National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

TOPIC 4: FORCES
Content

• Types of force
• Centre of gravity
• Turning effects of forces
• Equilibrium of forces
• Upthrust (Note: H2 Physics only)

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

(a) recall and apply Hooke’s law (F = kx, where k is the force constant) to new situations or to solve
related problems

(b) describe the forces on a mass, charge and current-carrying conductor in gravitational, electric
and magnetic fields, as appropriate

(c) show a qualitative understanding of normal contact forces, frictional forces and viscous forces
including air resistance (no treatment of the coefficients of friction and viscosity is required)

(d) show an understanding that the weight of a body may be taken as acting at a single point known
as its centre of gravity

(e) define and apply the moment of a force and the torque of a couple

(f) show an understanding that a couple is a pair of forces which tends to produce rotation only

(g) apply the principle of moments to new situations or to solve related problems

(h) show an understanding that, when there is no resultant force and no resultant torque, a system
is in equilibrium

(i) use a vector triangle to represent forces in equilibrium

--------------------- Learning outcomes from this point onwards are for H2 Physics only

--------------------- (j) derive, from the definitions of pressure and density, the equation p = ��gh (k)

solve problems using the equation p = ��gh

(l) show an understanding of the origin of the force of upthrust acting on a body in a fluid

(m) state that upthrust is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of the fluid
displaced by a submerged or floating object

(n) calculate the upthrust in terms of the weight of the displaced fluid

(o) recall and apply the principle that, for an object floating in equilibrium, the upthrust is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of the object to new situations or to solve
related problems.
 1

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25) 4.1 Types of forces
Self-study resources

A SLS lesson on Hooke’s law and the different types [Link]/types-of-forces

of forces.

4.1.1 What is a force?

In kinematics, we study the motion of objects, including accelerations which are changes in
velocities. Physics is also a study of what can cause an object to accelerate. That cause is a force,
which is, loosely speaking, a push or pull on the object. The force acts on the object to change its
velocity.

Unit. We define the unit of force in terms of the acceleration a

force
would give to a 1 kg body. Suppose we put that body on a
horizontal, frictionless surface and pull horizontally, as shown
in
Fig. 4.1, such that the body has an acceleration of 1 m s–2.
Then
we can define our applied force as having a magnitude of 1
newton
(abbreviated N). If we pulled with a force magnitude of 2 N, we
would find that the acceleration is 2 m s–2. Thus, the acceleration is
proportional to the force.
direction. So, if two or more forces act on a
Vectors. Force is a vector quantity and Fig. 4.1
thus has not only magnitude but also
body, we find the resultant force (or net force) by adding them as vectors, following the rules of
“Topic 1: Measurements”. A single force that has the same magnitude and direction as the
calculated resultant force would then have the same effect as all the individual forces. This is known
as the principle of superposition for forces.

""⃗
Forces are most often represented with a vector symbol such as F or F, and a resultant force is
"
represented with the vector symbol F"⃗resultant, F""⃗net, Fresultant or Fnet. For the rest of the notes, we
drop the overhead arrows and just use the symbols to indicate the magnitude of the forces along
that axis.

4.1.2 Contact forces

(c) show a qualitative understanding of normal contact forces, frictional forces and viscous forces
including air resistance (no treatment of the coefficients of friction and viscosity is required)
This type of force acts when two interacting objects have physical contact with each other.
Force Important situations

Normal contact force. The force exerted by the surface of one object on the • standing on the
surface of another when they are in physical contact and prevents the objects ground
from passing through each other. The force acts perpendicular (or “normal”) to • one object sitting
the surface. on top of
another
• object on an
contact force inclined surface
• leaning against a
wall
• one object
bouncing off
another

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Force Important situations

Friction. This is the force which arises when two surfaces rub over one another. • pulling an object
Friction arises from the interlocking of the irregularities, as shown below. along the
ground
• vehicles
cornering or
skidding
• sliding down a
slope

The harder the surfaces are pushed together, the

larger the frictional force.

• If an object is sliding along the ground, friction acts

in the opposite direction to its motion.
object pulled along surface
• If an object is stationary, but tending to slide –
perhaps because it is on a slope – the force of
friction acts up the slope to stop it from sliding
down.
object at rest on incline
Friction always acts along a surface, never at an angle
to it.

Drag or viscous force. This force is similar to friction. When an object moves • vehicles moving
through air, there is friction between it and the air. Also, the object has to push • aircraft flying
aside the air as it moves along. Together, these effects make up drag. • parachuting
• objects falling
Similarly, when an object moves through a liquid, it experiences a drag force. through air
or
Drag acts to oppose the motion of an object; it acts in water
the opposite direction to the object’s velocity. It can be • ships sailing
reduced by giving the object a streamlined shape.
 Tension. This is the force in a rope or string when it is stretched. If you pull on • pulling with a
the ends of a string, it tends to stretch. The tension in the string pulls back rope
against you. It tries to shorten the string. • squashing or
stretching a
string (or rope/cable
force by spring
/rod/spring) under
force by
string
tension
string
external
external
body 1
body 2
force by
force by
body 1
body 2
uncompressed spring
Tension can also act in springs. If you stretch a spring, the tension pulls back to
try to shorten the spring. If you squash (compress) the spring, the tension acts
to expand the spring.
spring under
force by
force by
compression
spring
spring
external
external
body 1
body 2
force by
force by
body 1
body 2

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Force Important situations

Upthrust. Any object placed in a fluid such as water or • boats and

air experiences an upwards force. This is what makes icebergs floating
it possible for something to float in water. • people swimming
• divers surfacing •
a hot air balloon
rising

Combined effect of normal contact force and frictional force. The normal contact force and the
frictional force on an object in contact with a rough surface can be represented by a single force, as
shown in Fig. 4.2.

normal contact force

acting on the contact force by

object by the equivalent surface on object
surface
motion
motion

⟺
frictional force by
surface on object

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.2

4.1.3 Fields of forces

(b) describe the forces on a mass, charge and current-carrying conductor in gravitational, electric and
magnetic fields, as appropriate

Unlike the contact forces, gravitational force / electric force / magnetic force act on object without the
need to be in contact. They are known as fields of forces.
A field of force is a region of space in which a force is experienced.

field acts on definition

gravitationa mass A region of space in which gravitational force is

l experienced by a mass placed in the region.

electric charge A region of space where an electric force acts on a

stationary charge placed at any point within the
region.

magnetic magnet / moving A region of space where a magnetic force acts on a

charge / current magnet or moving charge or current-carrying conductor.
carrying conductor

We will study these fields of forces in later topics.

