NAME OF THE DISCIPLINE: AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

SEMESTER: 5th
NAME OF THE SUBJECT: SEED PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
SUBJECT CODE: 510(S)

Sl. No. Topic

UNIT 1 Introduction And Principles Of Seed Processing
UNIT 2 Seed Drying
UNIT 3 Seed Storage
UNIT 4 Physiology And Deterioration Of Stored Seed
UNIT 5 Temperature And Relative Humidity In Seed Storage
UNIT 6 Disease And Insect Management In Seed Storage
UNIT 7 Seed Viability, Vigour And Dormancy
UNIT 8 Seed Priming
UNIT 9 Seed Pelleting
UNIT 10 Seed Testing
UNIT 11 Packaging And Labeling Of Vegetable Seeds
UNIT 12 Seed Marketing, Management Of Seed Distribution, Seed Market Promotion And
Seed Orice Management
 1
1.1 Definition of Seed

Botanically seed is defined as fertilized, matured ovule consisting of an embryonic plant

together with a store of food, all surrounded by a protective coat.

In seed science, the seed is any part or organ of the plant which has capability to regenerate a
new plant.

1.2 Uses

Seed produced by crop plants are used directly as food and/or for extraction of oil, malt and
medicine and/or propagation of a new generation.

1.3 Kinds of seed

(i) True seed: True seed developed from the ovule and ovary of a flower.

(ii) Vegetative seed: The seed is produced by some angiosperms which do not produce seed or
flower in their adaptive environment.

New plants are generated from modified root (sweet potato), modified stem (potato,
ginger, onion), leaf (aloe), sett (sugarcane), sucker (pine apple) etc.

1.4 Difference between seed and grain

Sl. no. Seed Grain

1 It should be a viable and vigorous one Need not be a viable one
2 It should be physically and genetically pure Not so
Should satisfy minimum seed certification
3 No such requirements
standards
It can be treated with pesticide /fungicide to It should never be treated with any
4
protect seed against storage pests and fungi chemicals, since used for consumption
Respiration rate and other physiological and
5 biological processes should be kept at low No such specifications
level during storage
6 Should be compulsorily certified No such condition in grain production
7 It should satisfy all the quality norms Not considered
Seed can be utilized as grain provided if it is Grain never can be converted into
8
not treated with poisonous chemicals seed.
1.5 Seed Processing
Seed processing or seed conditioning is the preparation of harvested seed for marketing to
farmers. The processes involved include drying, threshing, precleaning, cleaning, size grading,
treating, quality testing, packaging and labelling.

After harvesting, seeds are threshed, dried, cleaned and tested before being stored and
distributed to farmers for planting. Newly harvested and threshed seeds from the field often
contain undesirable materials (e.g. stems, leaves and chaff; stones and soil particles; weed
seeds and other unwanted seeds). It is essential to remove impurities to obtain good quality
pure seed of the required crop and variety.

1.6 Principles of seed processing

Within the seed lot, both the pure seeds and any undesirable materials may present major
differences in physical properties:

• size (length, width, thickness)

• shape

• weight/density

• texture (rough, smooth, pointed)

• colour

The seed-cleaning operation exploits these differences to separate the desired seed from the
contaminants. However, the seeds of the required end product may not be uniform, including
big and small, long and short seeds. Moreover, seeds and contaminants (e.g. weeds) without
sufficiently different physical characteristics are not easily separated. No single machine is
capable of separating seeds on the basis of all the physical properties listed above. A variety of
cleaning machines and equipment exist to separate seed according to specific physical
characteristics.

1.7 Properties of good seed

Quality seed must meet certain quality standards in the laboratory:

• Moisture content (max. %)

• Physical purity (min. %)

• Genetic or varietal purity (min. %)

• Germination capacity (min. %)

• Seed health (maximum incidence of diseases or insects)

1.8 Steps involved in seed processing

The principal operations in a seed-processing plant are reception; drying; cleaning and grading;
treatment; and weighing, packaging and storage.

1.9 Seed harvesting and cleaning methods

Seed harvesting and cleaning methods can be divided into two methods: dry processing and
wet processing.

1.9.1 Dry processing: Dry processing involves harvesting seed that has already matured and
dried within the seed bearing portion of the plant. Examples of dry processed seed plants
include beans, broccoli, corn, lettuce, okra, onions, sunflower, and turnips.

When seeds are ready to be processed, the entire seedpod, capsule, or seed head will
become brown and dry. After harvest, seeds are threshed to remove the seed from the
surrounding plant material. A period of air drying is important before seeds are threshed. There
are many different methods for threshing seed.

In the harvesting process and after threshing, dry seeds are usually mixed with other plant
materials such as sticks and leaves, dirt, stones, and weed seeds that are inadvertently
collected with the harvested seed. The seed is then cleaned (separated from the other material)
by techniques based on differences in size, shape or weight of the seed. There are also
machines that separate the seed from other materials based on electromagnetic charge or on
the color of the seed, but these machines are expensive and typically only used by larger seed
companies.

