + a33 x3 2 + a44 x4 2 + 2a12 x1 x2 +   
a11 a12 a13 a14 x1
a21 a22 a23 a24 x2
  
2a13 x1 x3 + 2a14 x1 x4 + 2a23 x2 x3 + 2a24 x2 x4 [x1 x2 x3 x4 ] 
  
a31 a32 a33 a34 x3
 
  
a41 a42 a43 a44 x4
+2a34 x3 x4

Classification (Value Class) of Quadratic Forms

A Quadratic forms X 0 AX and the corresponding symmetric matrix A are classified into five classes
as follows.

1. Positive Definite 3. Positive Semidefinite 5. Indefinite

2. Negative Definite 4. Negative Semidefinite

Positive Definite

If all the eigenvalues of a symmetric matrix A are positive, then the matrix A, and the corresponding
quadratic form X 0 AX is called positive definite.

Negative Definite

If all the eigenvalues of a symmetric matrix A are negative, then the matrix A, and the corresponding
quadratic form X 0 AX is called negative definite.

Positive Semidefinite

If all the eigenvalues of a symmetric matrix A are positive, with at least one zero eigenvalue then the
matrix A, and the corresponding quadratic form X 0 AX is called positive semidefinite.

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Negative Semidefinite

If all the eigenvalues of a symmetric matrix A are negative with, at least one zero eigenvalue then
the matrix A, and the corresponding quadratic form X 0 AX is called negative semidefinite.

Indefinite Definite

If all the eigenvalues of a symmetric matrix A are positive and negative, then the matrix A and the
corresponding quadratic form X 0 AX is called positive definite.

Index and Signature of the Quadratic Forms

The number of positive eigenvalue of symmetric matrix A is called index of matrix A, and the cor-
responding quadratic form X 0 AX. It is denoted by p. The signature of quadratic forms is the difference
between the number of positive and negative eigenvalues of the symmetric matrix A. It is denoted by s.

Algorithm to Reduce Quadratic Forms to Canonical Form

Following are the steps to derive canonical form from the quadratic form :
(I) Write the symmetric matrix from the quadratic form.

(II) Find the eigen value of this symmetric matrix.

(III) Find the unit eigen vector corresponding to eigenvalue of symmetric matrix.

(IV) Write the diagonal matrix D and modal matrix P from the unit eigenvector.

(V) Write down the linear transformation X = P Y , which transforms the given quadratic form into
canonical form.

(VI) At the end write the canonical form Q from Q = Y 0 DY .

5.5 Example. Determine the value class, index and signature of the quadratic form Q = 2x1 2 + 2x2 2 +
2x3 2 − 2x1 x3
Solution: Here the given quadratic form is Q = 2x1 2 + 2x2 2 + 2x3 2 − 2x1 x3 . From this quadratic form we
get the symmetric matrix
 
2 0 1
A= 0 2 0 
1 0 2
Now we will find the eigenvalues of this symmetric matrix. For this, consider the characteristic equation,
|A − λI| = 0
2−λ 0 1
0 2−λ 0 =0
1 0 2−λ

∴ λ3 − S1 λ2 + S2 λ − |A| = 0
∴ λ3 − 6λ2 + 11λ − 6 = 0

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Solving the above equation we get the eigenvalues, λ1 = 1, λ2 = 2, λ3 = 3.

Here all the eigenvalues of symmetric matrix A are positive, hence the value class of the quadratic form is
positive definite.
Where,
Index p = Number of positive eigenvalues = 3
Signature s = Number of positive eigen value and negative eigenvalues= 3 - 0 = 3.

5.6 Example. Reduce the quadratic form Q = 3x1 2 + 5x2 2 + 3x3 2 − 2x2 x3 + 2x1 x3 into canonical form
by using the transformation X = P Y.

Solution: From the given quadratic form Q = 3x1 2 + 5x2 2 + 3x3 2 − 2x2 x3 + 2x1 x3 from this quadratic
3 −1
 
1
we write symmetric matrix A =  −1 5 −1 
1 −1 3
Now we will find the eigenvalues of above symmetric matrix, for that consider the characteristic equation:

|A − λI| = 0
3 − λ −1 1
−1 5 − λ −1 =0
1 −1 3 − λ

∴ λ3 − S1 λ2 + S2 λ − |A| = 0
∴ λ3 − 11λ2 + 36λ − 36 = 0

Solving the above equation we get the eigenvalues, λ1 = 2, λ2 = 3, λ3 = 6.

Now to find the unit eigenvectors, consider the following matrix equation:

[A − λI]X = 0
3 − λ −1
  
1 x1
 −1 5 − λ −1   x2  = 0 ...............(i)
1 −1 3 − λ x3

Now substitute the eigenvalues one by one in matrix equation (i) and find corresponding eigenvector.
For λ1 = 2: The matrix equation for λ1 = 2 is

1 −1 1
  
x1
 −1 3 −1   x2  = 0
1 −1 1 x3

from the above matrix equation, we get obtain two linearly independent equations as :

x1 − x2 + x3 = 0
−x1 + 3x2 − x3 = 0

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Now we will solve the two equations by Crammer’s rule:

x1 x2 x3
− + =t
−1 1 1 1 1 −1
3 −1 −1 −1 −1 3
x1 x2 x3
− + =t
−1 0 1

∴ x1 = −t, x2 = 0t, x3 = t
∴ The Eigenvector for eigenvalue λ1 = 2 is
 
x1
X =  x2 
x3
−t
 

=  0t 
1t
−1
 

= t 0 
1
 
− √12
∴ unit eigenvector x1 =  0 
 
√1
2

For λ2 = 3: The matrix equation for λ2 = 3 is

0 −1 1
  
x1
 −1 2 −1   x2  = 0
1 −1 0 x3

from the above matrix equation, we get two linearly independent equations as :

0x1 − 1x2 + 1x3 = 0

−x1 + 2x2 − x3 = 0

Now we solve the two equations by Crammer’s rule:

x1 x2 x3
− + =t
−1 1 0 1 0 −1
2 −1 −1 −1 −1 2
x1 x2 x3
− + =t
−1 1 −1

∴ x1 = −t, x2 = −t, x3 = −t

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∴ Eigenvector for eigenvalue λ2 = 3 is

 
x1
X =  x2 
x3
−t
 

=  −t 
−t
 
1
= −t  1 
1
 
√1
3
∴ unit eigenvector x2 =  √1
 
3 
√1
3

For λ3 = 6: The matrix equation for λ3 = 6 is

−3 −1
  
1 x1
 −1 −1 −1   x2  = 0
1 −1 −3 x3

from the above matrix equation, we get two linearly independent equations as :

