PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

SIMPLIFIED

ABDULMUMINI INDA

&

EZEOMEKE STEPHEN O.

Dedication

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This book is dedicated to all lovers of wisdom, our parents,
siblings, friends and well wishers.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
Chapter one
The Meaning of Philosophy
Scope of Philosophy
Modes of doing Philosophy
The nature of Philosophy
Characteristics of Philosophy

Chapter two
Branches of Philosophy
Metaphysics
Epistemology or the theory of knowledge
Axiology or the theory of value
Logic
Relevance of all the branches of Philosophy to
Education

Chapter three
Meaning and nature of Philosophy of Education
Scope of Philosophy of Education
Differences and similarities between philosophy and
education

Chapter four
School of philosophy and their impact on Education
Meaning of Idealism

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 Aims of idealism
Curriculum contents
The role of the school
Strength
Weaknesses
Influences in Nigerian Education

Chapter five
Meaning of Existentialism
Aims of Existentialism
Curriculum content
Influences on Nigeria Education
The role of the School
Strength
Weakness

Chapter six
Meaning of Pragmatism
Aims of pragmatism
Curriculum contents
Role of the teacher and school
Strength
Weakness
Influence on Nigerian Education

Chapter seven

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Meaning of Realism
Aims of Realism
Curriculum contents
Role of the teacher and school
Strength
Weakness
Influence on Nigerian education

References

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 CHAPTER ONE
MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY:
Ezugwu C.E., Nnadi C.E. and Udabah C.U. (2009)
posited it that, “Historically, philosophy began when
human’s curiosity and wonder caused them to ask questions,
“what are things really like? And how can we explain the
process of change in things?” The question “why” has been
innate with man. Starting from childhood, man is trying to
understand things around him. He questions all that is within
his empirical experience. Questions on man’s empirical
experience have in many situations lead man to answers
beyond his immediate experience and explanation. Nature is
a question on itself. Why must Sun rise and set at a
particular time? Why dry season at sometime of the year and
rainy season at the other time? Why the birth and death of
man, of all living things?
So many questions arise in the mind of a man when he
observes the universe and the process of things. Some
questions are answered while some answers are also a
question on its own or a ground for further question.
When man starts asking rational questions about
existence, universe and or things around in order to find a
rationally satisfactory answers to them is what we call
Philosophy. This is the reason that Aristotle called
philosophy a child of wonder. Man started philosophizing
when he wants to know. To know what is the basic stuff of

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Universe, what is man made up of. For Plato, philosophy is
the knowledge of truth. It is to know the truth about the
Universe, all things. Philosophy questions everything -
Religion, man, God, animals etc.
It is pertinent to note that philosophy has no single or
universally accepted definition. Many philosophers gave their
views about the meaning of philosophy
Philosophy is rooted from two Greek words ‘philo’ and
sophia’ which literally means the love of knowledge or
inducing the search after wisdom.
In his own view about philosophy, R.T Allen (1982:8)
has it that, “Philosophy is that general knowledge of man life
and world.” Is a form of inquiry and intellectual discipline
different from natural and technological sciences history and
social sciences (e.g. psychology, sociology e.t.c) all those
other inquiries selected a particular field or area of study.
Philosophy is an attempt to understand the nature and
purpose of the Universe, existence, man, God, truth, matter,
nature, soul, mind, good and evil. The philosopher wants to
know how all these originated and why? They try to ask and
answer the question, How did existence begin and why?
From the Socratic point of view philosophy has
something to do with: Asking questions and providing
answers to such questions until one come to a question that
cannot be answered and answers that cannot be

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questioned. These questions should be more than ordinary,
they should be critical, consistent and coherent.
Ani H.U. (2008) has it that philosophy “is the loving
penchant to wisdom through reflective approach.”
Pythagoreans says it is a tendency to move from ignorance
towards knowledge. Plato as cited by Samuel E.S. and James
F. (2003) has it as the “passion or desire to seek the truth. It
is the activity of the soul in seeking/desiring the truth.”
Martin Heidegger (1965) has it as:
The answer to the question what is
philosophy? Consists in our correspondence
to (answer to) that towards which
philosophy is on the way. And that is the
being of being. The expressly adopted and
correspondence which corresponds to the
appeal of the being or being is philosophy.

For Iroegbu, P. (1995)

Philosophy is the body of natural knowledge,
critically and methodically acquired and
ordered which undertakes and investigation
of the fundamental problems concerning
knowledge, being, nature, values and
endeavors to attain the fundamental
explanation of things.

