Software Process Models

By:
Ms. Ashima Tyagi
2 Outline

 Waterfall Model
 Incremental Model
 Iterative Model
 Evolutionary Model
 RAD Models
 Agile Model and its methodologies

Prepared by: Ashima Tyagi (Asst. Prof. SCSE)

3 Software Process Models
Based on the process flow, there are 4 types of software process
models:
 Waterfall Model
 Incremental Model
 Iterative Model
 Evolutionary Model

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4 Waterfall Model
 When work flows from communication through deployment in a
reasonably linear fashion.
 The waterfall model, sometimes called the classic life cycle, suggests
a systematic, sequential approach to software development that
begins with customer specification of requirements and progresses
through planning, modeling, construction, and deployment,
culminating in ongoing support of the completed software

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 Waterfall Model

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 Waterfall Model

V-model:
A variation in the representation of the waterfall model is called the
V-model

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 Waterfall Model

V-model:
 As a software team moves down the left side of the V, basic
problem requirements are refined into progressively more detailed
and technical representations of the problem and its solution.
Once code has been generated, the team moves up the right
side of the V, essentially performing a series of tests (quality
assurance actions) that validate each of the models created as
the team moved down the left side.
 In reality, there is no fundamental difference between the classic
life cycle and the V-model. The V-model provides a way of
visualizing how verification and validation actions are applied to
earlier engineering work.

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 Waterfall Model

Advantages of Waterfall Model:

 Simple and Easy to Understand
 Well-Structured and Organized: Because the Waterfall model follows a sequential order, it
ensures that there is a systematic approach to software development.
 Emphasis on Documentation: Each phase of the Waterfall model requires documentation
before moving on to the next phase. This thorough documentation ensures that there is a
formal record of the development process, which can be useful for future maintenance and
enhancement.
 Easy to Manage: Due to its linear nature, the Waterfall model can be easier to manage, with
clear milestones and deliverables. Project managers can easily monitor progress and resource
allocation through the distinct phases.
 Facilitates Early Identification of Issues: With its emphasis on requirement analysis and design
before coding begins, the Waterfall model can help in identifying potential issues early on. This
can save time and resources by preventing significant changes in later stages.
 Ideal for Stable Requirement Projects: For projects with well-defined, unchanging requirements,
the Waterfall model is particularly effective. It allows for a focused development effort without
the need for constant revisions.
 Clear Customer Expectations: Since the Waterfall model requires detailed requirements at the
beginning and has distinct phases with specific deliverables, it sets clear expectations for
clients and stakeholders about what the product will do, thereby reducing the scope of
misunderstanding or unexpected outcomes

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 Waterfall Model

Disadvantages of Waterfall Model:

 It is difficult to induce changes in the software.
 It is often difficult for the customer to state all requirements
explicitly. The waterfall model requires this and has difficulty
accommodating the natural uncertainty that exists at the
beginning of many projects.
 The customer must have patience. A working version of the
program(s) will not be available until late in the project time span.
A major blunder, if undetected until the working program is
reviewed, can be disastrous.

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10 Incremental Model
 There may be a compelling need to provide a limited set of software
functionality to users quickly and then refine and expand on that
functionality in later software releases.
 In such cases, you can choose a process model that is designed to
produce the software in increments.
 The incremental model combines elements of linear and parallel process
flows.
 Each linear sequence produces deliverable “increments” of the software.
 In the Incremental model of software development, increments or partial
products are delivered to the customer, not just the development team.
This approach divides the software development process into smaller,
manageable segments, allowing each segment or increment to be
developed, tested, and delivered sequentially.
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 Incremental Model

For example, word-processing software developed using the

incremental paradigm might deliver basic file management,
editing, and document production functions in the first increment;
more sophisticated editing and document production capabilities
in the second increment; spelling and grammar checking in the
third increment; and advanced page layout capability in the
fourth increment.
It should be noted that the process flow for any increment can
incorporate the prototyping paradigm.
In the Incremental Model, parallel process flow occurs because
different increments (or modules) of the system can be developed
simultaneously by separate teams. This parallelism accelerates
development and enables incremental delivery of functional parts
of the product.
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 Incremental Model

12

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 Incremental Model

 When an incremental model is used, the first increment is often a

core product.
 That is, basic requirements are addressed but many supplementary
features (some known, others unknown) remain undelivered. The
core product is used by the customer (or undergoes detailed
evaluation).
 As a result of use and/or evaluation, a plan is developed for the
next increment. The plan addresses the modification of the core
product to better meet the needs of the customer and the delivery
of additional features and functionality.
 This process is repeated following the delivery of each increment,
until the complete product is produced.