−3x1 − x2 + x3 = 0
−x1 − x2 − x3 = 0

Now we solve the two equations by Crammer’s rule:

x1 x2 x3
+ + =t
−1 1 −3 1 −3 −1
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
x1 x2 x 3
− + =t
2 4 2

∴ x1 = 2t, x2 = −4t, x3 = 2t
∴ The Eigenvector for eigenvalue λ3 = 2 is
 
x1
X =  x2 
x3
 
2t
=  −4t 
2t
 
1
= 2t  −2 
1

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 
√1
6
∴ unit eigenvector x3 =  − √26
 

√1
6

Now we write diagonal matrix D and modal matrix P as,

 
− √12 √1 √1
 
2 0 0 3 6
D =  0 3 0 , P = 0 √1 − √26
 
3 
1 √1 √1
0 0 6 √
2 3 6

The linear transformation X = P Y , transforms the given quadratic forms into canonical forms.

X = PY
  √1 √1 √1

− 2
 
x1 3 6 y1
x2  =  0 √13 − √26   y2 
  
x3 √1 √1 √1 y3
2 3 6
  √1 
− 2 y1 + √13 y2 + √16 y3

x1
x2  =  0y1 + √13 y2 − √26 y3 
  
x3 √1 y1 + √1 y2 + √1 y3
2 3 6
1 1 1
x1 = − √ y1 + √ y2 + √ y3
2 3 6
1 2
x2 = 0y1 + √ y2 − √ y3
3 6
1 1 1
x3 = √ y1 + √ y2 + √ y3
2 3 6
Now the canonical form of given quadratic forms is:

Q = Y 0 DY
  
2 0 0 y1
= [y1 y2 y3 ]  0 3 0   y2 
0 0 6 y3
= 2y1 2 + 3y2 2 + 6y3 2

5.5.1 Task 5: Quadratic Forms

(i) Find the real symmetric matrix of the following quadratic form.

(a) Q = 2x1 x2 + 2x2 x3 + 2x3 x1

(b) Q = x2 + 3y 2 − 4z 2 − 3xy + 2xz − 5zy

(ii) Determine the value class, index and signature of the following quadratic forms.

(a) Q = x1 2 + 2x2 2 + 3x3 2 + 2x1 x2 − 2x1 x3 + 2x2 x3

(b) Q = 8x1 2 + 7x2 2 + 3x3 2 − 12x1 x2 + 4x1 x3 − 8x2 x3

(iii) Reduce the following quadratic forms into canonical(sum of squares) form by using the transformation
X = P Y.
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(a) Q = 6x1 2 + 3x2 2 + 3x3 2 − 4x1 x2 + 4x1 x3 − 2x2 x3

(b) Q = 2x1 2 + 3x2 2 + 2x3 2 + 2x1 x3

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5.6 Answers of Tasks

Answer: Task 1

(i) (a) Eigenvalue λ = 2, 3, 6, (d) Eigenvalue λ = 2, −1, −1,

−1 −1
           
1 1 1 1
Eigen vectors  0  ,  1  ,  −2  Eigen vectors  1  ,  0  ,  −1 
1 1 1 1 1 0
(b) Eigenvalue λ = 1, −1, 4, (e) Eigenvalue λ = 1, 2, 2,
−1
         
0 6 3 2
Eigen vectors  −1  ,  2  ,  1  Eigen vectors −1 ,
   1 
1 −7 −1 1 0
(c) Eigenvalue λ = 0, 3, 15, (f) Eigenvalue λ = 1, 1, 1,
       
1 2 2 1
Eigen vectors  2  ,  1  ,  −2  Eigen vectors  1 
2 −2 1 1

Answer: Task 2

(i) (a) • Algebraic λ1 = 1 is 1, Geometric λ1 = 1 is 1

• Algebraic λ2 = 2 is 1, Geometric λ2 = 2 is 1
• Algebraic λ3 = 3 is 1, Geometric λ3 = 3 is 1
(b) • Algebraic λ1 = 3 is 1, Geometric λ1 = 1 is 1
• Algebraic λ2 = −1 is 2, Geometric λ2 = 2 is 2
(c) • Algebraic λ1 = 1 is 1, Geometric λ1 = 1 is 1
• Algebraic λ2 = 2 is 1, Geometric λ2 = 2 is 1
(d) • Algebraic λ1 = 1 is 3, Geometric λ1 = 1 is 1

Answer: Task 3

1 −0 0
   
0 1 1 (iii) Not diagonalizable
(i) P =  1 1 0  , D= 0 2 0   
1 1 1 0 0 3 − √12 √13 √1
6
(iv) P =  0 √13 − √26  ,
 
√1 √1 √1
2 3 6
1 −0 0 2 −0 0
     
1 1 1
(ii) P =  −1 0 2 , D =  0 1 0  P −1 AP = D =  0 3 0 
0 −1 3 0 0 7 0 0 6

Answer: Task 4

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−4 11 −5 86 −85
     
85 8 5 5
(i) A−1 1 
= 35 −1 6 25  (ii) A =  −85 86 −85  (iii) A =  0 3 0 
6 1 −10 85 −85 86 5 5 8

Answer: Task 5

 
0 1 1
(i) (a)  1 0 1 
1 1 0
1 − 23
 
1
(b)  − 32 3 − 52 
1 − 52 −4

(ii) (a) Value class= indefinite, Index=2, Signature=1

(b) Value class= positive semidefinite, Index=2, Signature=2

(iii) (a) Q = 2y1 2 + 2y2 2 + 8y3 2

(b) Q = y1 2 + 3y2 2 + 3y3 2

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Chapter-6
Vectors Differential Calculus

6 Unit-VI Vectors Differential Calculus

6.1 Derivative of vector function,Velocity and Acceleration,Tangent
Vector,Arc Length of a curve

Point Function

A point function u = f (P ) is a function that assigns some number or value u to each point P of some
region R of space. Examples of point functions are scalar point functions and vector point functions.

Scalar point functions

A scalar point function is a function that assigns a real number (i.e. a scalar) to each point of some
region of space. If each point (x, y, z) of a region R in space is assigned a real number u = φ(x, y, z), then
φ is called a scalar point function.
Example:1 The temperature distribution within some body at a particular point in time.
Example:2 The density distribution within some fluid at a particular point in time.