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

4.1.4 Hooke’s law

(a) recall and apply Hooke’s law (F = kx, where k is the force constant) to new situations or to solve
related problems

Compressive and tensile force change the shape of a spring

A pair of forces is needed to (Fig. 4.3). If the spring is being
squashed and shortened, we say
that the forces are compressive
(Fig. 4.3b). If the spring is being
stretched and lengthen, we say
that the forces are tensile (Fig.
4.3c).

Fig. 4.4 shows that when the

wire is bent, (a)

• line AA becomes longer and

hence that part of the wire is in (b)
tension

• line BB becomes shorter and (c)

hence that part of the wire is in
compression.
Fig. 4.4
The thicker the wire, the greater
the compression and tension
forces along its edges.
compressive forces tensile forces

Hooke’s law Fig. 4.3

We can investigate how the length of a helical spring is affected by the applied force or
load. The spring hangs freely with the top end clamped firmly. A load is added and
gradually increased. For each value of the load, the extension of the spring is measured
(Fig. 4.5). We can plot a graph of force F against extension x to find the stiffness of the
spring, as shown in Fig. 4.6.

For a typical spring, the section OA of the graph is a straight line passing through the origin.
The extension x is directly proportional to the applied force (load) F. The behaviour of the
spring in the linear region OA is

x∝F

∴ F = kx (eq. 4.1)

where k is the force constant of the spring (sometimes called the stiffness or the spring
constant of the spring).

We can also determine the force constant k from the gradient of section OA of Fig. 4.6.
force F
 0
0

Fig. 4.5 Fig. 4.6

gradient = k

extension x

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Beyond point A in Fig. 4.6, the graph is no longer a straight line; its gradient changes and we can no
longer use the equation F = kx. We say that the spring has been stretched beyond its limit of
proportionality.

Rearranging eq. 4.1,

F
k= x
we see that the force constant k is the force per unit extension. So, the SI unit for the force constant
is newtons per metre or N m−1.

If a spring or anything else responds to a pair of tensile forces in the way shown in section OA of
Fig. 4.6, we say that it obeys Hooke’s law.

Hooke’s law states that within the limit of prop

You need to explain this
produced in a material is directly proportional
A spring obeying Hooke’s law will deform if a small tensile force is applied to it and it will return to its
original length when the force is not present. This behaviour is described as ‘elastic’. However, if a
large tensile force is applied, the spring may not return to its original length, i.e. permanently
deformed. The force beyond which the spring becomes permanently deformed is known as the
elastic limit.
Example 4.1
C
The figure shows the force–extension graphs for
force
B
four springs, A, B, C and D.
D

(a) State which of the four springs does not obey

Hooke’s law.
A
(b) State which spring has the greatest value of
force constant.

(c) State which is the least stiff.

0
extension
0

Solution
(a) Spring C does not obey Hooke’s law since the force-extension graph is a curve.

Spring A shows a segment where the extension is proportional to the force and this
segment obeys Hooke’s law. For the rest of the curve, it does not obey Hooke’s law.

(b) Spring D has the largest gradient and therefore the greatest value of force

constant. (c) The stiffer the spring, the larger the force constant.

Spring A has the least value of force constant within its limit of proportionality and
therefore is the least stiff.

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Example 4.2 A unstretched spring has a length of 5.0 cm. It obeys Hooke’s law and has a force
constant of 400 N m–1. Calculate the tension in the spring when its overall length is 7.0 cm.

Solution
Extension of the spring = 7 – 5 = 2 cm

Magnitude of the tension in the spring

= magnitude of force applied to the spring
= kx = (400)(0.02)
= 8.0 N

Note: Ensure that the extension and the force constant are expressed to the same unit for length.
Class exercise
The spring constant k of a spring may be determined by finding the
extension of the spring and the load applied, using the apparatus shown.
A student obtained the following readings.
reading on the rule for the lower end of the

unextended spring = 13.60 ± 0.05 cm

reading on the rule for the lower end of the

extended spring = 17.95 ± 0.05 cm

load = 4.00 ± 0.02 N
Determine k and express it with its actual uncertainty.

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

 Combining springs
Springs can be combined in different ways, end-to-end (in series) and side-by-side (in parallel).

(a) Determine the equivalent force constant of two identical springs, each of force constant k, in
series and two springs in parallel, as shown below.

Hint for spring in series:

Hint for spring in parallel:

1. A same force equal in

1. The two springs must
magnitude to the load
have the same amount of
acts on each spring.
extension.

2. The equivalent spring

2. The equivalent spring will
will have the same
have the same amount of
amount of extension as
extension as the two
the total extension of
springs.
the two springs.
springs in
springs in
series
parallel

(b) Determine the equivalent force constant of three or more springs with difference force
constants when they are combined in series and parallel.
 8

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Exercise 1: Hooke’s law

You should take about 15 minutes to complete this exercise.

1.1 The force-extension graph of a metal wire is

as
shown.
At which point on the graph does the
metal wire
stop obeying Hooke’s law?

1.2 A spring is compressed by applying a force. The variation with compression x of the force F is shown
below.
 Calculate the force constant of the spring.

1.3 A spring is supported so that it is horizontal with

one
end attached to a fixed structure. The spring is
extended by different forces and the extension
x of the
spring is measured for each force F.
The variation with x of F between 1.5 N and
4.5 N is
shown.
(a) Show that the spring obeys Hooke’s law.
(b) Determine the force constant of the spring.

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

1.4 An arrangement is used to determine the length l of a spring when different masses M are attached to
the spring. The variation with mass M of l is shown below.
 Diagram 1

(a) Use the graph to deduce that the spring obeys Hooke’s law.
(b) Show that the force constant of the spring is 26 N m–1.

1.5 A spring hangs vertically and different masses are attached to the lower end of the spring. The
extension x of the spring is measured for each mass M. The variation with x of M is shown below.

State
and explain whether the spring obeys Hooke’s law.
 10

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25) 4.2 Drawing force diagrams
Self-study resources

A revision SLS lesson on the drawing force diagram that you [Link]/fbd
should have mastered when you studied Physics at secondary
school level.

A force diagram (or free body diagram) represents the forces acting on a body. Research had shown
that this is a critical skill that you must master to improve the success rate of solving problems.
Key steps in drawing force diagrams

1. Isolate the body of interest. If there are more than one body, draw a separate force
diagram for each body (represented by a box or a dot).