1.9.2 Wet processing: Wet processing is used when the mature seed is enclosed within a fleshy
fruit or berry. Examples of wet processed seed plants include cucumbers, melons, and
tomatoes. Some vegetables can be either dry processed or wet processed, for example,
peppers, and squash.

There are three steps to the process:

(i) Extraction of the seed from the fruit: The type of extraction process depends on the species.
Some wet-seeded seed crops benefit from a fermentation process following the extraction.
Others can simply be washed thoroughly and dried. Cucumbers, melons, and tomatoes have a
gel surrounding the seed that contains germination inhibitors. The presence of the gel also
makes handling and drying of the seed difficult. Fermentation is a natural process that occurs
to a small extent as fruits decompose. When fermentation is done in a controlled manner, the
microorganisms, principally yeast, break down the gel thus releasing the seed while killing
bacteria and fungi that cause most seed-borne diseases.

(ii) Washing the seeds: After fermentation is complete, the seeds are washed to remove pulp,
pieces of fruit and debris, and low quality seed.

(iii) Drying: Seeds should be dried fairly quickly after washing.

1.10 Equipments used for cleaning

(1) Pre-cleaning

Pre-cleaning is the preparation of the threshed seed for subsequent processing operations (e.g.
drying and basic cleaning). It involves the rapid removal of impurities that are either very fine or
very large compared to the seed, and the breakage or dispersal of materials in clusters. Pre-
cleaned seed flows better and improves the overall performance of the processing plant. It is
important to dry and pre-clean seed as soon as it arrives at the processing plant. Pre-cleaning
involves winnowing, scalping and de-bearding.

(a) Winnowing: Winnowing separates heavy and light material. Simple winnowing trays are
used; alternatively, the material is dropped through a stream of wind onto a clean area on the
ground.

(b) Scalping: Scalpers are available in various forms. One common type has two screens to
separate the seed into three portions. The screens are fixed at a slight incline and then
mechanically vibrated as the raw seed passes through. The raw seed is fed onto the top flat
screen, which removes large debris, straw, leaves and other chaff. The seeds and other small
particles fall through onto the screen below. The seed on the second screen is discharged into a
hopper, while smaller impurities fall through the holes of the lower screen and are swept away
by a draft of air.

Another type of scalper is a round drum made from perforated metal and set at a slight
incline. The drum rotates and the seeds fall through the perforations; the debris remaining in
the drum is removed.

(c) De-bearder: The de-bearder or de-awner breaks down clusters of material. The de-awner is
enclosed in a steel drum and equipped with a shaft fitted with staggered steel beaters; the
shaft rotates and the beaters break up the material as it passes through the machine.
(2) Basic cleaning

Basic cleaning is the main operation in seed processing and involves the removal of all materials
other than the required seed.

(a) Manual basic cleaning: Manual basic cleaning is only possible for very small quantities.
Manual methods include:

-Hand-picking to eliminate impurities (e.g. off-coloured beans) on some kind of “sorting table”;
and

-Sieving to remove damaged grains or other unwanted particles.

(b) Air-screen cleaner: For larger quantities, mechanical basic cleaning is necessary. The
machine normally used for basic cleaning is the air-screen cleaner.

Principles of air-screen cleaner operation:

The air-screen cleaner is widely used and achieves a high level of physical purity. It is based on
screens and a stream of air, and separates the seed lot into various quality fractions based on
size (length, width and thickness), weight and density.

The process entails three main steps:

i. Aspiration by suction air - Removal of light particles (light seeds and chaffy materials) from
the mass of seed.

ii. Scalping - Removal of coarse impurities (trash and clods). They are channeled to an outlet
spout, while the remaining seed moves onto grading screens.

iii. Fine cleaning/grading - Removal of oversized and undersized seeds and other particles (e.g.
stones and sand). The cleaned seed goes into the outlet for bagging or further processing.

Types of air-screen cleaners

The air-screen cleaner can be classified as,

(i) Flat vibratory air-screen cleaner

(ii) Rotary screen cleaner

Cleaning Efficiency

𝐸(𝐸 − 𝐹)(𝐹 − 𝐺)(1 − 𝐺)

𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
(𝐸 − 𝐺)2 𝐹(1 − 𝐹)

Where, E= fraction of clean seed at clean seed outlet

F= fraction clean seed in feed

G= fraction of clean seed at foreign matter outlet

Role of Agricultural Engineer in Seed Processing

The Agricultural Engineers are associated with the development of technology to manufacture
indigeneously the suitable seed planting, harvesting, machinery for seed crops and also the
seed drying, seed processing machinery, seed handling and seed testing equipment.
 2
2.1 Drying
Drying reduces the moisture content of the seed to the recommended levels for seed
processing and storage. Drying is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer process. During entire
process enthalpy remains constant.

Drying seeds not only increases longevity in storage, but also prevents attack by pests and
pathogens. Seed moisture content is key to the longevity of seed in storage. Seeds lose viability
and vigor during processing and storage mainly because of high seed moisture content (seed
moisture greater than 18%).