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 Incremental Model

Advantages of Incremental Model:

 It is easy for breakdown of tasks because of divide and conquer
approached used.
 It has lowers initial delivery cost.
 It has incremental resource deployment.
 It can deduct errors easily because core modules are used by the
customer from the beginning of the phase and then 5. These are tested
thoroughly.
 It is good to use when requirements are known up-front.
 It is good to use when projects having lengthy developments schedules.
 It generates working software quickly and early during the software life
cycle.
 It is more flexible and less costly to change scope and requirements.
 It is easy to manage risk because of iterations.
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 Incremental Model

Disadvantages of Incremental Model:

 It requires a good planning designing.
 It is costlier than waterfall model.
 Definition of system should be complete and clear.
 Increased complexity: As the project is developed incrementally, it can become more
complex as each increment is added. This can make it harder to manage and maintain, as
well as increase the risk of errors and bugs.
 Higher costs: Since each increment requires its own planning, design, coding, testing, and
deployment, the overall cost of the project can be higher than with other development
methodologies.
 Difficulty in tracking progress: With multiple increments being developed simultaneously, it can
be challenging to track the progress of the project as a whole. This can make it harder to
identify potential issues early on and take corrective action.
 Increased communication overhead: With each increment being developed by a different
team or individual, there can be a significant increase in the communication overhead
required to ensure that everyone is on the same page.
 More time spent on testing: With each increment requiring its own testing phase, more time
may be spent on testing overall, which can delay the project’s completion.

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16 Iterative Model
 In this Model, you can start with some of the software specifications
and develop the first version of the software.
 After the first version if there is a need to change the software, then
a new version of the software is created with a new iteration.
 Every release of the Iterative Model finishes in an exact and fixed
period that is called iteration.
 The Iterative Model allows the accessing earlier phases, in which the
variations made respectively.
 The final output of the project renewed at the end of the Software
Development Life Cycle (SDLC) process.

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 Iterative Model

17

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 Iterative Model

Advantages of Iterative Model:

 Testing and debugging during smaller iteration is easy.
 It is easily acceptable to ever-changing needs of the project.
 Risks are identified and resolved during iteration.
 Limited time spent on documentation and extra time on designing.

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 Iterative Model

Disadvantages of Iterative Model:

 It is not suitable for smaller projects.
 More Resources may be required.
 Design can be changed again and again because of imperfect
requirements.
 Requirement changes can cause over budget.
 Project completion date not confirmed because of changing
requirements.

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20

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 Incremental Model (Iterative Enhanced
Aspect Iterative Model
Model)

Development Approach Repetitive cycles with continuous refinement Delivering the software in functional parts

Flexibility Highly flexible and adaptive to changes Offers flexibility but less than iterative

Testing Testing is integrated throughout the cycle Testing is done for each increment

Complete features are developed in each

Delivery of Features iteration
Features are delivered incrementally

Risks are identified and addressed in each Risks are managed as increments are
Risk Management cycle delivered

Feedback is collected and incorporated

Client Feedback regularly
Feedback is obtained after each increment

Provides a clearer view of the project’s Offers visible progress with each delivered
Project Visibility progress increment

Dependencies can be identified and Dependencies between increments need

Dependency Management resolved in each iteration careful management

May take longer to deliver the complete Allows for partial delivery in shorter
Completion Time product timeframes

Example Analogy
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22 Evolutionary Process Models
 Software, like all complex systems, evolves over a period of time.
 Business and product requirements often change as development
proceeds.
 You need a process model that has been explicitly designed to
accommodate a product that evolves over time.
 Evolutionary models are iterative. But in evolutionary it doesn’t
require a useable product at the end of each cycle.
 They are characterized in a manner that enables you to develop
increasingly more complete versions of the software.
 There are two common evolutionary process models:
• Prototyping
• Spiral
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 Prototyping Model

1. Prototyping Model:
 The prototyping paradigm begins with communication.
 You meet with other stakeholders to define the overall objectives for the
software, identify whatever requirements are known, and outline areas
where further definition is mandatory.
 A prototyping iteration is planned quickly, and modeling (in the form of a
“quick design”) occurs.
 A quick design focuses on a representation of those aspects of the
software that will be visible to end users (e.g., human interface layout or
output display formats).
 The quick design leads to the construction of a prototype.
 The prototype is deployed and evaluated by stakeholders, who provide
feedback that is used to further refine requirements.
 The prototype is developed quickly to test ideas or gather feedback, not
necessarily intended for production.

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 Prototyping Model

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 Prototyping Model

 In most projects, the first system built is barely usable.