2. Identify ALL forces acting on that body. DO NOT show any forces that the object exerts on
other bodies.

3. Draw the vector representing each force:

a. Each force should be drawn as straight arrows acting at the point of application
and in the direction of application.

b. Length of arrow should reflect the relative magnitude of the force.

IMPORTANT NOTES:
• Do not draw any resultant forces acting on the object.
• If information of the positions where the forces act is provided, it usually means that you will
need to consider the torque acting on the body. Therefore, the position where these forces
act should be represented properly.

Let’s walk through the process for creating the force diagram for a log pulled by a tractor shown in
Fig. 4.7.

direction of
motion

Fig. 4.7
Description Illustration
1 Sketch the problem if Note: your simplified diagram can be:
picture not provided.

Note: The sketch does

log tractor
not need to be to scale
or pretty.

11

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Description Illustration

2 Isolate the object of The object of interest is the log, let’s study the log (enclosed by
interest. the dotted line).

3 Identify the contact

points the object has
with its surrounding.

4 Separate the object

from the surroundings.
Draw the contact
forces in pairs on the
different objects
(consequence of
Newton third law).

Note: There must be at

least one pair of forces
per contact point.
5 Include all non-contact
forces (e.g.
gravitational force).

12

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Class exercise Draw the force diagrams for the following objects (underlined item).

(a) A uniform beam hinged to a wall and (b) A ladder resting on a rough wall and
supported by a wire. rough floor.

wall rough
wr wall
ie

ladder

beam

hinge

rough floor

(d) A light winch holding up a heavy box.

(c) A uniform rod supported by a vertical Draw the forces in the side view diagram.
string on one end and the other end
handle of
resting on a smooth floor.
winch

string

box
rod

(side view)
smooth floor
(e) A wheel rolling forward with a forward
driving force. It is just about to mount up
a curb.
winch

motion
wheel
box

curb

13

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Exercise 2: Drawing force diagrams
You should take about 15 minutes to complete this exercise.

Sketch the force diagram of the object highlighted in the following scenarios.
Note the conditions:
smooth ⇒ frictionless
constant speed / rest ⇒ no resultant force
acceleration ⇒ resultant force ≠ 0

2.1 A box pushed on a rough, flat table so that it has a rightward acceleration.

2.2 A box is sliding down a smooth slope.

2.3 A skydiver is descending with a constant speed.

2.4 An airplane is flying horizontally at constant speed.

2.5 A box is at rest relative to a platform and the platform is moving up with upward acceleration.

2.6 Two blocks, block A and block B, lie side-by-side on a smooth table. A force of magnitude F is
exerted on block B and block B pushes on block A. Both blocks start to accelerate.

14
 National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

4.3 Turning effects of forces

(e) define and apply the moment of a force and the torque of a couple
(f) show an understanding that a couple is a pair of forces which tends to produce rotation
only (g) apply the principle of moments to new situations or to solve related problems

Self-study resources

A SLS lesson on the turning effects of forces. [Link]/turning-effect

4.3.1 Moment of a
force

When a force
acts on an
object, the force
may cause the
object to move
in a straight line.
It could also
cause the object
to turn or spin
(rotate).

distance of weight to
hand

(a)

distance of weight to hand

(b)
 Fig. 4.8

Consider a metre rule held in the hand at one end so that the rule is horizontal (Fig. 4.8a). If a
weight is hung from the ruler, we can feel a turning effect on the ruler. The turning effect acts at the
hand where the metre rule is pivoted.
The turning effect of a force is called the moment of the force.

The turning effect changes when

• the weight changes or it is moved closer or further from the hand along the ruler, • the ruler is held
at an angle to the horizontal (Fig. 4.8b) and decreases as the rule approaches the vertical position.

15

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Fig. 4.9 shows a force of magnitude F acting on
The effect described above can be summarised an object
as a formal definition:
The moment of a force about a pivot is equal to t
the perpendicular distance from the line of actYou need to explain this
pivot.

object
at a point distance l from
the pivot. The line of The SI unit for the There are two methods
action of the force is at a moment of a force is to determine the
perpendicular distance d newton-metre or N m. moments of
from the pivot. Then
From the figure, it is not F
moment of force = F × d difficult to see that the pivot line of action !
(eq. 4.2) force will cause the d
object to rotate
clockwise. There is a
“direction” – clockwise or
anticlockwise –
associated with the
moment of a force. l
= F × �� sin �� 1
Therefore, it is a vector .
!
forces. You should know how to use both Fig. 4.9
methods depending on the situation.
 Method 1 – Find the perpendicular distance Method 2 – Resolution of force

perpendicular

distance d = " sin # O

line of action # component #
of F along !
= F cos #
O
l
l F
# F
component of
= F sin #
Note: This method is used if the perpendicular
distance is given or it can be deduced easily
with trigonometry.
The line of action of the component of F along l
passes through O, so it does not contribute to
moment of force F about O the moment. Therefore,
=F×d
= F × l sin �� moment of force F about O = (F sin ��) × l
F normal to !

1 ⃗
In vector notation, the moment of a force is calculated using ��⃗ = r⃗ × �� .

16

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Example 4.3
15 N
o
A light rod AB of length 45 cm makes an angle of 65 to the
vertical. A vertical force of 15 N acts on the rod at B.
B
Determine
(a) the moment of the force about A,
65°
45 cm
(b) the moment of the force about B.

A
 Solution
(a) [Method 1 – find the perpendicular distance]
15 N
The perpendicular distance from A to the line of
d
action of the force d = 0.45 sin 65o
B

Note: Remember that distance is in metres.

65°
45 cm
Moment of the force about A
= F × d = (15)(0.45 sin 65o)
A
= 6.1 N m
(in clockwise direction)

[Method 2 – resolution of force]

Resolve the force along and perpendicular

15 N
to the rod.
15 sin 65°
65°
The line of action of the component along
15 cos 65°
the rod passes through A, so it does not
B
contribute to the moment.

Moment of the force about A

65°
45 cm
= F × d = (15 sin 65o)(0.45)
= 6.1 N m
A
(in clockwise direction)

(b) Since the force passes through B, the force does not produce a moment about B.