High seed moisture causes a number of problems:

(i) Increases the respiration rate of seeds, raising the temperature within the seed lot to
potentially fatal levels;

(ii) Causes growth of mould injurious to the health of the seeds; and

(iii) Decrease of percentage of germination.

2.2 Drying seeds (using silica gel) for long-term storage

Silica gel is the most effective desiccant (moisture absorbing material) for drying seeds. Silica
gel is a highly porous form of silica that absorbs moisture. It is available as a powder or as beads
in different sizes.

“Color-indicating” silica gel is a form of silica gel that has been treated with a small amount of
cobalt chloride which acts as a moisture indicator. When the indicator gel is completely dry it is
a deep blue color. As the gel absorbs moisture from the air, it gradually changes in color from
deep blue to light pink. Silica gel can be repeatedly reactivated (re-dried) after it has absorbed
moisture. The procedure involves heating the gel and driving off the moisture, and as it dries
the color gradually changes to deep blue. Drying must be done in a controlled fashion,
otherwise the beads will turn black, and the moisture-absorbing capacity of the beads will be
destroyed. There are two methods for reactivating silica gel, (i) Oven-drying method and (ii)
Microwave-drying method.
2.3 Methods of seed drying
After harvesting and threshing, dry seeds promptly to prevent deterioration. Choose a drying
method based on the prevailing conditions and the quantity of seed to be dried. The techniques
adopted must not be injurious to seed viability and vigour. Low-cost drying options include sun
drying and other mechanical methods appropriate for small-scale seed enterprises.

(i) Sun Drying

If dried in the sun, the temperature should not exceed 35 0C. The system involves spreading the
seeds in thin layers on dry, clean floors. As the seed moisture content decreases, it reaches a
point of equilibrium with the relative humidity. The drying process is fast initially, and then
gradually slows down. Once the seed is sufficiently dry, take samples to determine the moisture
content using a hand-held moisture meter.

(ii) Artificial drying using mechanical seed dryers

In tropical countries, seed drying is a major problem for farmers and enterprises, especially
when the harvest coincides with wet weather. Simple mechanical dryers offer an effective
solution. Unlike traditional sun drying, heated air drying permits the creation of uniform air
conditions. Mechanical drying produces better quality seed than traditional sun drying and is,
therefore, usually recommended for the production of premium quality seed.

Heated-air mechanical dryers normally dry seed in batches. A certain amount of seed is
dried at a time, depending on the volume or holding capacity of the dryer. In batch drying, take
into account the loading and unloading time for each batch of seed to be dried. Batch drying
bins may be stationary or portable.

(a) Static grain dryers (flat-bed dryers): The most common static or fixed-bed dryers are flat-
bed dryers. Simple machines, they are designed for use at farm or village level. With a daily
capacity of 1–3 tonnes, small-scale flat-bed dryers are easy to construct (using locally available
and cheap materials) and straightforward to operate. The walls of the drying bin are
constructed using wood, brick or metal. The floor of the drying chamber is made from fine wire
mesh (suitably supported) or perforated metal.

Lay the seed on a perforated screen, and force air up from below. The air fan is usually a
simple axial flow fan powered by a diesel engine or electric motor. It may also be powered by
kerosene burner, biomass stove or solar power. The air temperature is set according to the
desired safe storage moisture content of the seed.

A disadvantage of the static grain dryer is that moisture gradients form through the bed. The
grain nearest to the wall of the incoming hot air becomes over-dried as it is the first to lose
moisture to the hot air. The air absorbs the moisture given off from the grain, resulting in a
reduction in air temperature. The capacity of the hot air, therefore, decreases as it moves
through the grain bed. The difference in moisture content between the layer of grain nearest to
the hot air and the outer layer varies according to grain thickness, hot air temperature and
airflow rate.

(b) Recirculating grain dryers: Recirculating batch dryers can handle large amounts of seed in
the peak season and produce high-quality grain. Mixing the seed during drying avoids the
problem of moisture gradients experienced with flat-bed bin dryers. The most common version
of a recirculating batch dryer is a self-contained unit comprising a tall vertical drying column
around a central plenum chamber (for mixing); a fan and heater; and a central auger/screw
conveyor (for transporting the grain from the bottom to the top). The discharged grain is
recycled back through the dryer 3–4 times until its moisture content reaches the desired level.
Once dried, the grain is discharged from the top. The recirculating dryer results in uniform grain
moisture content.

A disadvantage is that the loading, unloading and circulation of grain can create dust, which
must then be removed and collected. It is recommended to pre-clean the seed prior to loading
and drying.