Scalar field

A scalar point function defined over some region is called a scalar field. A scalar field which is inde-
pendent of time is called a stationary or steady-state scalar field and A scalar field that varies with time
would have the representation u = φ(x, y, z, t)

Vector point functions

A vector point function is a function that assigns a vector to each point of some region of space. If
to each point (x, y, z) of a region R in space, there is assigned a vector U = U (x, y, z), then U is called a
vector point function. Such a function would have a representation as follows

U = u1 (x, y, z)î + u2 (x, y, z)ĵ + u3 (x, y, z)k̂

Vector Field

A vector point function defined over some region is called a vector field. A vector field which is
independent of time is called a stationary or steady-state vector field.A vector field that varies with time
would have the representation as below

U = u1 (x, y, z, t)î + u2 (x, y, z, t)ĵ + u3 (x, y, z, t)k̂

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Examples:1 Gravitational field of the earth.

Examples:2 Electric field about a current-carrying wire.
Examples:3 Magnetic field generated by a magnet.
Examples:4 Velocity at different points within a moving fluid.
Examples:5 Acceleration at different points within a moving fluid.

Parametric representation of function or curve

A curve C in two dimension xy-plane can be parameterized by x = x(t), y = y(t), a ≤ t ≤ b. Then, the
position vector of a point P on the C can be written as r(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ. Similarly, a three dimensional
curve or a space curve C can be parameterized as

r(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂, a≤t≤b

.
Derivative of vector function

Derivative of a vector function r(t) with respect to scalar variable t is denoted by, and is defined as

dr r(t+∆t)−r(t)
dt
= r0 (t) = lim ∆t
provided limit exists
∆t→0

In terms of components with respect to a given cartesian coordinate system, v(t) is differentiable at a point
t if and only if its three components viz. r1 (t), r2 (t), r3 (t) are differentiable at t , and then the derivative
r0 (t) is obtained by differentiating each component separately .r0 (t) = [r10 (t), r20 (t), r30 (t)]

Arc Length of a curve

Let the curve C be represented in the parametric form which is a set of function depending only on
a parameter t along with the bounds of the parameter. r = r(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂
The arc length of a curve denoted by S(t) and defined by
Rt
S(t) = |r0 (t)|dt
t0

Velocity and Acceleration

If the scalar variable t denotes the time and r the position vector of a moving particle P (x(t), y(t), z(t))
relative to O and if v represent the velocity vector of the particle of P then
dr dx dy dz
v = r0 = = î + ĵ + k̂
dt dt dt dt
The derivative of the velocity is called the acceleration vector and will be represented by a. Thus
a(t) = v 0 (t) = r00 (t)

Tangent Vector

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Let s be the arc length measured from a fixed point P of a space curve C whose equation is r = r(s).
Then the unit tangent vector T along the tangent vector at P is dr
ds
= dx
ds
î + dy
ds
ĵ + dz
ds
ĵ Such that
s 2  2  2
dr dx dy dz
= + + =1
ds ds ds ds

6.1 Example. A particle moves along the curve x = 2t2 , y = t2 − 4t, z = 3t − 5 where t is the time. Find
the components of its velocity and acceleration, at time t = 1 in the direction î + 2ĵ + 2k̂.

Solution: Let r be the position vector of any point (x, y, z) on the curve.

r(t) = xî + y ĵ + z k̂
= (2t2 )î + (t2 − 4t)ĵ + (3t − 5)k̂
dr
velocity v =
dt
= 4tî + (2t − 4)ĵ + 3k̂
(v)t=1 = 4î − 2ĵ + 3k̂
d2 r
Acceleration a =
dt2
= 4î + 2ĵ
(a)t=1 = 4î + 2ĵ

Now, the unit vector in the given direction n = î + 2ĵ + 2k̂ is

î + 2ĵ + 2k̂ î + 2ĵ + 2k̂

n̂ = p =
2 2
(1) + (2) + (2) 2 3

The component of velocity in the given direction is

î+2ĵ+2k̂
v · n̂ = (4î − 2ĵ + 3k̂) · 3
=2

The component of acceleration in the given direction is

î+2ĵ+2k̂ 8
a · n̂ = (4î + 2ĵ) · 3
= 3

6.2 Example. Find the angle between the tangents to the curve x = t2 , y = 2t, z = −t3 at the points
t ± 1.

Solution: we have r(t) = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ = t2 î + 2tĵ + −t3 k̂

dr dx dy dx
T = = î + ĵ + k̂
dt dt dt dt
2
= 2tî + 2ĵ − 3t k̂

Let T1 and T2 be the tangent vectors at t = 1 and t = −1 respectively. Then

T1 = 2î + 2ĵ − 3k̂

T2 = −2î + 2ĵ − 3k̂

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If θ is the angle betweenT1 and T2 , then

T1 T2
cos θ =
|T1 | · |T2 |
(2î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) · (−2î + 2ĵ − 3k̂)
= √ √
17 · 17
9
=
17
Hence
 
−1 9
θ = cos
17

6.3 Example. Find the arc length of the Helix traced by r(t) = a cos t î+a sin t ĵ +ct k̂, a > 0, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
Solution:
dr dx dy dz
= î + ĵ + ĵ
dt dt dt dt
= −a sin t î + a cos t ĵ + ck̂

Arc length of a curve is denoted and defined by

Z2π
dr
L= dt
dt
0
Z2π
1
= {a2 sin2 t + a2 cos2 t + c2 } 2 dt
0
Z2π
1
= {a2 + c2 } 2 dt
0
1
= 2π{a2 + c2 } 2

6.1.1 Task -1: Velocity and Acceleration,Tangent Vector,Arc Length of a curve.

(i) Find the velocity and acceleration of a particle which moves along the curve x = 2 sin 3t,
y = 2 cos 3t, z = 8t at any given time t > 0. Also find the magnitude of velocity and acceleration.

(ii) Find the length of the curve x = a cos3 θ, y = a sin3 θ in the first quadrant.

(iii) A particle moves along the curve x = t3 + 1, y = t2 , z = 2t + 5, where t represents time. Find the
components of its velocity and acceleration at time t = 1 in the direction 2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂.

(iv) Find the general formula for the tangent vector and unit tangent vector to the curve given by
r(t) = t2 î + 2sint ĵ + 2cost k̂.

(v) Find the unit tangent vector T (t) for r(t) = (2t, 3t2 , 4t3 ) at t = 1
√
2 2 32 t2
(vi) Find the length of the arc of the curve r(t) = 3
t î + 2
ĵ + (t + 3)k̂ between t = 0 and t = 2

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6.2 Gradient of a Scalar Field and Directional Derivative

Gradient of a Scalar Field

The vector differentiation operator is written as ∇(read as del or nabla) denoted and defined as
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = î ∂x + ĵ ∂y + k̂ ∂z

For a given scalar function f (x, y, z) the gradient of f denoted and defined as

gradf = ∇f = î ∂f
∂x
+ ĵ ∂f
∂y
+ k̂ ∂f
∂z
, which is vector function.