17

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25) 4.3.2 Couples

Suppose you are using a screwdriver. You will opposite in direction whose lines of action do not
apply a turning effect to the handle in order to coincide.
tighten or loosen a screw. However, you do not
just apply one force to the handle because this
would cause the screwdriver to move sideways.
Rather, you apply two forces of equal magnitude F
but in opposite direction on the opposite sides of
the F
handle, as shown in Fig. 4.10.
A couple consists of two forces equal in magnhandle of
screwdriver
Fig. 4.10

The turning effect is not called a moment because it is produced by two forces, not one. This turning
effect is referred to as a torque.

The torque of a couple is the turning effec

You need to explain this
product of one of the forces and the perpen
lines of action of the forces.
torque produced byF
the pair of forces line of action
Consider two is
object
parallel forces,
each of magnitude torque of couple =
F acting on an
object as shown in F × d (eq. 4.3) The
Fig. 4.11. From
the figure, it is not SI unit for torque is
line of action
difficult to see that
the force will
newton-metre or N
cause the object to
rotate clockwise. F
m.
d Fig. 4.11
Mathematically, the

Example 4.4
2.0 N
50°
A couple acts at the ends of on a metre rule as shown.
Determine the torque on the metre rule.

2.0 N

Solution
The perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces d = 1 × sin 50o

Torque of the couple = F × d = (2.0)(1 × sin 50o) = 1.5 N m (in anti-clockwise

direction)

18

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Class exercise
Diagram 1 shows two parallel forces F acting on a bar of length l pivoted at P. The forces give
rise l
to a couple of torque M. Diagram 2 shows the lines of action of the forces moved to the left.
4

Determine the new torque of the couple in diagram 2 in terms of M.

·
Class exercise
5NP
A L-shaped lever is pivoted at point P. The forces
2m
10 N
2m
acting on the lever are as shown.
30o

Determine the resultant moment about the point P.

3m
1m

20 N
19

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Exercise 3: Turning effects of forces
You should take about 10 minutes to complete this exercise.
3.1 Calculate the moment of each force about point O in the diagrams below.

3.2 The diagram shows two equal and opposite forces applied to the ends of a pivoted bar of length L.

What is the magnitude of the torque exerted by these forces on the bar?
A FL B 2FL C FL cos �� D 2FL cos ��

3.3 A uniform metre rule of weight 2.0 N is pivoted at the 60 cm mark. A 4.0 N weight is suspended
from one end, causing the rule to rotate about the pivot.

At the instant the rule is horizontal as shown, calculate the resultant turning moment about the pivot.

20

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25) 4.4 Equilibrium of forces
(d) show an understanding that the weight of a body may be taken as acting at a single point known as
its centre of gravity
(e) apply the principle of moments to new situations or to solve related problems
(f) show an understanding that, when there is no resultant force and no resultant torque, a system
is in equilibrium
 (g) use a vector triangle to represent forces in equilibrium

Self-study resources

A SLS lesson on the equilibrium of extended bodies. [Link]/equilibrium

4.4.1 Principle of moments

The principle of moment states that, for a body

You need to explain this
the sum of the clockwise moments about any
the anticlockwise moments about the same poi

An object in rotational equilibrium

B
FB = 10.0 N
What does it mean that moments can be taken about any
3.00
m
point in the definition of the principle of moment?
E
O
FA = 22.4 N
1.50
m
Consider a light rod AB in rotational equilibrium under the
forces shown. The force FO = 20.0 N acts at the midpoint
FO = 20.0 N
O of the rod vertically downwards, the force FA = 22.4 N
63.4°
acts at an angle of 63.4o to the horizontal at the end A and
the force FB = 10.0 N acts horizontally at the end B.
A
DC
1.50 m
Let look at the total clockwise and anticlockwise moments
3.00 m
of the forces about two points on the rod (A and B) and a
point outside the rod (C).

taking moment

about point clockwise moment anticlockwise moment A FO × AD = (20.0)(1.50)

= 30 N m FB × BC = (10.0)(3.00) = 30 N m B (FA sin 63.4o) × AC
(FA cos 63.4o) × BC + FO × DC
= (22.4 sin 63.4o)(3.00)
= (22.4 cos 63.4o)(3.00) + (20.0)(1.50)
= 60 N m
 = 60 N m
o
C (FA sin 63.4 ) × AC
FB × BC + FO × DC
= (22.4 sin 63.4o)(3.00)
= (10.0)(3.00) + (20.0)(1.50)
= 60 N m
= 60 N m

From the calculations above, it can be seen that when the object is in rotational equilibrium, the
total clockwise and anticlockwise moments are equal regardless of the point the
moments are taken from!

21

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

4.4.2 Centre of gravity

Consider a thin uniform rod balanced at a particular point, which is at the midpoint of the rod, with a
pivot and it does not turn. The pivot applies an upward force that is equal in magnitude to the weight
of the rod to stop it from falling. Imagine that the rod is made of many equal segments, as shown in
Fig. 4.12a. Each segment has a fraction of the total weight of the rod and, to be in balance, the sum
of the clockwise and anticlockwise moments due to these fractional weights must be equal.

force exerted by pivot

equivalent
rod
force exerted by pivot
(total) weight of the rod
weight of each segment
centre of gravity

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.12

Although all parts of the rod have weight, the whole weight of the rod appears to act at the balance
point, as shown in Fig. 4.12b. This point is known as the centre of gravity of the rod.

In general, all objects has their own centres of

The centre of gravity of a body is the point at wh
gravity.
body appears to act.
You need to explain this
 22

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25) 4.4.3 Equilibrium

The principle of moments gives the condition necessary for a body to be in rotational equilibrium.
However, the body could still have a resultant force acting on it which would cause it to accelerate
linearly. Therefore, to be in equilibrium, there must be zero resultant force acting on the body.

For a body or a system to be in equilibrium, the

You need to explain this
resultant torque acting on the body or the syste
exerted on the bob by F
horizontal: F sin �� –
the string.
How do I make use of
the condition “resultant Approach 1: Vector su vertical: T cos �� + F
force = zero”?
Procedure: Resolved a
Consider a small bob of
weight W suspended on the object in the choO
from a fixed point O by
a thin light thread, as perpendicular direction
shown in Fig. 4.13. A
force F is applied at an
angle �� to the vertical We choose the horizon! "
so that the thread directions for the resol!
makes an angle �� to forces of Fig. 4.13 as s
the vertical when box is T
at rest. A force T is

Fig. 4.13
 Approach 2: The forces form a closed polygon.