(c) Continuous-flow dryers: Continuous drying means that the grain flows continuously through
the dryer without stopping. Continuous-flow dryers are an extension of recirculating batch
dryers. However, rather than the grain recirculating from bottom to top, as in the recirculating
dryer, the grain is removed from the bottom and conveyed to tempering (holding of grain during
two drying passes) or storage bins.
Compared with static dryers and recirculating batch dryers, continuous-flow dryers have
the greatest drying capacity. The equipment is expensive and initial costs are high, but the
operating costs per tonne can be relatively low,
 3
3.1 Importance and Purpose of Seed Storages
The purpose of seed storage is to maintain the seed in good physical and physiological
condition from the time they are harvested until the time they are planted.

3.2 Classification of Storage Period

(i) Short term For about 6 months from one harvest to next sowing: for annual
crops under normal conditions.
(ii) Medium term For 18 to 36 months to overcome crop failure, natural hazards,
fluctuations in price and market demand.
(iii) Long term For 5 to 50 years to preserve germplasm and breeder stock.

3.3 Stages of seed storage

1 Post maturation/ Pre harvest Period from physiological maturity to harvest (seed in
segment field).
2 Bulk seed segment Period from harvest to packaging (bulk seed in aeration
drying bins etc.).
3 Packaged seed segment Period from packaging to distribution (seed in Packages
in warehouse).
4 Distribution/Marketing Period during distributing and marketing (packaged
Segment seed in transit and / or retailer’s storehouse).
5 On-farm segment Period from purchase to planting of seed (seed in on-
farm storage).

3.4 Factors affecting seed longevity in storage

(i) Kind/variety of seed: Seed storability is considerably influenced by the kind or variety of
seeds. Some seeds are short lived, e.g. onion, soybean and some seeds are long lived beans,
paddy.

(ii) Initial seed quality: Seed lots having vigorous, undamaged seeds store longer than that of
damaged lots.
(iii) Moisture content: The most important factor influencing seed viability during storage is the
moisture content and the rate of deterioration increases, as the seed moisture content
increases.

(iv) Temperature and relative humidity during storage: The general effect of temperature on
longevity is that longevity increases as temperature decreases. Within the normal range the
biological activity of seeds, insects and moulds increases as temperature increases.

Regardless of the type of storage conditions, the moisture content of seed eventually comes
into equilibrium with the moisture in the surrounding air which is known as equilibrium
moisture content (EMC). EMC for a particular kind of seed at a given relative humidity, tends to
increase as temperature decreases and as deterioration progresses.

(v) Provenance (origin): The seeds harvested in different climates (or) at different times show
differences in viability.

(vi) Oxygen pressure: Increases in pressure of oxygen in the storage environment tend to
decrease the period of viability.

(vii) Activity of organisms: The bacteria, fungi, mites, insects, rodents and birds may do harm to
seeds in storage depending on the storage conditions.

(viii) Other factors: Factors besides those discussed above that affect storage life are the direct
sunlight on the seeds, number of times and kind of fumigation, effect of seed treatment.

3.5 Types of Seed Storage

• Sealed containers: Used to keep out moisture. Ex- aluminum or plastic cans, aluminum
pouches, plastic bottles, laminated paper bags, waxed boxes.

• Open storage: Does not have temperature or relative humidity control.

• Conditioned storage: Conditioned storage as temperature and humidity control.

 4
4.1 Seed Deterioration
Deterioration of seed may be defined as lowering or loss of quality, viability and vigour either
due to ageing in storage or the effect of anti-crypto biotic factors on quiescent (dormant or
inactive) seed or due to breakdown of genetic purity.

4.2 Physiological changes during Ageing

During seed aging, injury to the cellular structure is an important factor in explaining seed
deterioration which negatively affects seed properties. Various physiological parameters such
as moisture content, germination percentage, seedling vigour, vigour index changes during
ageing.

(i) Moisture content: The moisture content increases during ageing.

(ii) Germination percentage: The germination percentage decreases during ageing.

(iii) Seedling vigour and vigour index: Besides germination percentage, shoot length, root length
and seedling length also decrease during ageing.

4.3 Prevention of Seed Deterioration

The rate of ageing and deterioration of seeds in a seed lot can be greatly reduced by controlling
the following factors-

• External factors: like temperature, humidity and infestation by diseases and pests. Anti-
crypto biotic factors affecting seed viability thereby causing deterioration can be prevented or
rate of deterioration is slowed down from influencing the seed lot by improvement of storage
conditions. Seed stored in dehumidified storage environment at low temperature (-10°C to -
30°C) or kept in cryo-preservation (-190°C) retains viability and longer shelf-life of un-
deteriorated seeds. Preventive measures taken and treatments against pathogenic infection of
seeds in storage and protection against mutagenesis also improve the shelf-life of seed.

(*Mutagenesis is a process by which the genetic information of an organism is changed,

resulting in a mutation.)

• Intrinsic factors: Besides these extrinsic factors some intrinsic factors like one or more
metabolic defects or other toxic modifications generated within the seed may cause seed
deterioration. Dormancy acts as a physiological switch and turns off the undesirable cell
activities and improves the shelf-life of seeds during storage.
 5
5.1 Temperature and relative humidity during storage
The general effect of temperature on longevity is that longevity increases as temperature
decreases. Within the normal range the biological activity of seeds, insects and moulds
increases as temperature increases.