 It may be too slow, too big, awkward in use or all three.
 There is no alternative but to start again, smarting but smarter, and
build a redesigned version in which these problems are solved.

 Both stakeholders and software engineers like the prototyping

paradigm.
 Users get a feel for the actual system, and developers get to build
something immediately.
 After the prototype is finalized, the system is typically developed
from scratch (throwaway prototyping)

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 Prototyping Model

Advantages of Prototype Model:

 A prototype of the working model is delivered early in the project
timeline.
 Changes can made at any point.
 Error found and fixed easily.

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 Prototyping Model

Disadvantages of Prototype Model:

 Stakeholders see what appears to be a working version of the software,
unaware that the prototype is held together haphazardly, unaware that
in the rush to get it working you haven’t considered overall software
quality or long-term maintainability. When informed that the product
must be rebuilt so that high levels of quality can be maintained,
stakeholders cry foul and demand that “a few fixes” be applied to make
the prototype a working product. Too often, software development
management relents.
 As a software engineer, you often make implementation compromises in
order to get a prototype working quickly. An inappropriate operating
system or programming language may be used simply because it is
available and known; an inefficient algorithm may be implemented
simply to demonstrate capability. After a time, you may become
comfortable with these choices and forget all the reasons why they were
inappropriate. The less-than-ideal choice has now become an integral
part of the system.
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 Spiral Model

2. Spiral Model:
 The spiral model is an evolutionary software process model that
couples the iterative nature of prototyping.
 Using the spiral model, software is developed in a series of
evolutionary releases.
 During early iterations, the release might be a model or prototype.
 During later iterations, increasingly more complete versions of the
engineered system are produced.
 The spiral model demands a direct consideration of technical risks
at all stages of the project and, if properly applied, should reduce
risks before they become problematic.
 To combine iterative development with a systematic focus on risk
management and continuous refinement.
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 Spiral Model
29

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 Spiral Model

 As this evolutionary process begins, the software team performs

activities that are implied by a circuit around the spiral in a
clockwise direction, beginning at the center.
 Risk is considered as each revolution is made.
 Anchor point milestones—a combination of work products and
conditions that are attained along the path of the spiral—are
noted for each evolutionary pass.
 The first circuit around the spiral might result in the development of
a product specification; subsequent passes around the spiral might
be used to develop a prototype and then progressively more
sophisticated versions of the software.

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 Spiral Model

Advantages of Spiral Model:

 A prototype of the working model is delivered early in the project
timeline.
 Changes can made at any point.
 Error found and fixed easily.
 Risk is handled at any time.
 Customer satisfaction
 Suitable for high risk projects

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 Spiral Model

Disadvantages of Spiral Model:

 Not suitable for small projects
 Complex
 Spiral may go on indefinitely
 Not suitable for low risk projects.

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33 RAD Model
 The Rapid Application Development (RAD) Model is a type of
software development methodology that emphasizes quick
development and delivery of high-quality software.
 It focuses on iterative development and active user involvement,
enabling rapid production of prototypes or working systems.
 It focusses on minimal planning in favor of rapid prototyping.

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 RAD Model

RAD Model

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 RAD Model

Advantages of RAD Model:

 Faster Development Cycle: The RAD model emphasizes rapid
prototyping, leading to quicker delivery of functional software.
 High Flexibility: Changes in requirements can be easily
accommodated at any stage of development.
 Increased User Involvement: Regular feedback from users ensures
the final product aligns closely with user needs.
 Reduced Risk: Issues and bugs can be identified and addressed
early due to iterative development and frequent testing.
 Encourages Reusability: Reusable components and prototypes
save time and effort in development.
 Improved Quality: Continuous testing and user feedback enhance
the software quality.

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 RAD Model

Disadvantages of RAD Model:

 Dependence on User Availability: Requires consistent and active
involvement from users, which may not always be feasible.
 Not Suitable for All Projects: Works best for projects with clearly
defined requirements and small to medium-sized teams. It may not
handle large, complex projects well.
 High Cost: Requires skilled developers, tools for rapid prototyping,
and frequent user involvement, increasing the cost.
 Limited Documentation: Focus on rapid prototyping may lead to
insufficient documentation, complicating future maintenance.
 Team Dependency: Success depends heavily on the skills and
collaboration of the team.
 Poor Performance with Large Teams: Coordination and
communication challenges arise in large, distributed teams..
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37 Agile Model
 The main difficulties developers faced were handling customer
change requests during project development and the high cost and
time required to incorporate these changes.
 To overcome these drawbacks of the Waterfall Model, in the mid-
1990s the Agile Software Development model was proposed.