Omoregbe J. (2003) defined philosophy as;

“a rational search for answers to the basic
questions about the ultimate meaning of
reality as a whole and of human life in
particular.” Philosophy is a science that
systematically studies in a reflective
manner, the various branches of human and

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 natural dimensions. It is a rational discuss
into reality.

Scope of Philosophy
Like every other realities that is affected by one
fundamental law of nature – change, the scope of philosophy
has been solely truncated by the different epoch of history,
starting from era when the primitive man is guided by
common sense and tradition devoid of systematic
documented philosophy, 4,000 BC when the African
“Egyptian Mystery System” is the citadel of all knowledge.
Knowledge has been synonymous with philosophy.
At this time, even though, the body of knowledge in
existence lacks the appendage philosophy, it is a rational
inquiry into the mysteries of nature and the wonders of its
phenomena. The Priests were the custodians of this
endeavors. The “Egyptian Mystery System” was a system of
Ancient University System where all body of knowledge –
physics, astronomy, medicines etc are transferred from
priests – teacher to student. It is pertinent to point out that
this knowledge is not devoid of dogmatic influence. As at this
time, the scope of knowledge is all reality under the
parameters of human experiences.
In later centuries, a documentation of rational
speculation on reality started around sixth century B.C. in
Ionia with the Pre – Socratic Greek thinkers – Thales and his
successors, Anaximander, Anaximenses etc who were more

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or less students of the Egyptian mystery system. This
rational discuss still maintain its ontos as knowledge and its
object all reality. Socrates immortalized by Plato first used
the name philosophers – lovers of wisdom to address to his
student instead of calling them wise men. “According to
Plato, Socrates preferred not to call his students wise men.
Rather he called them by a more “modest and appropriate
title,” namely lover of wisdom or philosophers.” (Okafor F. C.
1992) A rational discourse into the phenomena of reality and
its proximate causality and effect that transcend the
immediate empirical data was practiced under the
appellation “Philosophy”. At this time still its scope still
maintains all reality.
After Socrates came Plato whose is Socrates’ student
and Aristotle who is Plato’s student. All knowledge at this
time was under the umbrella of philosophy and its scope is
all reality. At about 300BC, the Stoics and the Epicureans
divided philosophy into three – logic, physics and ethics.
Logic includes epistemology; physics includes science; while
Ethics includes the contemporary Philosophy of Mind and
Psychology. Up to 17th century AD, all knowledge under
natural sciences were grouped under the name “Natural
Philosophy” in contradiction to Moral Philosophy or Mental
Philosophy.
At the medieval age that saw the flourishing of the
scholastic philosophers - Father’s of the church – the

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meaning of philosophy and its scope was more truncated to
“scientia rerum per ultimas causes” (Okafor F.C 1992) that is
the knowledge of things through their ultimate causes. At
this era, philosophy served as a tool for the harmonization of
faith and reason by attempting to rationalize the teachings
of the church. It used the scholastic method to see that all
tenet of the church have a rational bases. All philosophic
knowledge and endeavour were directed toward
rationalization of faith not until 15 th century AD which herald
the advent of science.
At 17th century AD, scientific endeavour came to its full
actualization. The scope of philosophy started becoming
more truncated and succinct owing to the fact that scientific
knowledge are becoming autonomous. Up to the
contemporary epoch, philosophical knowledge has been
totally separated from scientific knowledge. Despite the fact
that the philosophical discipline has shed the sciences one
by one, leaving them to form separate autonomous
disciplines as they become more and more specialized and
amendable to systematic empirical investigation, rather than
products of a prior reasoning and speculation, philosophy
still embraces in a way, the sum total of human experience.
The data utilized in philosophy include to some degree the
content of sciences, arts, literature and religion. This is
because philosophy deals with reality – all reality. Hence, it

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encompasses within its purview all things – animate and
inanimate, terrestrial and cosmic, natural and supernatural.
Unlike other subject matters, philosophy is not
“fragmentary” but coordinative. For instances physics
studies material beings in as much as these posses mass,
energy and motion. Chemistry studies them in as much as
they have definite elementary constitution. Botany studies
the plant kingdom; while zoology, the animal kingdom.
Astronomy studies the heavenly bodies, while geology, the
inorganic bodies that make up the earth. Only philosophy
studies all beings.
In short, philosophy of its nature attempts to establish a
coherence throughout the whole domain of experience and
the whole realm of thought. It provides an avenue for
thinking systematically about realities of and in existence.
Phenomena scatter ever so extensively; Philosophy helps to
package disparate phenomena into some sort of meaningful
totality. While not ignoring details and pieces of fragmentary
data, it transcends them to reveal the order or pattern that
gives these details and fragments their significance.