Regardless of the type of storage conditions, the moisture content of seed eventually comes
into equilibrium with the moisture in the surrounding air which is known as equilibrium
moisture content (EMC). EMC for a particular kind of seed at a given relative humidity tends to
increase as temperature decreases and as deterioration progresses.

Henderson equation:
𝑛
1 − 𝑟ℎ = 𝑒 −𝐶𝑇𝑀𝑒

where, rh= relative humidity in decimal

T= absolute temperature in K

Me= EMC in %db

C and n= constant dependent on crop type and temperature.

 6
6.1 Management of Insect and Pests during Storage
Seed loss due to insect pest infestation during storage is a major problem. To avoid the loss and
to keep seeds free from insect pests during storage, the following preventive measures should
be adopted:

1. Pre-storage Preventive Measures

(i) Before arrival of new produce, all processing and storage structures should be thoroughly
cleaned, white-washed and disinfected with sprays of insecticides, [e.g. malathion 50 EC (1 in
100 parts of water)]. Seed containers should also be treated similarly to kill hidden insects.

(ii) Seeds should be cleaned and their moisture content should be reduced to below 8 to 9%.
Most species of insects do not breed or multiply at such low moisture content. The moisture
content of seeds may fluctuate if kept in cloth or Hessian bags, but if the seed is stored in
reasonably moisture vapour proof container, the fluctuation in seed moisture content would be
low.

(iii) In majority of crop seeds insect infestation is carried from the field or at pre-processing
shed or due to delay in processing and subsequent storage operations. In such cases, as in
pulses the seed lots should be fumigated (under cover) [with aluminium phosphide @ 2 tablets
of 3 gm each per ton of seed with an exposure period of 5 to 7 days]. Moisture content of seeds
should not be more than 12% during fumigation. This kills bruchids, grubs hiding in the seed.

(iv) Processed seeds may be treated with Benzene hexachloride (BHC) 5% dust @ 1 gm/kg seed
or Malathion 5% dust @ 0.5 gm/kg seed. These treatments help to eliminate early fumigation
and protect seeds from insect pests. In no case insecticide treated seeds should be disposed of
as food or feed or for oil (edible)

(v) New bags/containers should preferably be used to avoid both insect infestation and
mechanical mixture. The previously used bags must be thoroughly cleaned and treated with
either Malathion sprays or fumigants [like Ethylene dibromide (EDB) @ 32 mg/litre or
aluminium phosphide @ one tablet or 3 mg/m' in an air tight space for 5 to 7 days for reuse].
The processed pulse seeds, which are free from insect infestation may be bagged in thick weave
cloth bag, Bruchids do not penetrate easily through these fabrics.
(vi) Processed seeds should be stored and stacked properly and not along with unprocessed or
carry over seeds.

2. Care during Storage

(i) Some seeds are attacked by a large number of insect species while other by a few. Therefore,
it is advisable to store different type of seeds, e.g. cereals, pulses, vegetables, etc.,separately.
This helps in better management of insect pests.

(ii) Seeds should better be inspected fortnightly. If any living insect or infestation is detected
seeds must be fumigated under air tight conditions [with any one of the following fumigants:

(a) Aluminium phosphide @ 2 to 3 tablets of 3 gm/ton of seed for 5 to 7 days or one tablet m3
space.

(b) Ethylene dibromide (EDB) 32 gm/m3 space for 5 to 7 days.

(c) Ethylene dichloride carbon tetrachloride (EDTC) 3:I mixture 320 to 480 g/m 3 space for 24 to
50 hours.]

Of all these fumigants, aluminium phosphide is the safest. Its repeated application does not
impair quality of seed. Maximum three fumigations may be given at an interval of 40 to 50
days.

(iii) After fumigation, seed godowns should be created and thoroughly cleaned with brush or
hard broom sticks to remove all dead and moribund insects. [To prevent reinfestation, surface
treatment with malathion 50 EC or fenitrothion 50 EC (1 part in 100 parts of water) @ 4 to 5
litre/ m3 area or malathion dust 5% 3 to 4 kg/100 m2 should be given DDVP (2,2-dichloro-vinyl
0- 0 dimethyl phosphate) can also be used (1 part in 100 parts of water) for the treatment of
processing and pre-storage sheds because it has fumigant action and it is most suitable against
flying insects.]

(iv) Surface treatment of seed godowns and processing shed should be carried out at 2 to 4
weeks interval, depending on the severity of pest occurrence. Alternate use of malathion,
fenitrothion and DDVP gives effective check on reforestation and prevents insect resistance to
insecticides.

(v) Intense care should be taken to use the insecticides as they are highly toxic to human
beings.
 7
7.1 Seed Germination
Germination of seed may be defined as the sequence of steps beginning with the absorption of
moisture by the seed ultimately leading to rupture of seed coat and emergence of radicle and
plumule by growth and development of embryo.

