Chapter 6

Bandwidth Utilization: Multiplexing and

Spreading

Prepared by-
Shyla Afroge & S. M. Mahedy Hasan
Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE
RUET, Rajshahi-6204, Bangladesh

6.1
 Bandwidth Utilization

▪ Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available bandwidth to

achieve specific goals. In this chapter, we explore these two broad
categories of bandwidth utilization: multiplexing and spreading.
▪ Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing by combining several
channels into one.
▪ In spreading, our goals are privacy and antijamming; we expand the
bandwidth of a channel to insert redundancy, which is necessary to
achieve these goals.

6.2
 Without Multiplexing

• The communication system without multiplexing carries only one signal at

any moment in time.
• Thus, it uses three communication channels to carry three signals. In this
technique, a large amount of bandwidth is wasted.

6.3
 With Multiplexing

• It carries three signals simultaneously. Thus, it uses only one communication

channel to carry 3 signals (multiple signals). In this technique, the bandwidth
is effectively used.

6.4
 Multiplexing

▪ Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater

than the bandwidth needs of the devices, the link can be shared.
▪ Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.
▪ If the bandwidth of a link is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices connected to it, the bandwidth is wasted.

6.5
 Multiplexing

▪ In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link.

▪ The lines on the left direct their transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which combines them
into a single stream (many to one).
▪ At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer (DEMUX), which separates the stream
back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and directs them to their corresponding lines.
▪ In the figure, the word link refers to the physical path. The word channel refers to the portion of a
link that carries a transmission between a given pair of lines. One link can have many (n) channels.

6.6
 Categories of Multiplexing

Analog Multiplexing: The process of combining multiple analog signals into one
signal is called analog multiplexing. It multiplexes the analog signals according to
their frequency or wavelength.
Digital Multiplexing: The process of combining multiple digital signals into one
signal is called digital multiplexing.

6.7
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

▪ FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.

▪ Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a
link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted.
▪ In FDM, signals generated by each sending device are modulated using different carrier frequencies.
▪ These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by the
link.
▪ Channels can be separated from strips of unused bandwidths called guard bands to prevent signals from
overlapping.

6.8
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

▪ The frequency division multiplexing divides the bandwidth of a channel into several logical sub-
channels. Each logical sub-channel is allotted for a different signal frequency. The individual signals
are filtered and then modulated (frequency is shifted), in order to fit exactly into logical sub-
channels.
▪ In this technique, each logical sub-channel (individual signal frequency) is allotted to each user. In
other words, each user owns a sub-channel.
▪ Each logical sub-channel is separated by an unused bandwidth called Guard Band to prevent
overlapping of signals. In other words, there exists a frequency gap between two adjacent signals to
prevent signal overlapping. A guard band is a narrow frequency range that separates two signal
frequencies.

6.9
 How Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) actually works?

▪ The transmitter end contains multiple transmitters and the receiver end contains multiple receivers.
The communication channel is present between the transmitter and receiver.
▪ At transmitter end, each transmitter sends a signal of different frequency. In the below figure, the
transmitter 1 sends a signal of 30 kHz, transmitter 2 sends a signal of 40 kHz, and transmitter 3
sends a signal of 50 kHz. These signals of different frequencies are then multiplexed or combined by
using a device called multiplexer. It then transmits the multiplexed signals over a communication
channel.

6.10
 How Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) actually works?

▪ At the receiver end, the multiplexed signals are separated by using a device called demultiplexer. It then
sends the separated signals to the respective receivers. In the above figure, the receiver 1 receives signal of
30 kHz, receiver 2 receives signal of 40 kHz, and receiver 3 receives signal of 50 kHz.

6.11
 FDM: Multiplexing process

▪ Each source generates a signal of a similar

frequency range.
▪ Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals
modulates different carrier frequencies (f1, f2,
and f3).
▪ The resulting modulated signals
are then combined into a single composite
signal that is sent out over a media link that
has enough bandwidth to accommodate it.

6.12
 FDM: Demultiplexing process

▪ The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to

decompose the multiplexed signal into its
constituent component signals.
▪ The individual signals are then passed to a
demodulator that separates them from their
carriers and passes them to the output
lines.

6.13
 Example - 6.1

Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz. We need to combine three
voice channels into a link with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the
configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there are no guard bands.

Solution: We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a different bandwidth, as

shown in Figure 6.6. We use the 20 to 24 kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24 to 28
kHz bandwidth for the second channel, and the 28 to 32 kHz bandwidth for the third one.
Then we combine them as shown in Figure 6.6.