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 Agile Model

• Agile model is iterative by design

• The Agile Model was primarily designed to help a project adapt
quickly to change requests.
• So, the main aim of the Agile model is to facilitate quick project
completion.
• To accomplish this task, agility is required. Agility is achieved by
fitting the process to the project and removing activities that may
not be essential for a specific project.
• Also, anything that is a waste of time and effort is avoided.

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 Agile Model

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 Agile Model

The Agile Model refers to a group of development processes. These

processes share some basic characteristics but do have certain
subtle differences among themselves.
1. Scrum
2. XP
3. Lean
4. Kanban

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 Agile Model

1. Scrum Methodology:
 The word SCRUM is inspired by a scrum in the sport of rugby. In
rugby, the team comes together in what they call a scrum to work
together to move the ball forward. In this context, Scrum is where
the team comes together to move the product forward.
 Think of Scrum as a way to get work done as a team in small pieces
at a time, with continuous experimentation and feedback loops
along the way to learn and improve as you go.
 Scrum helps people and teams deliver value incrementally in a
collaborative way. As an agile framework, Scrum provides just
enough structure for people and teams to integrate into how they
work, while adding the right practices to optimize for their specific
needs.
 The Scrum framework is fairly simple being made up of a Scrum
Team consisting of a Product Owner, a Scrum Master and
Developers, each of which have specific accountabilities.
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 Agile Model

Lifecycle of Scrum

Sprint: A Sprint is a time box of one month or less. A new Sprint starts immediately after the
completion of the previous Sprint.
After every sprint, the product increment is typically shown to the customer or stakeholders during
the Sprint Review. This is a key part of the Scrum process in Agile methodology.
Release: When the product is completed, it goes to the Release stage.
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 Agile Model

Lifecycle of Scrum
 Sprint Review: If the product still has some non-achievable features, it will
be checked in this stage and then passed to the Sprint Retrospective
stage.
 Sprint Retrospective: In this stage quality or status of the product is
checked.
 Product Backlog: According to the prioritize features the product is
organized.
 Sprint Backlog: Sprint Backlog is divided into two parts Product assigned
features to sprint and Sprint planning meeting.
 Product-Assigned Features: The Product Owner collaborates with the
team to prioritize features or user stories from the Product Backlog that
are to be included in the Sprint Backlog.
 Sprint Backlog: is a subset of the Product Backlog. It contains the list of
tasks or user stories that the development team commits to completing
during the sprint. It is developed during the Sprint Planning Meeting.
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 Agile Model

2. XP Methodology:
 Extreme Programming (XP) is an Agile software development
methodology designed to improve software quality and
responsiveness to changing customer requirements.
 XP is built on values like communication, simplicity, feedback,
courage, and respect, with a strong focus on engineering practices
and customer collaboration.

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 Agile Model

Core Values of XP:

 Communication: Promotes constant interaction between team
members and the customer.
 Simplicity: Encourages building only what is needed and avoiding
unnecessary complexity.
 Feedback: Gathers frequent feedback from customers and tests to
adapt to changes quickly.
 Courage: Refactoring involves restructuring or improving code
without changing its external behavior, which can sometimes be
risky or challenging. Courage promotes boldness in refactoring,
discarding outdated code, and responding to changes.
 Respect: Ensures a positive team environment where contributions
are valued.

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 Agile Model

Lifecycle of XP

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 Agile Model

The Extreme Programming Life Cycle consist of five phases:

 Planning: The first stage of Extreme Programming is planning. During this phase,
clients define their needs in concise descriptions known as user stories. The team
calculates the effort required for each story and schedules releases according to
priority and effort.
 Design: The team creates only the essential design needed for current user
stories, using a common analogy or story to help everyone understand the
overall system architecture and keep the design straightforward and clear.
 Coding: Extreme Programming (XP) promotes pair programming and developers
work together at one workstation, enhancing code quality and knowledge
sharing. They write tests before coding to ensure functionality from the start (TDD),
and frequently integrate their code into a shared repository with automated tests
to catch issues early.
 Testing: Extreme Programming (XP) gives more importance to testing that consist
of both unit tests and acceptance test. Unit tests, which are automated, check if
specific features work correctly. Acceptance tests, conducted by customers,
ensure that the overall system meets initial requirements. This continuous testing
ensures the software’s quality and alignment with customer needs.
 Listening: In the listening phase regular feedback from customers to ensure the
product meets their needs and to adapt to any changes.

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 Agile Model

3. Lean:
 Lean methodology in Agile is an approach focused on maximizing
value while minimizing waste in the software development process.