Procedure: Arrange the forces such that the tail of the subsequent vector is
connected to the head of the previous vector.
T
!
W
We arrange the force vectors in Fig. 4.13 and since there is not resultant force, the "
vectors form a closed triangle as shown.
F

Note:
1. This method is appropriate if there are only three forces acting on the body so that a closed
triangle is produced.
2. If two of three forces are at right angle to one another, this method is usually faster than
resolution of forces because we can apply Pythagoras theorem and simple trigonometry
(otherwise, you will need to use cosine and sine rules).

23

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25) How do I make use of the condition
“resultant torque = zero”?
A ladder, resting on a rough floor and leaning zero).
against a rough wall, is on the point of
slipping. It is of weight W and the contact
forces exerted on the ladder by the wall and
floor are FW and Ff respectively, as shown in FW
Fig. 4.14.

Since the ladder is at rest, we know that both

the resultant force and resultant torque is
zero. For the latter condition, we have two
approaches.
Approach 1: Apply principle of moments. W Ff Fig. 4.14

Step 1: Inspect the question for the informatio

forces.
Step 2: Determine the priority, e.g. we may ha
to find FW then Ff.
Step 3: Apply principle of moments by taki
point where the line of action of t
passes through (so the moment
 Approach 2: The lines of action of three non–parallel forces pass through the same point in
space.

For three non-parallel forces acting on a body and it is in equilibrium, the lines of action of the
three forces will have a common point of intersection. If we take moments about this point, the
total moment of the body is zero and, according to the principle of moments, the sum of the
clockwise and anticlockwise moments about any other points will be equal.

For Fig. 4.14, when we draw the lines of action of the forces, they will intersect at a single
point as shown.

FW

intersection of
lines of action

W Ff

Note: This method can only work for three non-parallel forces situations.

24

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Example 4.5
The figure shows a diver of weight 580 N standing at the
end of a 4.5 m diving board of negligible weight. The board
1.5 m
is attached by two pedestals 1.5 m apart.
3.0 m
Determine the force in each of the two pedestals.
A B
Solution
The force diagram of the diving board is shown below.
force by board
on diver
= 580 N
FB
weight of diver

= 580 N 1.50 m
A
C
B
3.00 m
FA
force by diver
on board, F
= 580 N
Analysis: There are two unknown forces FA and FB. To calculate FA first, we will take moments
about point B so that FB produces zero moment. (You may also calculate FB first by taking
moment about point A.)

Take moments about B and apply principle of moments,

sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments

F × BC = FA × AB

580 × 3.00 = FA × 1.50

∴ FA = 1160 N

There are two approaches to calculate FB.

Method 1 – Resultant force = 0

Method 2 – Resultant torque = 0
Since vector sum of all forces in
Take moment about A and apply principle of moments,
any direction must be zero,
sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments
FB – FA – F = 0
F × AC = FB × AB
FB = FA + F
580 × 4.50 = FB × 1.50
FB = 1160 + 580
∴ FB = 1740 N
∴ FB = 1740 N
Note: You may also take moments about C.

25

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Example 4.6
A crane has a jib AC of mass 2500 kg pivoted
to the cab at A. The jib is supported by
horizontal cable BC. The centre of mass of the
jib is at D. The dimensions are as shown on
the diagram.
(a) Draw arrows to represent the forces
acting on the jib. Label the forces
clearly.
(b) Determine the tension in the cable BC
and the force by the cab on jib at A.

Solution
force exerted
(a) The jib has two points of contact at A
by cable, T
(between the cab and the jib) and at C
(between the cable and the jib). In
force exerted
addition the gravitational force (weight)
by cab, F
acts at D. Therefore, we expect three
forces acting on the jib as shown.
y
Note: The lines of action of the three
forces must intersect a common point,
weight W
x
as shown.

(b) Analysis: There are two unknown forces F and T. To calculate T first, we will take moments
about point A (You may also calculate F first by taking moment about point C.)

Take moments about A and apply principle of moments,

sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments
W × AD cos 30o = T × AC sin 30o
(2500 × 9.81) × 4.0 cos 30o = T × 8.0 sin 30o
∴ T = 21239 = 21000 N (2 s.f.)

Since vector sum of all forces in any direction must be zero,

F
x-direction: Fx – T = 0 ⇒ Fx = T
y-direction: Fy – W = 0 ⇒ Fy = W
Fy
-
∴ F = -Fx2 + Fy2 = 212392 + (2500 × 9.81)2 = 32000 N (2 s.f.)
!
!1
�� = tan Fy
!1
Fx= tan 2500 × 9.81
Fx

21239 = 49.1°
 Note: W and T are perpendicular, so the three forces will
form a closed right-angled triangle which is a tempting
F=?
approach. However, when you analyse this method further,
W = 2500 ×g
you will see that it will not work because there are too many
"=?
unknown quantities – T, F and ��, as shown.
T=?

26

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Class exercise
smooth wall
A uniform ladder is of length 5.00 m and mass
2.00 kg rests against a wall. Its upper end is a height

5.00 m
of 3.00 m above the ground.
3.00 m
The wall is smooth, and the ground is rough.
Determine the forces exerted by the wall and by the
ground on the ladder.
rough ground
 27

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Exercise 4: Equilibrium
You should take
about 30 minutes to
complete this
exercise.
4.1 A
horizontal
beam of
weight mg is
attached to
a hinge at
 one end. At the other end it is supported in equilibrium by a cord which is under tension T. The hinge
experiences a reaction force R.

Which triangle of forces could correctly represent the three forces acting on the beam?

4.2 [2008 P1 Q7] A

ladder of weight W
rests against a
vertical wall. The
diagram shows two
equal and opposite
forces applied to the
ends of a pivoted bar
of length L.
Friction between the ladder and the ground and also between the ladder and the wall prevents the
ladder from slipping.
Which diagram shows the directions of the forces on the ladder?

4.3 [2012 P1 Q8]

A cupboard is secured to a wall by a screw at S. It rests on a
support at T. Arrows show the directions of the weight W of the
cupboard and the horizontal force F of the screw at S on the
cupboard.
Which arrow best represents the direction of the force on the
cupboard from the support T?
 28

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

D W must be the smallest force.
4.4 [2013 P1 Q8]
In order to pull a protruding tooth back into line,
a metal band is attached to the tooth, as shown 4.6 A uniform rod XY of weight 10.0 N is freely
in diagram 1. hinged to a wall at X. It is held horizontal by a
force F acting from
Diagram 2 shows the two forces of 2.5 N which Y at an angle of 60o to the vertical as shown in
the band exerts on the tooth. The angle the
between the two parts of the band is 150°. diagram.
This treatment makes the tooth move so slowly What is the value of F?
in the gum that it is effectively in equilibrium.
For equilibrium to exist, another force
must act.