Remark:1 The grad f is a vector normal to the surface f (x, y, z) = c where c is constant. So the
angle between any surfaces f (x, y, z) = c1 & g(x, y, z) = c2 is the angle between their corresponding
normals given by ∇f & ∇g respectively.
Remark:2 The gradient at P gives maximum rate of change of f in the direction of maximum
increase of f at P .
Remark:3 Projection of ∇f in any direction is equal to the derivative of in that direction.

Directional Derivative

The directional derivative of a scalar field f at a given point P in the direction of a vector a is given by

df a
Da f = ds
= gradf · â = ∇f · |a|

df
Remark:1 ∇f is a vector in the direction in which the directional derivative ds has got the maximum
value and the magnitude of ∇f has maximum rate change of f equal to the derivative of in that
direction.
Remark:2 Da f = ∇f · â = |∇f | · cosθ
• The function f increases most rapidly when cosθ = 1 that is, when θ = 0, the derivative in this
direction is Da f = |∇f | and f decreases most rapidly in the direction of −∇f , the derivative in
that direction is Da f = |∇f |cos(π) = −|∇f |.
• Any direction a orthogonal to a gradient ∇f 6= 0 is a direction of zero change in f because θ = π2
and Da f = |∇f |cos( π2 ) = |∇f | · 0 = 0

6.4 Example. Find the directional derivative of the function f (x, y, z) = xy 2 + yz 3 at the point (2, −1, 1)
in the direction of the vector î + 2ĵ + 2k̂.

Solution: We have
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = î + î + î
∂x ∂y ∂z
= î(y ) + ĵ(2xy + z 3 ) + k̂(3yz 2 )
2

(∇f )(2,−1,1) = î − 3ĵ − 3k̂

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let a = î + 2ĵ + 2k̂. Then

a
â =
|a|
î + 2ĵ + 2k̂
=p
(1)2 + (2)2 + (2)2
î + 2ĵ + 2k̂
=
3
Required directional derivative is
!
î + 2ĵ + 2k̂
∇f · â = (î − 3ĵ − 3k̂) ·
3
1−6−6
=
3
11
=−
3

6.2.1 Task -2: Gradient of a Scalar Field and Directional Derivative

(i) If r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ show that

r̂
(a) ∇(log r) = r
where r̂ is unit vector
(b) ∇(rn ) = nrn−2 · r

(ii) Find the gradient of f (x, y, z) = 2z 3 − 3(x2 + y 2 )z + tan−1 (xz) at P (1, 1, 1)

(iii) Find the unit normal vector of the cone of the revolution z 2 = 4(x2 + y 2 ) at the point P (1, 0, 2).
x2 y2
(iv) Find the direction in which f (x, y) = 2
+ 2

(a) increases most rapidly

(b) decreases most rapidly at the point P (1, 1)

(v) Find the directional derivative of φ(x, y, z) = 4xz 3 − 3x2 y 2 z at the point P (2, −1, 2)

(a) in the direction 2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂.

(b) along the direction normal to the surface x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9 at (1, 2, 3).

(vi) The temperature at any point in space is given by T = xy + yz + zx . Determine the derivative of
T in the direction 3î − 4k̂ at the point P (1, 1, 1)

(vii) Find the directional derivative of φ = 4e2x−y+z at the point P (1, 1, −1) in the direction towards the
point Q(−3, 5, 6)

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6.3 Divergence and Curl of Vector Point Function

Divergence of vector point function

Let F (x, y, z) = F1 î + F2 ĵ + F k̂ be a differentiable vector point function. Then the divergence of

F is denoted by div(F ) or ∇ · F and is define by

div(F ) = ∇ · F
 
∂ ∂ ∂
= î + ĵ + k̂ · (F1 î + F2 ĵ + F k̂)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂F1 ∂F1 ∂F1
= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Its Clearly that the divergence of a vector point function is a scalar point function

Remark if ∇ · F = div(F ) = 0 every where in some region R of space then F is called Solenoidal
vector point function.

Curl of vector point function

Let F (x, y, z) = F1 î + F2 ĵ + F k̂ be a differentiable vector point function. Then the Curl of (F ) is

denoted by Curl(F ) or ∇ × F and is defined by

Curl(F ) = ∇ × F
î ĵ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
= ∂x ∂y ∂z
F1 F2 F3

     
∂F3 ∂F2 ∂F1 ∂F3 ∂F3 ∂F1
= î − + ĵ − + k̂ −
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

Clearly curl of a vector point function is a vector point function.

Remark if ∇×F = curl(F ) = 0 every where in some region R of space then F is called Irrotational
vector point function.

Properties of Divergence and Curl

(a) For a constant a, div(a) = 0 and curl(a) = 0

(b) div(u ± v) = div(u) ± div(v)

(c) curl(u ± v) = curl(u) ± curl(v)

(d) if u is a vector point function and φ is a scalar point function then div(φu) = φ(div u) + (grad φ) · u

(e) if u is a vector point function and φ is a scalar point function then curl(φu) = φ(curl u) + (grad φ) × u

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Conservative vector field and Scalar Potential

A vector field F which can be derived from a scalar point function φ so that F = ∇φ is called a
Conservative vector field. Here φ is called scalar potential. Note that
curl F = ∇ × F = ∇ × (∇φ) = 0
Therefore F is [Link] is ”every conservative vector field is irrational”

6.5 Example. Find the divergence and curl of the vector F = xyz î + 3x2 y ĵ + (xz 2 − y 2 z)k̂ at the point
(−2, 2, 3).
Solution: We have
div F = ∇ · F
∂ ∂ ∂
= (xyz) + (3x2 y)) + (xz 2 − y 2 z)k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 2
= yz + 3x + 2xz − y
at (−2, 2, 3)
div F = 6 + 12 − 12 − 9 = 3
Now,
curl F = ∇ × F
î ĵ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
= ∂x ∂y ∂z
xyz 3x y xz 2 − y z
2 2

= î(−2yz − 0) + ĵ(xy − z 2 ) + k̂(6xy − xz)

at (−2, 2, 3)
curl F = −12î − 13ĵ − 18k̂

6.6 Example. A fluid motion is given by F = (y + z)î + (z + x)ĵ + (x + y)k̂ then show that the motion
is irrotational and hence find its scalar potential.
Solution: We have
curl (F ) = ∇ × F