7.2 Seed Viability

Seed viability can be defined as the ability of the embryo to live, grow and develop into a
normal seedling under favourable environmental conditions. Viable seeds remain alive and
capable of germination when all the environmental requirements are met.

7.2.1 Effect of environmental conditions on seed viability

The dry seeds are physiologically inactive i.e. an embryo remains in a quiescent state and
respiration rate is very low. In favourable environmental condition the respiration rate in seed
and particularly in the viable embryo increases many fold, thereby increasing the rate of
metabolism and growth. The seed triggered to activity for germination by regaining moisture.

On the basis of storability (life span of mature seed) seed can be grouped into:

(i) Orthodox type: These seeds can be dried at a low moisture level and show loss of viability
with subsequent rise in moisture content. Ex- Dry stored agricultural and horticultural seeds.

(ii) Recalcitrant type: These seeds require a relatively high moisture level for longevity during
storage and so loose viability when dried below a critical level. Ex: Many tree and plantation
crops belong to this category.

7.3 Seed Vigour

The AOSA (Association of Official Seed Analyst) defined seed vigour as “the sum of all those
properties in seed which upon planting result in rapid and uniform production of healthy
seedlings under a wide range of environments including both favourable and stress conditions”.

The speed of germination (the time taken by the quiescent embryo to produce radicle to
burst out through seed coat or the seedling to emerge on soil surface), as an index for seed
vigour.

Vigour Index (VI) can be calculated as

VI = Germination % X Average seedling length

= Germination percentage X [Seedling root length (mm) + Seedling shoot length (mm)]

7.4 Seed Dormancy

Dormancy in general sense is the inactive period of seed between its maturity and germination.

Seed dormancy in specific sense is the condition in a viable seed by which it prevents
germination even under optimal conditions provided for germination.
 8
8.1 Seed Priming
It is a pre-sowing treatment in which seeds are soaked in osmotic solution that allows the seeds
to imbibe water and go through the first stages of germination but does not permit radicle
protrusion (emergence) through the seed coat.

It is based on the principle that seeds are hydrated in a controlled manner to provide
enough water to initiate the metabolic processes of germination, but not enough to allow
germination to be completed.

8.2 Types of seed priming

(i) Hydro priming (drum priming): Seed soaked in tap water (with or without aeration and
without chemical) and re-dried to original weight.

(ii) Osmo priming (Osmoconditioning): Seeds are incubated in well aerated solutions with a low
water potential, and later washed and dried.

(iii) Halo priming: Soaking of seeds in salt solutions (NaCl, KNO3, CaCl2) was proposed as
alternative to priming which enhanced germination and increase seedling emergence
uniformity under adverse environmental conditions.

(iv) Hormonal priming: Soaking of seeds in an appropriate concentration of hormones (GA,

Auxin, Kinetin, Salicylic acid) before radicle protrusion.

(v) Matrix priming: It is the incubation of seeds in a solid, insoluble matrix (Calcinated clay,
Vermiculite, Peat Moss, Sand, Micro-Cel, Press mud, Jute mat ) with a limited amount of water.

(vi) Bio-priming (Seed conditioning): It is a process of biological seed treatment that refers to
combination of seed hydration (physiological aspect of disease control) and inoculation
(biological aspect of disease control) of seed with beneficial organism to protect seed with the
help of beneficial fungi and bacteria.

8.3 Factors affecting the seed priming

- Osmotic potential of solution.

- Priming temperature and light

- Duration of priming

- O2 availability

- Drying method
 9
9.1 Seed Pelleting
It is the process of enclosing a seed with a small quantity of inert material just large enough to
facilitate precision planting or, It is the mechanism of applying needed materials in such a way
that they affect the seed or soil at the seed soil interference.

9.2 Advantages of pelleting

(i) Inert material creates natural water holding media and provide small amount of nutrients to
younger seedlings.

(ii) Used to round out small or irregular shaped seed, or to make small seeds larger – improves
singulation and speed of sowing.

(iii) The pelleting paste is coloured to repel predator, birds and small animals.

(iv) The flower seeds are pelleted in colour resembling the colour of flower to help gardeners to
plan the planting of flower beds.

(v) Protects seed (of selected species) at aerial sowing/seedling by improving ballaistic ability.

9.3 Selection of materials used for coatings

Two types of materials are used for pelleting purpose:

(i) Adhesive materials: These are gum arabic, gelatin, Methyl cellulose, polyvinyl alcohol,
maida/starch gruel etc.

Properties of adhesive materials :

–Must have the affinity for both seed coat and selected filler material.

–Should have the required degree of water solubility for easy emergence.

–Should have required strength and plasticity to prevent dusting and breakage.

–Should have the appropriate viscosity for each application.

(ii) Filler materials: These are used as a protectant for a seed eg. Rhizobia including lime,
gypsum, dolomite, and rock phosphate, clay minerals, dried blood, poultry manure, Tamarind
leaf powder etc.