What is the magnitude and direction of

this force?
magnitude dir

A 0.33 N
B 0.33 N
C 1.3 N A 20.0 N B 10.0 N
D 1.3 N C 8.66 N D 4.33 N

4.5 A

stationary kite is held in equilibrium by three 4.7 [2010 P1 Q9] A uniform beam in a roof
forces – its weight W, the tension T in the string structure has a weight of 180 N. It is
and the force F exerted by the air. supported in two places X and Y, a
distance 3.0 m apart. A load is placed on
The diagram shows the directions of the forces
the beam a distance of 0.80 m from X.
but they are not drawn to scale.
The support provided by Y is 220 N.
Which statement about the forces is correct?
What is the value of the load?
A F must be the largest force.
A 270 N B 490 N
B T must be larger than F.
C 520 N D 830 N
C W must be larger than F.
diagram 1 diagram 2

29

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

 4.8 A heavy uniform beam of length l is supported by two vertical cords as
shown.

T1
What is the ratio T2of the tensions in these cords?
1 1 2 3
A 3B 2C 1D 1

4.9 A rod of length 1 metre has non–uniform composition, so that the centre of gravity is not at its
geometric centre. The rod is laid on supports across two top–pan balances as shown in the
diagram. The balances (previously set at zero) give readings of 360 g and 240 g.
What is the centre of gravity of the rod relative to its geometric centre?
1
A 10 to the left
1
B 10 metre to the right
1
C 5 metre to the right
1
D 5 metre to the left

L
4.10 A uniform plank, of weight W and length L is supported at points X and Y, each at distances 4
from the ends of the plank.

What will be the increase of the force on the plank exerted by support X if both X and Y are
L
moved a distance 8 to the right from their original positions?

AW
W W
16 B 8 C 4 D5W
16

30

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

4.5 Upthrust
Note: The content in this section is for H2 Physics only.
Self-study resources

A SLS lesson on upthrust. [Link]/upthrust

4.5.1 Pressure and density

(j) derive, from the definitions of pressure and density, the equation p = ��gh
(k) solve problems using the equation p = ��gh

Pressure is defined as the force per unit area, w

perpendicularly to the area. The pressure p at depth h below the surface of a
liquid of density �� is given by
You need to explain this

The density of a substance is defined as the maYou need to explain this

p = ��gh (eq. 4.4)

where g is the acceleration of free fall.

Important points regarding pressure of a liquid

1. Eq. 4.4 shows that at the same depth, pressure is the same and pressure increases with depth of
fluid. The pressure of the liquid at the bottom of the six different containers in Fig. 4.16 is the
same as long as the vertical height h of the liquid is the same.

h
Fig. 4.16

2. If an external pressure, such as atmospheric pressure, acts on the surface of the liquid, then the
absolute pressure at depth h below the surface of the liquid is

absolute pressure = ��gh + pressure at the liquid surface

 31

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Derivation of p = ��gh
Consider a column of liquid of cross-sectional area A
and depth h from the surface as shown in Fig. 4.15.

volume of liquid V = Ah … (1)

h
From the definition of the density �� of the liquid and
equation (1), the mass m of the column of liquid is

m
�� = V
A
m = ��Ah … (2)
Fig. 4.15
The weight of the column of the liquid

W = mg … (3)

where g is the gravitational field strength.

The column of water exerts a downward force F at the base of the column equal in magnitude
to its weight W

F = W … (4)

The pressure p at the base would be given by the definition of pressure and using equation (2),
(3) and (4),
F
p = A = ��Ah × g
A

∴ p = ��gh

Example 4.7
A long narrow tube contains salt water of density 1020 kg m–3 to a
depth of 1.00 m. The tube is then inclined at 30o to the horizontal, as
1.00 m
shown.
The atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa
Determine the pressure at point X inside the tube.
X
30o
 Solution
Analysis: The depth of fluid is the vertical distance from surface of liquid to the point you are
measuring the pressure.

Pressure at X due to salt water = ��gh = 1020 × 9.81 × (1.00 sin 30o)

Absolute pressure at X
= ��gh + patmosphere
= 1020 × 9.81 × (1.00 sin 30o) + 100 × 103
= 105000 Pa
= 105 kPa

32

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

4.5.2 Upthrust
(l) show an understanding of the origin of the force of upthrust acting on a body in a fluid
(m) state that upthrust is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of the fluid displaced
by a submerged or floating object
(n) calculate the upthrust in terms of the weight of the displaced fluid
(o) recall and apply the principle that, for an object floating in equilibrium, the upthrust is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of the object to new situations or to solve related
problems.

When an object is immersed in a fluid (a liquid or a gas), it appears to weigh less than in a vacuum
because the immersion in the fluid provides a force of upthrust or buoyant force on the object.
liquid of density �� increases with depth h
Considering an object, e.g. a cylinder in Fig. atmosphere pressure p0
4.17, in a liquid. Recall that the pressure p in a
upward force at the bottom Fup Fdown
according to p = ��gh. So, the = p A
2 cross section
pressure at the bottom of the of area A
cylinder is greater than the Difference in these forces gives
pressure at the top of the the force of upthrust U which is
cylinder. This means that there directed upwards.
is a bigger force Fup acting
upwards on the base of the U = Fup − Fdown = 5p2 − p16A liquid
cylinder than the force Fdown
acting downwards on the top. U = ��g(h2 − h1)A

pressure at the top p1 = p0 + Since volume of cylinder V = (h2

��gh1 − h1)A,
Fup
pressure at the bottom p2 = p0 + h1
��gh2
Fig. 4.17
downward force at the top Fdown
h2
= p1A

U = ��gV (eq. 4.5)

The volume V is the volume of the object and is equal to the volume of fluid displaced by the object
when it is immersed in the fluid. So, ��gV is also interpreted as the weight of the fluid displaced.

You need to explain this

1. Force of upthrust U is an upward force o
immersed in a fluid (gas or liquid) due to the
fluid.
Recall & apply in problems
2. Upthrust is equal in magnitude and opposite i
the fluid displaced by a submerged or floatin

magnitude of the upthrust U

where V is the volume of fluid displaced by t

33

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

diagrams
Principle of flotation

For an object floating in equilibrium and in the

absence of other forces, upthrust is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the
weight of the object. upthrust U weight W
Fig. 4.18
This is also known as the principle of flotation.