î ĵ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
curl (F ) = ∂x ∂y ∂z
y+z z+x x+y

= î(1 − 1) − ĵ(1 − 1) + k̂(1 − 1)

=0
Hence F is irrotational.
If φ is the scalar potential then F = ∇φ

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∴ (y + z)î + (z + x)ĵ + (x + y)k̂ = ∂φ

∂x
î + ∂φ
∂y
ĵ + ∂φ
∂z
k̂
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∴ ∂x = y + z, ∂y = z + x, ∂z = x + y

But,
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
dφ = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
= (y + z)dx + (z + x)dy + (x + y)dz
= (ydx + xdy) + (ydz + zdy) + (zdx + xdz)
= d(xy) + d(yz) + d(zx)
By integration, We get
Φ = xy + yz + zx + c

6.7 Example. If F = (x + 3y)î + (y − 2z)ĵ + (az + x)k̂ is solenoidal,Find the value of ’a’.

Solution: We know that F is solenoidal if div F = ∇ · F = 0

Now,
∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3
∇·F = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
= (x + 3y) + (y − 2z) + (az + x)
∂x ∂y ∂z
=1+1+a
=2+a

Since F is solenoidal if ∇ · F = 0

∴ 2 + a = 0 ⇒ a = −2

6.3.1 Task -3: Divergence, Curl

(i) Find the divergence and Curl of F where F = xz 3 î − 2x2 yz ĵ + 2yz 4 k̂

(ii) If Φ = x3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3xyz, Find (a) r · ∇Φ (b) div F (c) curl F

(iii) if a is constant vector and r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂, Prove that

(a) ∇(a · r) = a
(b) curl(a × r) = 2a
(c) div(a × r × a) = 2a2

(iv) Prove that (a) rn r is irrotational. (b)div( rr3 ) = 0

a×r
(v) Is F = rn
a solenoidal vector? where a is a constant vector

(vi) A vector field is given by F = (x2 + xy 2 )î + (y 2 + x2 y)ĵ. Show that the field is irrotational and also
find the scalar potential.

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6.4 Answers of Tasks

Answer:Task -1

(i) v = (6cos3t)î − (6sin3t)ĵ + 8k̂, a = −18sin3tî − 18cos3tĵ ,|v| = 10 and |a| = 18

3a
(ii) 2

24 18
(iii) Component of velocity = 7
and Component of acceleration = 7
 
(iv) Tangent vector(T ) = 2tî+2 cos tĵ−2 sin tk̂ and Unit tangent vector T̂ = √ 1 2tî + 2 cos tĵ − 2 sin tk̂
4t2 +4

(v) Unit tangent vector T̂t=1 = √1 (1î + 3ĵ + 6k̂)

46

(vi) 4

Answer:Task -2

1 664
(ii) 2
(−11î − 12ĵ + k̂) (v) (a) 7
(b) 272
3

(iii) √2 î − √1 (vi) − 45
5 5

(iv) (a) √12 î + √1 ĵ

2
(b) − √12 î − √1 ĵ
2
(v) − 20
9

Answer:Task -3

(i) div(F ) = z 3 − 2x2 z + 8yz 3 and curl(F ) = 2(z 4 + x2 y)î + 3xz 2 ĵ − 4xyz k̂

(ii) (a) 3Φ (b) 6(x + y + z) (c) 0

(v) Solenoidal

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Chapter-7
Vector Integral Calculus

7 Unit-VII Vectors Integral calculus

In this chapter we shall study integration of vector functions like line integral, surface integral and volume
integrals. We will also consider some important application of such integrals, which occur frequently in
connection with physical and engineering problems. Further we will study three important theorems like
Green’s Theorem,Stoke’s Theorem and Gauss’s Divergence Theorem and finally study how to find work
done by a force,circulation and flux of a fluid etc.

7.1 Line Integral and Green’s Theorem

RB
The line integral is a simple generalization of a definite integral f (x)dx which is integrated from
A
x = A to x = B along [Link] line integral, the integration is done along a curve C in [Link] other
words, any integral which is to be evaluated along a curve is called a line Integral.

z Let F~ (~r) be a vector function defined at every point of a curve C. If ~r is the position vector of a point
P (x, y, z) on the curve C, then the line integral along a curve C is defined by

Z Z
F~ (~r) · d~r = (F1 dx + F2 dy + F3 dz)
C C

Where F~ = F1 î + F2 ĵ + F3 k̂ and ~r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂

z If the curve C is represented by a parametric representation ~r(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂,

then the integral along the curve C from t = a to t = b is

Z Zb
d~r
F~ (~r) · d~r = F~ ·
dt
C a
Zb  
dx dy dz
= F1 dx + F2 + F3 dt
dt dt dt
a

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R H
z If C is closed curve, then the symbol of the line integral is replaced by .
C c

Remark:

1. The Curve C is called the path of integration, the points ~r(a) and ~r(b) are called initial and
terminal points respectively.

2. The direction from A to B along which t increases is called positive direction on C

Work Done

The Work Done by a force F~ = P î + Qĵ + Rk̂ acting on a particle moving along the arc AB of the
RB
curve C, then the line integral F~ · d~r represent the work done in displacing(moving) the particle from
A
the point A to the point B.

Flux and Circulation

z The flux of a quantity is defined as the rate at which this quantity passes through a fixed boundary
per unit time(Flow). If ~r(t) is a smooth curve in continuous velocity field F~ , the flow along the curve from
t = a to t = b is given by
Zb
F low = F~ · d~r
a

The integral in this case is called the a flow integral.

z If the curve is closed loop the flow or flux is called the circulation around the curve.
I
Circulation = F~ · d~r
C
where C is closed curve.
Remark:
If the circulation of a fluid along the curve is zero,it means the fluid is not flowing along the [Link]
H
F is irrotational. In other words, If F · dr = 0 then F is irrotational.
C

Conservative Field and Scalar Potentials(Path Independence of Line Integral)

If F is conservative,then there exists a scalar point function φ such that F = ∇φ.

The line integral of F along the curve C from A to B is

Z ZB ZB   ZB
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
F · dr = ∇φ · dr = dx + dy + dz = dφ = φ(B) − φ(A)
∂x ∂y ∂z
C A A A
Therefore
Z
F · dr = φ(B) − φ(A)
C
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Thus the line integral depends only on the starting point and the ending [Link] other words, the line
integral is independent of the path, joining A and B. It is clear that for a conservative force, the line
integral is independent of the path.