Lean methodology or Lean Software Development(LSD) is based on 7

key principles:
1. Eliminating the Waste
2. Fast delivery
3. Amplify Learning
4. Build Quality
5. Respect Teamwork
6. Delay the Commitment
7. Optimizing the Whole System
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 Agile Model

Principles of Lean:
1. Eliminating the Waste: To identify and eliminate wastes e.g. unnecessary code,
delay in processes, inefficient communication, issues with quality, data
duplication, more tasks in the log than completed, etc. regular meetings are
held by Project Managers. This allows team members to point out faults and
suggest changes in the next turn.
2. Fast Delivery: Previously long-time planning used to be the key to success in
business, but with time, it has been found that engineers spend too much time
on building complex systems with unwanted features. So they came up with an
Minimum Viable Product (MVP) strategy which resulted in building products
quickly that included a little functionality and launching the product to market
and seeing the reaction. Such an approach allows them to enhance the
product based on customer feedback.
3. Amplify Learning: Learning is improved through ample code reviewing and
meetings that are cross-team applicable. It is also ensured that particular
knowledge isn’t accumulated by one engineer who’s writing a particular piece
of code so paired programming is used.
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 Agile Model

4. Builds Quality: LSD is all about preventing waste and keeping an eye on not
sacrificing quality. Developers often apply test-driven programming to examine the
code before it is written. Quality can also be gained by getting constant feedback
from team members and project managers.
5. Respect Teamwork: LSD focuses on empowering team members, rather than
controlling them. Setting up a collaborative atmosphere, keeping perfect balance
when there are short deadlines and immense workload. This method becomes very
important when new members join a well-established team.
6. Delay the Commitment: Delay decisions until you have enough information to
make informed choices. This flexibility allows better handling of changing
requirements. This methodology always constructs software as flexible, so new
knowledge is available and engineers can make improvements.
7. Optimizing the Whole System: Lean’s principle allows managers to break an issue
into small constituent parts to optimize the team’s workflow, create unity among
members, and inspire a sense of shared responsibility which results in enhancing the
team’s performance. Look at the entire system rather than optimizing individual
parts. Ensure that all steps in the process contribute to delivering value efficiently.
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 Agile Model
LSD Process
Here is the overview of the lean software development process:
1. Identify Value: Understand the customer values and focus on delivering features
that meet these needs.
2. Map the Value Stream: This involves mapping out the entire software
development process to identify and eliminate wasteful activities that do not
add value.
3. Create Flow: Ensure a smooth and continuous flow of work by minimizing delays
and interruptions.
4. Establish Pull: Develop features based on customer demand rather than pushing
features through the process.
5. Seek Perfection: Regularly review and refine the development process. Always
encourage the team members to identify the areas of improvement and
implement changes iteratively.
6. Build Quality In: Use practices such as test-driven development (TDD) and
continuous integration to integrate quality assurance throughout the
development process.
7. Empower Teams: Empower development teams by providing them with the
necessary tools, resources, and autonomy to make decisions.
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 Agile Model

4. Kanban:
 Kanban is a popular framework in the Agile methodology that
emphasizes visualizing workflow, limiting work in progress (WIP), and
improving efficiency through continuous delivery.
 It is highly adaptable and focuses on managing and optimizing the
flow of work.

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 Agile Model

Sample Kanban Board

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 Agile Model

From the sample kanban board, these can be inferred about Kanban
Boards or Cards:

 Workflow: Backlog -> Acknowledged -> Development -> Testing ->

Deployment/UAT -> Done
 Work stages: Acknowledged, Development (In Progress),
Development (Ready), Testing (In Progress), Testing (Ready),
Deployment/UAT, Backlog (Arrival Queue), Done (Finished Stage)
 Work Items: Two types of tasks (Type 1 and Type 2) are represented
by work items

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 Agile Model

Principles of Kanban:
1. Visualize Workflow: Use a Kanban board to display tasks as they move through
stages, typically represented as columns (e.g., To Do, In Progress, Done).Helps
identify bottlenecks and provides a clear view of the current workload.
2. Limit Work in Progress (WIP): Restrict the number of tasks being worked on
simultaneously. Prevents overloading the team, ensuring focus and faster
completion of tasks.
3. Focus on Flow: Optimize the movement of tasks through the system to achieve a
smooth and predictable flow. Monitor key metrics like cycle time (time to
complete a task).
4. Make Process Policies Explicit: Clearly define rules and guidelines for how tasks
move between stages. Ensures alignment and understanding across the team.
5. Implement Feedback Loops: Regularly review the process and performance
through meetings like daily stand-ups and retrospectives. Encourage continuous
learning and improvement.
6. Improve Collaboratively and Evolve Experimentally: Use feedback, metrics, and
experimentation to refine processes incrementally.

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56

Thank You

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