Representing force of upthrust in force

The arrow representing the force of upthrust is drawn from the centre of gravity of the immersed
section and the direction is vertically upwards, as shown in Fig. 4.19. The position of the upthrust
is critical in the stability of ships as shown in Fig. 4.20.
partially
submerged object
U
U W and U is a couple
U
with an anticlockwise
fully GB W torque that will rotate
centre of gravity of submerged object the tilted ship upright.
displaced fluid

Fig. 4.19 Fig. 4.20

Example 4.8
A solid, square wood raft measures 4.0 m by 4.0 m and is 0.30 m thick.
(a) Show that the raft will float in water.
(b) Determine how much the raft is beneath the surface of the water.
[density of wood = 550 kg m–3; density of water = 1000 kg m–3]

Solution
(a) Weight of raft = ��wood Vraft g = 550 × (4 × 4 × 0.30) × 9.81 = 25898 N

Maximum upthrust if entire raft is submerged

= ��water Vraft g = 1000 × (4 × 4 × 0.30) × 9.81 = 47088 N

Since maximum upthrust > weight of raft, the raft will float in water.

(b) At equilibrium, by principle of flotation,

U
upthrust = weight of raft
0.30 m
��water Vwater displaced g = ��wood Vraft g
1000 × (4 × 4 × h) = 550 × (4 × 4 × 0.30)

Wh
∴ h = 0.17 m (2 s.f.)

34

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Class exercise
A copper cube of sides 10 cm is suspended with a light string.
(a) Calculate the tension in the string when the cube is hanging from the string in air.
(b) The cube is lowered completely into water. Calculate
(i) the upthrust acting on the cube,
(ii) the new tension in the string.
[density of copper is 8920 kg cm–3; density of water = density 1000 kg cm–3]
 35

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Exercise 5: Upthrust
You should take about 30 minutes to complete this exercise.
5.1 [2013 P1 Q7]
The diagram
shows a jar,
with the
dimensions
shown,
containing a
liquid of
mass 3.00
kg and
density 600
kg m–3. The
liquid exerts
a pressure
on the base
of the jar.

What is the pressure exerted by the liquid on the base of the jar?
 A 1.18 × 103 Pa B 2.94 × 103 Pa C 1.18 × 105 Pa D 2.94 × 106 Pa

5.2 [2009 P1 Q8]

A yacht that is in equilibrium has two vertical and
two horizontal forces acting on it.
Which statement about the forces is not correct?
A The sideways drag from the water on the
yacht is equal and opposite to the
sideways force of the wind on the yacht.
B The resultant of all four forces is zero.
C The torque provided by the vertical forces
is the same as the torque provided by
the
horizontal forces.
D The upthrust from the water is equal and
opposite to the weight of the yacht.

5.3 [2015
P1 Q6; 2018
P1 Q6]
A bridge (an
aqueduct)
carries a
canal across
a valley, as
shown.

A barge of total weight W in air approaches and crosses on to the bridge.

What is the extra weight supported by the bridge when the barge is on it?
A 0 B 12W C W D 2W

36

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

5.4 [2014 P1 Q8]

A metal ball of weight W is falling vertically with constant speed in oil. The upthrust on the ball is
U. When the speed of the ball is v, the viscous force acting on the ball is kv, where k is a
constant. Which equation is correct?
A W = –U B W = –U + kv C W = U – kv D W = U + kv

5.5 [2012 P1 Q7]

 A small air bubble in some water is rising to the surface with constant velocity.
The volume of the bubble is 2.370 × 10–8 m3. The density of water is 1000 kg m–3. The density of air
is 1.290 kg m–3.
What is the magnitude of the viscous force on the bubble?
A 2.367 × 10–5 N B 2.373 × 10–5 N C 2.322 × 10–4 N D 2.328 × 10–4 N

5.6 [2011 P1 Q9]

A diver watches an air bubble as it rises to the surface in water. The weight of the air in the bubble
is negligible. The volume and speed of ascent of the bubble increases as it rises. Two forces,
upthrust and viscous drag, act on the bubble.
Which changes occur in these forces as the bubble rises?
upthrust viscous drag

A decreases decreases
B increases no change
C increases increases
D no change decreases

5.7 [2015 P1 Q7]

A block of ice of density 0.9 g cm–3 is held below the surface of water, density 1.0 g cm–3. The block
of ice is then released and floats to the surface.
upthrust when fully submerged
What is the ratio

upthrust when floating ?

A 0.1 B 0.9 C 1.0 D 1.1

5.8 [2009 P1 Q10]

An oil tanker, with vertical sides,
has an external cross-sectional
area of 36 500 m2 in the plane of
the sea.
The tanker carries oil of density
930 kg m–3 in its tanks, which have
a constant cross-sectional area of
34 000 m2 and depth 22.0 m. Sea
water has density 1030 kg m–3.
By how much does the tanker rise in the water when it unloads its oil?
A 26.2 m B 22.7 m C 21.3 m D 18.5 m

37

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Solutions to Exercises
Exercise 1: Hooke’s law

1.1 Answer: A
 Point A is the limit of proportionality.

1.2 Force constant = gradient = !"#$

$.$&$#$ = 1240 N m#'

1.3 (a) Take two sets of co-ordinates taken to determine a constant value for F/x e.g.
when x = 0.6 cm, F = 1.5 N, so ��' = '.&
#'
$.$$! = 250 N m
when x = 1.8 cm, F = 4.5 N, so ��" = (.&
#'
$.$') = 250 N m

since F /x constant hence obeys Hooke’s law

(b) use one point on the line (e.g. use x = 1.8 cm, F = 4.5 N, so ��" = (.&
�� = 250 N m#' #'
$.$') = 250 N m )

1.4 (a) When mass is zero, force on spring is zero and extension is zero. . The variation of the
extension with load or mass is a straight line graph passing through the origin.
So, spring obeys Hooke’s law.

(b) Use of the gradient (not F = kx)

k = (0.4 × 9.81)/15 ×10–2
= 26 N m–1 (2 s.f.)

1.5 Straight line does not go through the origin, so the force is not proportional to extension. Spring
does not obey Hooke’s law.