Remark:
H
1. If F is conservative and C is a closed curve then F · dr = 0.
C

2. The work done in moving a particle from point A to point B under conservative force field is
φ(B) − φ(A)

Green’s Theorem: Relation between Line Integral and Double Integral

Let M (x, y) andN (x, y) be continuous functions of x and y having continuous partial derivatives
∂M
∂y
and ∂N
∂x
in a region R of the xy plane bounded by a closed curve C. Then
I ZZ  
∂N ∂M
(M (x, y)dx + N (x, y)dy) = − dxdy
∂x ∂y
C R

Where C is traversed in the counter clockwise direction.

R
7.1 Example. If F = 3xy î − y 2 ĵ,evaluate F · dr ,Where C is the arc of the parabola y = 2x2 from (0, 0)
C
to (1, 2).
Solution: Let the position vector r = xî + y ĵ then dr = dxî + dy ĵ, We get the

F · dr = (3xy î − y 2 ĵ) · (îdx + ĵdy)

= 3xydx − y 2 dy

The path of integration is parabola y = 2x2 , dy = 4xdx

By Substituting F · dr and integration between the limits x = 0 to x = [Link] get

Z Z1
F · dr = [3xydx − y 2 dy]
C 0

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Z1
= [3x(2x2 )dx − 4x4 (4x)dx)]
0
Z1
= (6x3 − 16x5 )dx
0
1
3x4 8 6

= − x
2 3 0
3 8
= −
2 3
7
=−
6
7.2 Example. Find the flow along the helix r(t) = a cos tî + a sin tĵ + tk̂ of the fluid velocity field
F = xî + z ĵ + y k̂, 0 ≤ t ≤ π2
Solution:We first find F in terms of t on the helix by putting x = a cos t, y = a sin t , z = t

∴ F = xî + z ĵ + y k̂ = a cos tî + tĵ + a sin tk̂

Since

r(t) = a cos tî + a sin tĵ + tk̂

dr
= −a cos tî + a cos tĵ + k̂
dt
dr
F· = (a cos tî + a sin tĵ + tk̂) · (−a cos tî + a cos tĵ + k̂)
dt
π
Z2
dr
F low = F· · dt
dt
0
π
Z2
= (−a sin t cos t + at cos t + a sin t)dt
0
π
Z2  
d
= −a sin t cos t + (at sin t) dt
dt
0
 π2
a cos2 t

= + at sin t
2 0
aπ a
= −
2 2
a
= (π − 1)
2
R
7.3 Example. Using Green’s theorem,Evaluate (2x2 − y 2 )dx + (x2 + y 2 )dy where C is the boundary of
C
circle x2 + y 2 = a2 above the x-axis.
Solution: Using Green’s Theorem, We can write
I ZZ  
∂N ∂M
(M (x, y)dx + N (x, y)dy) = − dxdy
∂x ∂y
C R
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Where M (x, y) and N (x, y) is given by M (x, y) = 2x2 − y 2 , N (x, y) = x2 + y 2

∂N ∂M
∴ = 2x and = −2y
∂x ∂y
ZZ ZZ
I= (2x + 2y)dxdy = 2 (x + y)dxdy
R R
√
Now, Consider a strip parallel to the y- [Link] this strip from 0 to a2 − x2 .The strip moves −a to a.
√
Za a2 −x2
Z
I=2 (x + y)dydx
−a 0
Za  2
√a2 −x2
y
=2 xy + dx
2 0
−a
Za √(a2 − x2 )
 
=2 x − + a2 x2
dx
2
−a
 
Za 2 2
(a − x ) 
= 2 0 + 2 dx
2
0
Za
=2 (a2 − x2 )dx
0
a
x3 4a3

2
=2 a x− =
3 0 3

7.1.1 Task:1 Line Integral and Green’s Theorem

R
(i) Evaluate F · dr where F = (x2 + y 2 )î − 2xy ĵ) and C is the rectangle in xy plane bounded by
C
y = 0,x = a,y = b and x = 0.

(ii) Find the work done by the force F = 3x2 î + (2xz − y)ĵ + z k̂ over the curve r(t) = tî + t2 ĵ + t3 k̂,
0 ≤ t ≤ 1 , from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1)

(iii) Find the circulation around the circle r(t) = a cos tî + a sin tĵ of the velocity field
F = (x − y)î + xĵ, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

(iv) If F = 2xyz î + (x2 z + 2y)ĵ + x2 y k̂ then

(a) if F is conservative, find its scalar potential φ

(b) find the work done in moving a particle under this force field from (0, 1, 1) to (1, 2, 0)
R
(v) Using Green’s theorem, evaluate (3x2 − 8y 2 )dx + (4y − 6xy)dy where C is the bounded by x ≥ 0 ,
C
y ≤ 0 and 2x − 3y = 6
R 1 1
 √
(vi) Evaluate y
dx + x
dy ; where C is the boundary of the region bounded by the parabola y = x
C
and the lines x = 1, x = 4, y = 1 and also verify the Green’s theorem.

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(vii) Find the work done by force F = (4x − 2y)î + (2x − 4y)ĵ in moving a particle once counter clockwise
around the circle (x − 2)2 + (y − 2)2 = [Link] green’s theorem.
H
(viii) Using green’s theorem to evaluate (2xy)dx − (y 2 )dy where C is the boundary of the region bounded
C
x2 y2
by ellipse a2
+ b2
=1

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7.2 Surface Integral and Volume Integral

Surface Integral

The integral which can be evaluated over a surface is known as surface integral.

Let F be a single valued continuous vector point function defined over a surface S, where S be two sided
surface. Divide the surface S into a finite number of sub-surfaces δS1 , δS2 , ...δSn . Let Pi be any point in
δSi and n̂i be unit vector at Pi in the direction of outward drawn normal to the surface at Pi . Then the
limit of the sum. n
X
F (Pi )n̂i δSi
i=1

as n −→ ∞ and each δSi −→ 0, if limit exist then it is called the surface integral of F (P ) over S and is
denoted by
ZZ
F · n̂dS
S

The Surface element δS surrounding any point P can be regard as vector whose magnitude is area δS and
the direction is that of the outward drawn normal n̂. That is ,δS = δS n̂
RR
The surface integral may alternatively be written as F · dS.
S

Remark:

1. If F represents the velocity of fluid at any point P on a closed surface S then F · n̂ is normal
component of F at P and ZZ I
F · n̂dS = F · dr = 0
S C

is a measure of volume emerging from S per unit [Link] is it measures the flux of F over
S
RR
2. If F · n̂dS = 0 thenF is called the solenoidal vector function.
S