MODES OF DOING PHILOSOPHY

It is an established fact among philosophers that philosophy
has various approaches or modes of doing it. These
approaches are distinguished by the way philosophical
questions are answered. These modes include;

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Methodology Process
Some common features of the methods that
philosophers follows(and discuss when discussing
philosophical method) include;
 Methodic doubt – a systematic process of being
skeptical about (or doubting) the truth of one’s
beliefs
 Argument – provide an argument or several
arguments supporting the solution
 Dialectic – present the solution and arguments for
criticism by other philosophers and help them judge
their own.

Doubt and The Sense of Wonder

Plato said that “philosophy begins in wonder”
Theaeteus 155d(tr. Benjamin Joirete), a view which is
echoed by Aristotle in his metaphysics 982b12, “it was their
wonder, astonishment, that first led me to philosophize and
still leads them.” Philosophizing may begin with some simple
doubts about accepted beliefs. The initial impulse to
philosophize may arise from suspicion, for example that we
do not fully understand and have not fully justified, even our
most basic beliefs about the world.

Formulate Questions and Problems

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 Another element of philosophical method is to
formulate questions to be answered or problems to be
solved. The working assumption is that the more clearly the
question or problem is stated, the easier it is to identify
critical issues.
A relatively small number of major philosophers prefer
not be quick, but to spend more time trying to get extremely
clear on what the problem is all about.
Enunciate a Solution
Another approach is to enunciate a theory, or to offer a
definition or analysis, which constitutes an attempt to solve
a philosophical theory by itself can be stated quite briefly. All
the supporting philosophical text is offered by way of
hedging, explanation and argument.
Not all proposed solutions to philosophical problems
consist of definitions or generalizations, sometimes what is
called for is a certain sort of explanation – not a causal
explanation, but an explanation for example of how two
different, views, which seem to be contrary to one another,
can be held at the sometime, consistently. One can call this
a philosophical explanation.

Justify the Solution

An argument is a set of statements, one of which (the
conclusion), is said or implied, follows from the others (the
premises). One might think of arguments as bundles of

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reasons – often not just a list, but logically interconnected
statements – followed by the claim they are reasons for. The
reasons are the premises, the claim they support is the
conclusion; together they make an argument.
Philosophical arguments and justification are another
important part of philosophical method. It is rare to find a
philosopher, particularly in the western philosophical
tradition, who lacks many arguments. Philosophers are or at
least are expected to be, very good at giving arguments.
They constantly demand and offer arguments for different
claims they make. This therefore indicates that philosophy is
a quest for arguments.
A good argument – a clear, organized, and sound
statement of reasons – may ultimately cure the original
doubts that motivated us to take up philosophy. If one is
willing to be satisfied without any good supporting reasons,
then a Western philosophical approach may not be what one
actually requires.

Philosophical Criticism
In philosophy which concerns the most fundamental
aspects of the universe, the experts all disagree. It follows
that another element of modes of doing philosophy, common
in the work of nearly all philosophers is philosophical

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criticism. It is this that makes much philosophizing a social
endeavour.
Philosophers offer definitions and explanations in
solution to problem; they argue for those solutions; and then
other philosophers provide counter arguments, expecting to
eventually come up with better solutions. This exchange and
resulting revision of views is called dialectic. Dialectic (in one
sense of this history laden word) is simply philosophical
conversation amongst people who do not always agree with
each other about everything.
One can do this sort of harsh criticism on one’s own,
but others can help greatly, if important assumptions are
shared with the person offering the criticisms. Others are
able to think of criticisms from another perspective.
Some philosophers and ordinary people dive right in
and start trying to solve the problem. They immediately start
trying to solve the problem. They immediately start giving
arguments, pro and con, on different sides of the issue.
Doing philosophy is different from this. It is about
questioning assumptions, digging for deeper understanding,
doing philosophy is about the journey, the process, as much
as it is about the destination, the conclusion. Its method
differs from other disciplines, in which the experts can agree
about most of the fundamentals.

Motivation

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 Modes of doing philosophy is in some sense rooted in
motivation, only by understanding why people take up
philosophy is. People often find themselves believing thing
that they do not understand. For example, about God,
themselves, the natural world, human society, morality and
human productions. Often, people fail to understand what it
is they believe and fail to understand the reasons they
believe in what they do. Some people have questions about
the meaning of their beliefs and questions about the
justification (or rationality) of their beliefs. A lack of these
things shows a lack of understanding and some dislike not
having this understand.
These questions about are only the top of the
philosophical iceberg. There are many other things about
this universe about which people are also fundamentally
ignorant. Philosophers are in the business of investigating all
sort of those areas of ignorance.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHILOSOPHY
These are those things, qualities that distinct philosophical
knowledge from other knowledge. These qualities are:-
 Open mindedness: willingness to afford a fair hearing
to all
 Skepticism: questioning of received opinions and the
status quo

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 A systematic approach: showing connection between
different parts of belief/thought systems
 A basis in justifying reasons: to convince informed,
nonsectarian people
 Universality: although its method and questions
remain the same, interpretations and application will
differ from place to place.