38

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Exercise 2: Drawing force diagrams

 F

2.1
Use the direction of
acceleration to figure the f
magnitude of the forces f
N (from table) F
acceleration
N (from table)
W

N (from surface) N (from surface)

2.2

W
W

lift force
2.3 2.4

drag force W
thrust
(from engine)

2.5
Box is at rest wrt to the
Falling at constant velocity
surface means that the
means moving at terminal
box and the surface have
velocity, so resultant force
the same
is zero
acceleration

N (from surface)
N (from surface)
acceleration
air resistance

39
 National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

2.6 The applied force will cause both the boxes to accelerate with the same acceleration to the left. Hence,
when the FBD is drawn separately, they must show that there is a resultant force for each body so that
both can have the same acceleration.

acceleration acceleration

NB (from surface)
NA (from surface)
normal contact
force by B

WB
WA
normal contact F force by A
pair of forces according
to Newton’s 3rd Law

40
 National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Exercise 3: Turning effects of forces

3.1 Moment = F sin 30o × 2.0 = 3.0 N m

Moment = F sin 20o × 6.0 = 10 N m

3.2 Answer: C
Perpendicular distance between couple = �� cos ��

3.3 Weight of rule and force exerted by the suspended weight are acting on the beam as follow
10 cm 40 cm

2N

4N

Take moments about the pivot,

clockwise moment = 4 × 0.4 = 1.6 N m
anti–clockwise moment = 2 × 0.1 = 0.2 N m
resultant turning moment = 1.6 − 0.2 = 1.4 N m (clockwise)
 41

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Exercise 4: Equilibrium

4.1 Answer: D

4.2 Answer: C
Option A has a resultant downward force,
Option B has resultant rightward force.
Option D does not have friction between the wall and the ladder but the question indicated that
there is friction

Therefore, by elimination, correct answer is C (note: lines of action of the forces also pass
through a common point).

4.3 Answer: B
Lines of action of the forces also pass through a common point.
4.4 Answer: D
Resultant of the two 2.5 N forces is in direction towards X. So, the third force should be
towards Z.

There is no need to calculate the magnitude of the force since you can arrive at the answer
through elimination!

42

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

4.5 Answer: A
In the question, the diagram shows “the directions of the forces” but “not drawn to scale”, so
the diagram indicates the general directions of the forces but will vary depending on the
magnitude of the forces

Kite is in equilibrium, so the three forces must form a closed polygon.

W
F
F

OR W
 T

From the possible force triangles, it is quite clear that F is the largest. W can be smaller or larger
than T.

4.6 Answer: B
Weight of rod
acts at the
mid–point of
the length l of
the rod.
Resolve F as
shown.

cos60o
½l ½l

F sin60o

10 N

Rod is in equilibrium, apply principle of moments and take moments about

1
X, 10 ⋅ 2l = F cos60o ⋅ l
F = 10 N
Note: line of action of the component Fsin60o passes through X so zero moments.

4.7 Answer: B
Force at X is unknown.
Beam is in rotational equilibrium, so take moments about X and apply principle of
moments sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments
load × 0.8 + 180 × 1.5 = 220 × 3
load = 490 N

43

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

4.8 Answer: A
– three forces – , and weight – act on the beam
T1 T2
 – since beam is uniform, centre of gravity is ½l from either ends
– beam is in rotational equilibrium, take moments about C.G and apply principle of moments
sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments
⎛
⎞
l l l
T1 ⋅ 2 = T2 ⋅ 2 − 3

⎝⎜

⎠⎟
T1
1 1
T2= 6⋅ 2 = 3
Note: weight acts at the centre of gravity hence does not contribute any moment.

4.9 Answer: A
– three forces act on the rod – at the left balance, at the right balance and weight;
N1 N2
(upwards), (upwards) and (downwards)
N1 = 0.36g N2 = 0.24g weight = 0.6g
– rod is not uniform, let the centre of gravity (c.g.) be distance x from the left balance – rod is in
rotational equilibrium, so take moments about the left balance and apply principle of moments
sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments
0.6g ⋅ x = 0.24g ⋅1
x = 0.4 m from the left
– so the c.g. is 0.1 m left of the geometric centre

4.10 Answer: C
– three forces act on the plank – upwards, upwards and W downwards
FX FY
– since plank is uniform, centre of gravity is ½L from either ends
– plank is in rotational equilibrium, so take moments about Y and apply principle of moments
sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments
L L
FX ⋅ 2 = W ⋅ 4
W
FX = 2
– when the supports are shifted, plank is still in rotational equilibrium, so take moments about
Y and apply principle of moments
sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments

⎝⎜

⎠⎟
3
F′X = 4W
– increase in the force
= 3W
⎛ W W
⎞ 4− 2= 4
L L L
F′X ⋅ 2 = W ⋅ 4+ 8
 44

National Junior College 9749 H1/H2 Physics (2024–25)

Exercise 5: Upthrust

5.1 Answer: A
�� = ����ℎ = 600 × 9.81 × 0.2 = 1180 Pa

5.2 Answer: C
The torque provided by the vertical forces is anticlockwise in direction but the torque provided
by the horizontal forces is clockwise in direction. They are not the same.

5.3 Answer: A
The displaced water moves off the aqueduct as the boat moves on to it, keeping the water level
the same and hence the pressure on the aqueduct the same. So, no additional loading on the
bridge.

5.4 Answer: D
Weight is downwards, U is upwards, kv is upwards (since ball is falling).
�� − �� − ���� = 0

5.5 Answer: C
Weight is downwards, U is upwards, viscous force is downwards (since bubble is rising).
�� − �� + viscous force = 0
Viscous force
= �� − ��
= 1000 × 2.37 × 10#) × 9.81 − 1.29 × 2.37 × 10#) × 9.81
= 2.322 × 10#( N

5.6 Answer: C
Volume of bubble increases, so upthrust increases.
Speed increases, so drag force increases.

5.7 Answer: D
upthrust when floating = weight of ice =��*+,��*+,��
��-./,0��*+,��
1
��*+,��*+,�� = 0.9 = 1.1
5.8 Answer: D
When loaded, upthrust = weight of loaded tanker

��1,.��/.23,0ℎ4�� = ��/.23,0 + ��5*6��/.23�� … (1)

When emptied, upthrust = weight of empty tanker

 ��1,.��/.23,0ℎ7�� = ��/.23,0 … (2)

(1)–(2): ��1,.��/.23,0Qℎ4 − ℎ7R�� = ��5*6��/.23��

(1030)(36500)Δℎ = (930)(34000 × 22)
Δℎ = 18.5 m

45