3. The work done in moving a particle from point A to point B under conservative force field is
φ(B) − φ(A)

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Evaluation of Surface Integral

A surface integral is evaluated by expressing it as a double integral over the the region R. The region
R is the orthogonal projection of S on one of the coordinate xy-plane, yz-plane & xz-plane. Let R be
the orthogonal projection of S on xy-plane and cos α, cos β & cos γ are the direction cosines of n̂. Then

n̂ = cos α î + cos β ĵ + cos γ k̂

dxdy = Projection of dS on xy plane
= dS cos γ
dxdy
dS =
cos γ

dxdy
dS =
|k̂ · n̂|
Hence , ZZ ZZ
dxdy
F · n̂dS = F · n̂
|k̂ · n̂|
S R

Similarly, ZZ ZZ
dydz
F · n̂dS = F · n̂
|î · n̂|
S R0

Where R0 is the orthogonal projection of S in yz plane and

ZZ ZZ
dxdz
F · n̂dS = F · n̂
00
|ĵ · n̂|
S R

Where R00 is the orthogonal projection of S in xz plane.

Volume Integral

Let F be continuous vector point function and, V is closed region. Divide V into n subregions having
volumes δv1 , δv2 , · · · , δvn . Take arbitrary point Pi in δvi and ri be its position vector, then consider sum
Pn
F (ri )δvi . The limit of the sum as n −→ ∞ if ti is exists and volume of each sub region tends to zero
i=1
and it is independent mode of sub division is called volume integral of F over V and It is denoted by
ZZZ
F dV
V

Note: Any integral which is to be evaluated over volume is called a volume [Link] V is a volume
bounded by a surface then the triple integral
RRR RRR
F dV and φ dV are called volume integrals.
V RRR V RRR
It is clear that F dV is a vector and φ dV is a scalar.
V V

Evaluation of Volume Integral

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If we subdivide the volume V into small cuboid by drawing planes parallel to the coordinate planes,
then

dV = dxdydz
ZZZ ZZZ
φ dV = φ(x, y, z) dxdydz
V V

If F = F1 î + F2 ĵ + F3 k̂ then
ZZZ ZZZ ZZZ ZZZ
F dV = î F1 (x, y, z) dV + ĵ F2 (x, y, z) dV + k̂ F3 (x, y, z) dV
V V V V

RR
7.4 Example. Evaluate F · n̂dS where F = (x2 + y 2 )î − (2x)ĵ + 2yz k̂ and S is the surface of the plane
S
2x+y+2z=6 in the first octant.

Solution: The given surface is the plane 2x+y+2z =6 in the first octant.

Let φ(x, y, z) = 2x + y + 2z − 6 Therefore

∇φ = 2î + hatj + 2k̂

Let
∇φ 2î + ĵ + 2k̂ 2 1 2
n̂ = = = î + ĵ + k̂
|∇φ| 3 3 3 3
Now, Let R be orthogonal projection of 2x + y + 2z = 6(first octant) on xy-plane which is a triangle
OAB bounded by the lines x = 0,y = 0 and 2x + y = 6. We have
dxdy
dS =
|n̂ · k̂|
dxdy
=
2/3
= (3/2) dxdy

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In the region R, y varies from 0 to 6 − 2x and x varies from 0 to 3. Now

h i 2 1 2

2 2
F · n̂ = (x + y )î − (2x)ĵ + 2yz k̂ · î + ĵ + k̂
3 3 3
2 2 4
= (x2 + y 2 ) − x + yz
3 3 3
2 2 4
= y + yz
3 3  
2 2 4 6 − 2x − y
= y + y
3 3 2
2
= y(y + 6 − 2x − y)
3
4
= y(3 − x)
3
Now,
ZZ ZZ
dxdy
F · n̂dS = F · n̂
|n̂ · k̂|
S R
Z3 6−2x
Z
3 4
= y(3 − x)dydx
2 3
0 0
Z3 6−2x
Z
=2 y(3 − x)dydx
0 0
Z3 6−2x
y2

=2 (3 − x) dx
2 0
0
Z3
=4 (3 − x)3 dx
0
(3 − x)4 3

=4 0
4(−1)
= 34
= 81
RRR
7.5 Example. Evaluate F dV where F = 2î + (2z)ĵ + y k̂ and V is the region bounded by the planes
V
z=0, z=4 and the surface x2 + y 2 = 9.

Solution: Here we used cylindrical polar coordinates

x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, z = z, dV = rdrdθdz

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ZZZ Z2π Z3 Z4
F dV = (2î + 2z ĵ + r sin θk̂) r dz dr dθ
V 0 0 0
Z2π Z3 h i4
= 2z î + z 2 ĵ + z r sin θ k̂ r dr dθ
0
0 0
Z2π Z3 h i4
= 8 î + 16 ĵ + 4r sin θ k̂ r dr dθ
0
0 0
Z2π  3
2 2 r3
= 4r î + 8r ĵ + 4 sin θ k̂ dθ
3 0
0
Z2π h i
= 36 î + 72 ĵ + 36 sin θ k̂ dθ
h0 i
= (36 î + 72 ĵ)θ − 36 cos θk̂ 02pi
= (36 î + 72 ĵ)2π − 36k̂ + 36k̂
= 72π(î + 2ĵ)

7.2.1 Task:2 Surface Integral and Volume Integral

RR
(i) Evaluate F · n̂ dS where F = z î + x ĵ − 3y 2 z k̂ and S is the surface of the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 16
S
included in the first octant between z = 0 and z = 5.
RR
(ii) Evaluate F · n̂ dS where F = yz î + xz ĵ + xy k̂ and S is the surface of the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1
S
in the first octant.
RR
(iii) Evaluate F · n̂ dS where F = x î + (z 2 − zx) ĵ − xy k̂ and S is the surface of the triangle with
S
vertices (2, 0, 0), (0, 2, 0), (0, 0, 4)
RRR
(iv) Evaluate F dV where F = 2xz î − x ĵ − y 2 k̂ and V is the region bounded by the surface
V
x = 0, y = 0, x = 2, y = 6, z = x2 , z = 4.
RRR

(v) For F = x2 y î + y 2 ĵ, evaluate ∇ × F dV , where V is the volume under the plane z = x + y + 2
V
(and above z = 0) for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1,−1 ≤ y ≤ 1.
RRR

(vi) F = (2x2 − 3z)î − 2xy ĵ − 4xk̂ then evaluate ∇ · F dV , where V is the volume under the plane
V
x = 0 ,z = 0, y = 0 and 2x + 2y + z = 4.