Properties of filler materials:

–Must be porous

–Easily weaken or break down

–Low cost

–Fine size of particles

9.4 Types of pelleting

Sl. no. Type Material Used
1 Innoculant Pelleting Biofertilizer viz., Rhizobia, Azospirillum, Azatobactor
2 Protective Coating Biocontrol agent like Rhizobacteria bataticola, Bacillus sp.
Streptomycis sp., pesticides, fungicides.
3 Herbicide Coating Filler antidote or absorbent coating, Herbicide antidote like
1.8 napthalic anhydride (NA)
4 Nutrient Coating Coating with micro and macronutrients e.g. ZnSO4, FeSO4,
Borax
5 Hydrophillic Coating Starch graft polymers, magnesium carbonate
6 Oxygen Supplier Coating Peroxides of zinc and calcium

9.5 Process of pelleting

Seeds are tumbled in a rotary drum with repeated applications of the coating formulation (filler
materials) followed by intermittent spraying of seeds with water to activate the binder (or
adhesive) and cause the formation of the pellet (more or less spherically shaped) around each
seed. Wet-coated seed then dried with air, usually in separate equipment.
 10
10.1 Seed Testing
Seed testing is determining the standards of a seed lot viz., physical purity, moisture,
germination and thereby enabling the farming community to get quality seeds.

Seed testing services are required from time to time to gain information regarding planting
value of seed lots. Seed testing is required for all those who produce, sell and use seeds.

10.2 Role of Seed Testing Laboratories

Seed testing laboratories are essential organization in seed certification and seed quality
control programmes. The main objective is to serve the producer, the consumer and the seed
industry by providing information on seed quality. Test results may cause rejection of poor seed
multiplication or low grade seed in a count of law.

10.3 National Organizations

• National Seed Research And Training Centre, Varanasi: Responsible for quality seeds
availability, testing & quality control at national level

• State Farms Corporation of India (SFCI): Responsible for quality seeds availability by the seed
production programme on various states.

• National Seeds Corporation (NSC): Responsible for seed production of certified & foundation
class.

(*NABARD: National Bank of Agriculture and Rural Development)

10.3 International Organizations

• International Seed Testing Association (ISTA)

As seed testing developed, it becomes obvious that cooperation between seed testing stations
was necessary for the establishment of common methods of testing that would secure
uniformity in evaluation and test results. This need led to the foundation of the ISTA in 1924.
The technical work of the association is carried out by 15 special committee.
Objectives of the Association

Following the ISTA Constitution the objectives of the Association are:

(a) The primary purpose of the association is to develop, adopt and publish standard
procedures for sampling and testing seeds, and to promote uniform application of these
procedures for evaluation of seeds moving in international trade.

(b) The secondary purposes of the Association are actively to promote research in all areas of
seed science and technology, including sampling, testing, storing, processing, and distributing
seeds, to encourage variety (cultivar) certification, to participate in conferences and training
courses aimed at furthering these objectives, and to establish and maintain liaison with other
organisations having common or related interests in seed.

• Association of Official Seed Analysts (AOSA): The basic objective of AOSA is to develop,
adopt and publish rules for testing seeds and to encourage research in seed technology.

10.4 Requirements for Certified seed

• Genetic Purity - absence of seeds of other varieties of the same crop species as well as of
other crop species

• Physical Purity – freedom of seed from inert matter (sand, pebbles) and defective seed
(broken, diseased, infested)

• High Germination Rate

• Freedom from weed seeds

• Freedom from Diseases

• Optimum moisture content (for efficient processing and storage)

10.5 Stages of production of improved seeds

(a) Nucleus seed: The true seeds or vegetative propagules of the kind or variety are produced
directly by the Breeder Institute who has evolved the variety.

-The seed lot thus produced is exempted from Certification by Seed Certifying Agency (SCA),
but should be certified by the breeder or institution by mentioning in detail the quality
standards of the lot.

-It It is 100% genetically and physically pure, viable, and healthy. The nucleus seed is then
passed on next stage of multiplication.
(b) Breeder seed: It is the true seed or vegetative propagules of Nucleus seed multiplied
adequate quantity in the sponsoring institutions under the supervision of qualified Plant
Breeders, or in the Agricultural Universities under the supervision of qualified Plant Breeders
and is use the source of Foundation seed.

-It is also exempted from Certification by SCA.

- It It is 100% genetically and physically pure, viable like Nucleus seed.

-It is labeled by producer with a golden yellow coloured tag specifying the crop variety, lot
number, date of test and percentage of physical purity, genetical purity and germination. The
label shall be rubber stamped with signature, name and designation of the breeder and name
of the institution.

(c) Foundation seed: It is the progeny of breeder seed and is produced by State Farm
Corporation of India (SFCI), National Seed Corporation (NSC), State seed Corporation under
technical control of qualified plant breeders or technical officers.

-It is subjected to certification by the SCA.

-The genetic purity of foundation seed should be maintained at 99.5%.

-The Foundation seed lots should be labeled by white tag containing the details about the
crop/variety, standards of purity, germination, date of test.