6.14
 Figure 6.6 Solution for Example 6.1

6.15
 Example 6.2

Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed together. What is the
minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz between the
channels to prevent interference?

Solution: For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means that the required
bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,
as shown in Figure 6.7.

6.16
 Figure 6.7 Example 6.2

6.17
 Applications of Frequency Division Multiplexing

• AM radio broadcasting
• FM radio broadcasting
• Television broadcasting
• First generation cellular phone also uses FDM

6.18
 Advantages and disadvantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing

❖ Advantages
• It does not need Synchronization between transmitter and receiver.
• It transmits multiple signals simultaneously.
• In frequency division multiplexing, the demodulation process is easy.
❖ Disadvantages
• It needs a large bandwidth communication channel.

6.19
 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)

• WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and
demultiplexing involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
• The idea is the same: We are combining different signals of different
frequencies. The difference is that the frequencies are very high.
• The only difference is in wavelength division multiplexing optical signals are
used instead of electrical signals. In wavelength division multiplexing, optical
signals are transmitted through fiber optic cables.

6.20
 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)

• Why wavelength division multiplexing?

1. Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate
capability of fiber-optic cable.
2. The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission
cable.
3. Using a fiber-optic cable for one single line wastes the available bandwidth.
Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into one.

6.21
 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)

• Wavelength division multiplexing is a technology in which multiple optical

signals (laser light) of different wavelengths or colors are combined into one
signal and is transmitted over the communication channel. Thus multiple signals
are transmitted simultaneously over a single communication channel.
• Very narrow bands of light from different sources are combined to make a wider
band of light.

6.22
 How Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) actually works?

• In this technique, the bandwidth of the communication channel should be greater than the combined
bandwidth of individual signals.
• The wavelength division multiplexing divides the bandwidth of a channel into several logical sub-
channels according to its wavelength. It allots each logical sub-channel for a different light color or
optical signal wavelength. The individual signals are filtered and then modulated (wavelength is
shifted), to fit exactly into logical sub-channels.
• In this technique, each logical sub-channel (individual signal wavelength) is allotted to each user. In
other words, each user owns a sub-channel.

6.23
 How Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) actually works?

• The multiplexed signals are then transmitted over a single communication channel (optical
fiber). In between the transmitter and receiver, optical amplifiers are used to compensate
the optical signal loss caused during the transmission.
• At the receiver end, the multiplexed signals are separated by using a device called
demultiplexer. The separated signals are then sent to the respective receivers.

6.24
 Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing

• We want to combine multiple light sources into one single light at the multiplexer and do the
reverse at the demultiplexer. The combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a
prism.
• Recall from basic physics that a prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence
and the frequency. Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine several input
beams of light, each containing a narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a wider
band of frequencies.

6.25
 Advantages of WDM

1. It allows transmission of data in two directions simultaneously

2. Low cost
3. Greater transmission capacity
4. High security
5. Long distance communication with low signal loss

6.26
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

• Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several

connections to share the high bandwidth of a line.
• Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared.
• TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate channels
into one high-rate one.

6.27
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
• In frequency division multiplexing, the sharing of a channel is done on the basis of frequency.
But in time division multiplexing, the sharing of a channel is done on the basis of time.
• In time division multiplexing, each user is allotted a particular time interval called time slot during
which data is transmitted. The time interval (time slot) allotted to each receiver (user) is so small
that the receiver will not detect that some time was used to serve another receiver (user).

6.28
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
• In time division multiplexing, all signals are not transmitted simultaneously; instead, they are
transmitted one after another. For example, as shown in the above figure, at first, we send signal A.
Then after second signal B and then after third signal C and finally, we send last signal D. Thus,
each user occupies an entire bandwidth for a short period of time.

6.29
 Types of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

1. Synchronous Time division multiplexing

2. Asynchronous Time division multiplexing (Statistical Time Division
Multiplexing)

6.30
 How Synchronous time-division multiplexing actually works?

• In synchronous time division multiplexing, each device (transmitter) is allotted with a fixed time
slot, regardless of the fact that the device (transmitter) has any data to transmit or not.
• The device has to transmit data within this time slot. If the device (transmitter) does not have
any data to send then its time slot remains empty.
• As shown in the below figure, the various time slots are arranged into frames and each frame
consists of one or more time slots dedicated to each device (transmitter). For example, if there
are 3 devices, there will be 3 slots in each frame. Similarly, if there are 5 devices, there will be 5
slots in each frame.