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7.3 Stoke’s Theorem and Gauss Theorem of Divergence

Stoke’s Theorem

Let S be open surface bounded by a closed curve C and F = F1 î + F2 ĵ + F3 k̂ be any vector point
function having continuous first order partial derivatives. Then
I ZZ ZZ
F · dr = curl(F ) · n̂dS = (∇ × F ) · n̂dS
C S S

Where n̂ is the unit outward normal to any point of surface S.

Gauss Theorem of Divergence

If F is a vector point function having continuous first order partial derivative in the region V bounded
by closed surface S then ZZZ ZZ


∇ · F dV = F · n̂ dS
V S

Where n̂ is the unit outward normal to any point of surface S.

In other words:
The Volume integral of the divergence of a vector point function F taken over the volume V enclosed by
a surface S is equal to the surface integral of the normal component of F taken over the closed surface S.

Remarks

1. The Stokes Theorem is a relation between Line integral and surface integrals.

2. The Gauss Theorem is a relation between surface integrals and Volume integral.
H
7.6 Example. If F = y 2 î + x2 ĵ − (z + y)k̂ ,Evaluate F · dr by using Stoke’s theorem, where C is the
C
boundary of the triangle with vertices (0, 0, 0),(1, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 0).

Solution: Here C is the boundary of the triangle with vertices (0, 0, 0),(1, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 0).The z
coordinate of each point of the triangle is zero.

Hence the triangle lies in the xy-plane as shown in [Link] Stoke’s theorem
I ZZ ZZ
F · dr = curl(F ) · n̂dS = (∇ × F ) · n̂dS
C S S
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Where S is the surface of 4OAB.

We have F = y 2 î + x2 ĵ − (x + z)k̂.

curl(F ) = ∇ × F
î ĵ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
= ∂x ∂y ∂z
2 2
y x −(x + z)
= ĵ + (2x − 2y)k̂

Also, We have the surface S is the triangle OAB in the xy-plane. Therefore n̂ = k̂.So
dxdy
ds =
n̂ · k̂
ds = dxdy

Let R be the region in xy-plane bounded by the lines y = 0,y = x,x = 0 and x = 1 Therefore

ZZ Z1 Zx
curl(F ) · n̂dS = (ĵ + (2x − 2y)k̂) · k̂dxdy
S 0 0
Z1 Zx
= (2x − 2y)dydx
0 0
Z1 
y2 x

= −2 xy − 0 dx
2
0
Z1 
x2

2
= −2 x − dx
2
Z 0
= x2 dx
 3 1
x
=
3 0
1
=
3
Therefore ZZ
1
curl(F ) · n̂dS =
3
S

Hence I
1
F · dr =
3
C
RRR
7.7 Example. Evaluate ∇ · F · dV by using Gauss’s Divergence theorem, where F = 4xî − 2y 2 ĵ − z 2 k̂
V
taken over the region bounded by the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 4,z = 0,z = 3.

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Solution: Fig
Here F = 4xî − 2y 2 ĵ − z 2 k̂,Therefore
∂ ∂ ∂
∇·F =
(4x) + (−2y 2 ) + (z 2 )
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 4 − 4y + 2z
√ √
for the given bounded cylinder x varies from -2 to 2, y varies from − 4 − x2 to 4 − x2 and z varies from
0 to 3.
√
ZZZ Z2 Z4−x2 Z3
∴ ∇ · F · dV = (4 − 4y + 2z) dz dy dx
√
V −2 − 4−x2 0
√
Z2 Z4−x2
4z − 4yz + z 2 03 dy dx
 
=
√
−2 − 4−x2

√
Z2 Z4−x2
= (12 − 12y + 9) dy dx
√
−2 − 4−x2
√
Z2 Z4−x2
= (21 − 12y) dy dx
√
−2 − 4−x2
√  √ 
Z2 Z4−x2 Z4−x2
= 21 dy dx ∴ 12y is an odd function 12y dy = 0
 
√ √
−2 − 4−x2 − 4−x2
√  √ √ 
Z2 Z4−x2 Z4−x2 Z4−x2
= 42 dy dx ∴ 21 is even function 21 dy = 2 21 dy 
 
√
−2 0 − 4−x2 0

Z2 √
2
= 42 [y]0 4−x dx
−2
Z2 √
= 42 4 − x2 dx
−2
 
Z2 √ √
= 42 2 4 − x2 dx (∴ 4 − x2 is an even function)
 0
x √  4 
2 −1 x
= 84 4 − x + sin
2 2 2
 
2π
= 84
2
= 84π

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7.3.1 Task:3 Stokes Theorem and Gauss Theorem of Divergence

(i) For F = (x2 + y − 4)î + (3xy)ĵ + (2xz + z 2 )k̂. Verify Stoke’s theorem over the surface at the sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 16 above xy-plane.

(ii) Using Stoke’s theorem, Find the work done in moving particle once, around the perimeter of the
triangle with vertices at (2, 0, 0),(0, 3, 0),(0, 0, 6) under the force field F = (x+y)î+(2x−z)ĵ+(y+z)k̂.

(iii) Verify Stoke’s theorem for F = (x2 + y 2 )î − 2xy ĵ taken around the rectangle bounded by the lines
x = a, x = −a,y = 0 and y = b.
RR
(iv) Evaluate (x3 dy dz + x2 y dz dx + x2 z dx dz) , using divergence theorem,Where S is the closed
S
surface bounded by the cylinder x2 + y 2 = a2 and the planes z = 0,z = b.

(v) Use the divergence theorem to find the outward flux of F = y î + xy ĵ + z k̂ across the region inside
the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 4 between the plane z = 0 and the paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 .

(vi) Verify divergence theorem for F = (x2 − yz)î − (y 2 − xz)ĵ + (z 2 − xy)k̂ taken over the rectangular
parallelepiped 0 ≤ x ≤ a, 0 ≤ y ≤ b, 0 ≤ z ≤ c.

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7.4 Answers of Tasks

Answer:Task -1

(i) −2ab2 (v) 20

5 3
(ii) 3
(vi) 4

(iii) 2πa2 (vii) 16π

(iv) (a) φ = x2 yz + y 2 + c (b) Work Done = 3 (viii) 0

Answer:Task -2

(i) 90 (iv) 128î − 24ĵ + 384k̂

3 −8
(ii) 8
(v) 3
k̂
−22 8
(iii) 3
(vi) 3

Answer:Task -3

5
(i) −16π (iv) 4
πa4 b

(ii) 21 (v) −8π

(iii) −4ab2 (vi) abc(a + b + c)

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8.1 May 2013 to October 2017

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