(d) Certified seed: It is the progeny of Foundation seed and is multiplied by the progress
registered growers under the supervision of SCA, or by NSC or by Agricultural University.

-This is the commercial seed which is available to the farmers and its genetic purity should be
99%.

- The colour of the tag accompanying the certified seed lot shall be azure blue.
 11
11.1 Packaging of seeds
11.1.1 Short-term storage materials

A range of materials are adopted for short-term seed storage, most of them porous. Inspect
regularly for pest outbreaks or other forms of damage. Each material has advantages and
disadvantages:

-Jute bags are resistant, can be re-used many times and can be stacked high without slipping.
They provide limited protection against moisture and pests.

-Cotton bags can be re-used, depending on the quality of the fabric, but they are not as strong
or as tear-resistant as jute. They provide limited protection against moisture and pests.

-Plastic bags (made from woven material) are resistant, but they tend to slip when piled high
and are harder to close securely once opened. They provide limited protection against moisture
and pests.

-Paper (multi-layered) bags are suitable for packaging larger quantities of seed. They are cost
effective for storing small lots of seed, but are generally limited in strength and tend to burst
when piled high, accidentally dropped or used repeatedly. Indeed, they should be double or
triple layered to prevent bursting. They provide only limited protection against moisture.

-Cardboard boxes and cans are re-usable and good for stacking; they provide good protection
against mechanical damage and infestation by seed storage insects, but they are relatively
expensive.

-Polyethylene zip lock bags may be used provided the seed has been adequately dried. Indeed,
plastics and thin films are not effective moisture barriers (albeit more effective than paper).
They are relatively expensive.

11.1.2 Long-term storage materials

Sealed metal and glass containers are the most commonly used containers for long-term
storage. It is imperative, in all cases, that containers are fitted with a rubber gasketed seal in
good condition. They can protect seeds against humidity, insects, rodents and mechanical
damage. Do not use plastic for longterm storage.
- For large quantities, metal cans fitted with rubber gasketed lids and pressure rings are ideal
for storing big seeds (e.g. peas, beans and corn). Large jars with gasketed seals are also
excellent; although breakable, glass allows the contents to be easily inspected for insect
damage.

- For small quantities, small sealed jars are ideal.

11.2 Labelling
Once packaged, the bags are labelled to indicate that the seed has passed the quality control
tests. For certified seed lots, the certification agency normally provides official labels.
Alternatively, for non-certified seed or when the seed company is accredited for certification, it
produces its own labels. Each country has its own legal requirements regarding labelling; these
must be met. Once packaged and labelled at the processing plant, the seed is transported
directly for sale or held in storage until needed.

11.3 Record keeping

You should keep a log of most everything you do with your crops, including information about
planting times and location for each variety, lot number and source of seed planted,
germination percent or comments about germination and vigor, number of plants transplanted
(useful for calculating seed yields later), maturity data, yield data, insect problems, organic
fertilizers and amendments, and other data which may become useful later. Your garden or
farm log is also important for organic certification. Detailed records should be kept in a card file
or computer database regarding variety characteristics and performance.
 12
12.1 Seed Marketing
Seed Marketing covers/includes the business activities of seed population and utilization. It is
mainly to assess the demand of seed and availability of good quality (Certified/Truthful Label)
seeds to growers at the right time and at a reasonable price.

The concept of Seed Marketing has been developed from the fact that certified quality seeds
must be available to the farmers well ahead in time and in sufficient quantity so that the
planting schedule of the variety varieties is not disturbed and the cost of these seeds should he
within the reach of the average farmers.

12.1 Marketing structure

Success in seed marketing depends on establishment of effective channels of seed distribution

from a central storehouse (with good facilities for seed storage) until the last possible moment
because storage in farms is likely to be less suitable and seed could deteriorate if not sown soon
after delivery. Distribution has to be arranged so that the seeds required by the farmers reach
in right quantity and in right time for sowing when conditions are best.

There are five types of seed distribution system in India, e.g.

(a) Farmer to farmer distribution: This is the traditional method, whereby farmers obtain their
requirements from neighbors either on cash or on exchange basis. No formal marketing
organization is required for this type of distribution

(b) Registered grower's distribution: The registered growers are expected to distribute the
registered (certified / truthful label) seeds to farmers on cash or on exchange basis.

(c) Distribution by Cooperatives: This includes procurement of seeds by Cooperatives which

subsequently distribute the seed to farmers on cash or on exchange basis.

(d) Distribution by Department of Agriculture: Seeds are purchased by the Agriculture Dept. of
Government and are distributed through District Agricultural Officer and Block Development
Officer.

(e) Distribution by non-government organizations (NGOs): The seeds are distributed through a
network of private seed distributors and seed dealers.
12.2 Some of the Government seed policies are

(i) The Seed Act, 1966

(ii) The Seeds Law, 1969

(iii) The National Seed Policy, 2002

References

1. Seed Science and Technology by Prof. Subir Sen and Prof. Nabinanda Ghosh

2. Seed Technology by Ratan Lal Agrawal