6.31
 How Synchronous time-division multiplexing actually works?

• The above figure shows 4 devices (transmitter A, transmitter B, transmitter C, and transmitter
D) that have 4 dedicated time slots (time slot A, time slot B, time slot C and time slot D).
• The transmitter A data is sent at time slot A, transmitter B data is sent at time slot B, transmitter
C data is sent at time slot C and transmitter D data is sent at time slot D.
• In the time frame 2, the transmitter B and C does not have any data to send so the time slot B
and C remains empty.
• The main drawback of synchronous time division multiplexing is that the channel capacity is not
fully utilized. Hence, the bandwidth goes wasted.

6.32
 How Synchronous time-division multiplexing actually works?

• In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input connection is divided into units, where each
input occupies one input time slot.
• A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of data.
• Each input unit becomes one output unit and occupies one output time slot.
• The duration of an output time slot is n times shorter than the duration of an input
time slot.
• If an input time slot is T sec, the output time slot is T/n sec, where n is the number
of connections.

6.33
 How Synchronous time-division multiplexing actually works?

• In synchronous TDM, a round of data units from each input connection is collected
into a frame.
• If we have n connections, a frame is divided into n time slots and one slot is allocated for
each unit, one for each input line.
• If the duration of the input unit is T, the duration of each slot is T/n and the duration of
each frame is T.

6.34
 Example 6.5

The data rate for each one of the 3 input connection is 1 kbps. If 1 bit at a time is
multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what is the duration of (a) each input slot, (b) each output slot,
and (c) each frame?

6.35
 Empty slots in Synchronous TDM

• If a source does not have data to send, the corresponding slot in the output frame is empty.
• The first output frame has three slots filled, the second frame has two slots filled, and the third
frame has three slots filled.

6.36
 Interleaving in Synchronous TDM

• TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches, one on the multiplexing side and the other on the
demultiplexing side.
• The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed, but in opposite directions. On the multiplexing
side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection has the opportunity to send a unit onto the
path. This process is called interleaving. On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a
connection, that connection has the opportunity to receive a unit from the path.

6.37
 Data rate management in Synchronous TDM

• One problem with TDM is how to handle a disparity in the input data rates. If data
rates are not the same, three strategies, or a combination of them, can be used. The
three different strategies are multilevel multiplexing, multiple-slot allocation, and
pulse stuffing.

6.38
 Multilevel multiplexing

• Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used when the data rate of an input line is a
multiple of others. For example, if we have two inputs of 20 kbps and three inputs of
40 kbps. The first two input lines can be multiplexed together to provide a data rate
equal to the last three. A second level of multiplexing can create an output of 160
kbps.

6.39
 Multiple-slot multiplexing

• Sometimes it is more efficient to allot more than one slot in a frame to a single input
line. For example, we might have an input line that has a data rate that is a multiple of
another input. The input line with a 50-kbps data rate can be given two slots in the
output. We insert a serial-to-parallel converter in the line to make two inputs out of
one.

6.40
 Pulse stuffing

• Sometimes the bit rates of sources are not multiple integers of each other. Therefore, neither of
the above two techniques can be applied. One solution is to make the highest input data rate the
dominant data rate and then add dummy bits to the input lines with lower rates. This will
increase their rates. This technique is called pulse stuffing, bit padding, or bit stuffing. The input
with a data rate of 46 is pulse-stuffed to increase the rate to 50 kbps.

6.41
 Frame Synchronization in Synchronous TDM

• Synchronization between the multiplexer and demultiplexer is a major issue.

• If the, multiplexer and the demultiplexer are not synchronized, a bit belonging to one channel may be received
by the wrong channel.
• For this reason, one or more synchronization bits are usually added to the beginning of each frame. These bits,
called framing bits, follow a pattern, frame to frame, that allows the demultiplexer to synchronize with the
incoming stream so that it can separate the time slots accurately. In most cases, this synchronization
information consists of 1 bit per frame, alternating between 0 and 1.

6.42
 Statistical Time Division Multiplexing

• In synchronous TDM, each input has a reserved slot in the output frame. This can be
inefficient if some input lines have no data to send.
• In statistical time-division multiplexing, slots are dynamically allocated to improve
bandwidth efficiency.
• Only when an input line has a slot's worth of data to send is it given a slot in the
output frame.
• The multiplexer checks each input line in round robin fashion. It allocates a slot for
an input line if the line has data to send otherwise it skips the line and checks the
next line.

6.43
 How Statistical Time Division Multiplexing actually works?

• In Asynchronous time division multiplexing, the time slots are not fixed (I.e. time slots are flexible).
The asynchronous TDM is also known as statistical time division multiplexing.
• In synchronous TDM, the number of time slots is equal to the number of devices (transmitters). But in
Asynchronous TDM, the number of time slots is not equal to the number of devices (transmitters).
The time slots in asynchronous TDM are always less than the number of devices (transmitter). For
example, if we have X devices and Y time slots. Y should always be less than X (I.e. Y < X).

6.44
 How Statistical Time Division Multiplexing actually works?

• In asynchronous time division multiplexing, time slots are not fixed to a particular device; instead,
they are allotted to any of the devices that have data to send.
• In the above figure, it is shown that the number of devices are 4 and time slots are 3. The timeframe 1
(all slots) is completely filled with data from devices A, B, and C. The timeframe 1 has only 3 time-
slots. So the data from device D is filled in the next timeframe (I.e. timeframe 2) in timeslot 1. The
data from devices A and D will be filled in timeslots 2 and 3 in timeframe 2.
• In asynchronous time division multiplexing, the multiplexer scans all the devices (transmitters) and
accepts input only from the devices that have actual data to send and fills all the frames, and then
sends it to the receiver.
• If there is not enough data to fill all the slots in a frame, then the partially filled frames are transmitted.
In most of the cases, all the time slots in frames are completely filled.

6.45
 Statistical Time Division Multiplexing

6.46
 Synchronous vs Statistical TDM Slots Comparison

6.47
 Synchronous vs Statistical TDM Slots Comparison

• Slot Size: Since a slot carries both data and an address in statistical TDM, the ratio of the data
size to address size must be reasonable to make transmission efficient. For example, it would be
inefficient to send 1 bit per slot as data when the address is 3 bits. This would mean an overhead
of 300 percent. In statistical TDM, a block of data is usually many bytes while the address is just
a few bytes.
• No Synchronization Bit: There is another difference between synchronous and statistical TDM,
but this time it is at the frame level. The frames in statistical TDM need not be synchronized, so
we do not need synchronization bits.
• Bandwidth: In statistical TDM, the capacity of the link is normally less than the sum of the
capacities of each channel. The designers of statistical TDM define the capacity of the link based
on the statistics of the load for each channel. If on average only x percent of the input slots are
filled, the capacity of the link reflects this. Of course, during peak times, some slots need to wait.

6.48
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Advantages of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

[Link] bandwidth is utilized by a user at a particular time.
[Link] time division multiplexing technique is more flexible than frequency division
multiplexing.
[Link] time division multiplexing, the problem of crosstalk is very less.
Disadvantages of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
[Link] time division multiplexing, synchronization is required.

6.49
 Spread Spectrum

• Spread spectrum combines signals from different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth.
❖ How does spread spectrum is different from multiplexing?
• Even though they are combining signals but the goals are quite different. In multiplexing,
we are focused on efficiency that means how to maximize the utilization of available
bandwidth. However, in spread spectrum our goal is to ensure privacy and antijamming
property.
• Spread spectrum is designed to be used in wireless applications (LANs and WANs).
• In wireless applications, Stations must be able to share this medium without interception by
an eavesdropper and without being subject to jamming from a malicious intruder.
• To achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add redundancy; they spread
the original spectrum needed for each station.

6.50
 Spread Spectrum

6.51
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

6.52
 (FHSS Cycles)

• The pattern is pseudorandom, hence it is repeated after in each cycle.

6.53
 How does FHSS accomplish the goals of spread spectrum?

• If there are many k-bit patterns and the hopping period is short, a sender and receiver
can have privacy.
• If an intruder tries to intercept the transmitted signal, she can only access a small piece
of data because she does not know the spreading sequence to quickly adapt herself to
the next hop.
• The scheme has also an antijamming effect. A malicious sender may be able to send
noise to jam the signal for one hopping period (randomly), but not for the whole
period.

6.54
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

• It also expands the bandwidth of the original signal, but the process is different.
• In DSSS, we replace each data bit with n bits using a spreading code.
• In other words, each bit is assigned a code of n bits called chips, where the chip rate is
n times that of the data bit.

6.55
 DSSS Example

• Let us consider the sequence used in a wireless LAN, the famous Barker sequence where n is 11. We assume
that the original signal and the chips in the chip generator use polar NRZ encoding.
• The spreading code is 11 chips having the pattern 10110111000.
• If the original signal rate is N, the rate of the spread signal is 11*N.
• This means that the required bandwidth for the spread signal is 11 times larger than the
bandwidth of the original signal.

6.56
 How does DSSS accomplish the goals of spread spectrum?

• The spread signal can provide privacy if the intruder does not know the code.
• It can also provide immunity against interference if each station uses a different code.

6.57
 Thank You 

6.58