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 CHAPTER TWO
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy as a rational discourse into reality has been
classified or divided into branches to in order to narrow the
aims of discussion. Traditionally, philosophy has been broken
into four main branches but in respect to hone in knowledge,
other branches emerged. The four traditional branches shall
be discoursed and for the sake of broadened knowledge,
other branches shall be also discussed.
Metaphysic
The term metaphysics just like philosophy has no
succinct definition. Etymologically, metaphysics is from two
Greek word meta-after and physika- physics. Early use of the
term simply referred to the topics covered by the work
placed after (hence meta) the physics in the traditional
editing and commentary of Aristotle’s works made by the
Greek peripatetic philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes. From
after physic, metaphysics metamorphosized to a more
complicated nexus of rational inquires into the underpinning
unicity of being amidst apparent diversity. After physics now
became synonymous with beyond physic. Beyond the
physical appearances into reality. Aristotle called it “the
science of first philosophy” (Enoch S. and Fieser J. 2003). It is
study of being. Being as the essence of existence and this is
the first wonder of man. “Metaphysics is the branch of
philosophy that investigates the meaning, principles, causes,

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origins, natures constitutes and categories of all things.”
(Akpa E. 2012) “Metaphysics is a search for an
understanding of beings in their ultimate causes. It seeks a
description and identification of the intelligible nature
structure and characteristic qualities of reality. As a search
for meaning, metaphysics is an inquiry into the intelligibility
and the value of reality” (Edeh E.M.P. 1985). Metaphysic ask
question on being looking beyond the inconsistence of being
into the metaphysical orderliness of the universe. “It may be
helpful to see it as the study of things that exist-apart from
or beyond what is immediately apparent in the physical
world around us. Part of the job of metaphysics is to take an
inventory of all the kinds of things that exist…” (Enoch S.
and Fieser J. 2003). A central branch of metaphysics is
ontology, the investigation into the basic categories of being
and how they relate to each other.
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that deals with
the nature of reality. “What is the ultimately real? Is the
basic question asked in the study of metaphysics”.
At first glance the answer to this query seems rather
obvious. After all, average people seem to be quite certain
about the “reality” of their world. If you ask them, they will
probably tell you to open your eyes and look at the clock on
the wall, listen to the sound of a passing train, or bend down
to touch the floor beneath your feet. Theses thing are, they
claim, what is ultimate real.

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 But you can trip them up by asking, “What about God?”
Is He real? Does he exist? And if He does exist, what is His
relationship to human being and the “real” world?”
The ask them; “what about the universe itself? How did
it originate and develop? Did it come about by accident or
design? Does its existence have any purpose?”
That leads to question about human beings; “Are they
unique or merely highly developed. Quadrupeds? Are people
born good, evil or morally neutral? Do they have free will or
one their thought and actions determined by environment,
inheritance, or divine proclamation? Do individuals have
souls? And if they do, are those souls immortal?”
These are few of the questions that lies “beyond
physics” in the realm of ultimate reality. None of the answers
to these questions can be proved beyond the shadow of
doubt. They are matters of faith and belief for all people and
every political and educational system. Countless men and
women have sacrificed and even died because of their
commitment to certain beliefs about metaphysical questions.
There are in fact no issues more crucial to human beings.

Epistemology or The Theory of Knowledge

Epistemology etymologically is from two Greek words
“episteme” meaning “knowledge” and he suffix – “ology”
meaning “the science of” literally speaking. It is the study or
investigation of knowledge itself. It is the science or study of

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knowledge. It is a philosophical theory of human
knowledge.” (Ani H.U, 2008). Epistemology is that branch of
philosophy which is concerned with the nature and scope of
knowledge, its presupposition and basis and the general
reliability of claims to knowledge. It is understood as the
study of the nature and validity of knowledge and its
principal concern therefore human knowledge.” (Nnadi C.E.
and Udabah C.U., 2008 Ed. Ezeugwu C.E)
Epistemic knowledge is not about what we know, but
about what it means to know. Epistemology seeks to answer
basic questions about how human beings perceive the world
and gain knowledge about it. The more prominent of these
include;
1) Is there an external world? How can we be certain?
2) How does memory work? How can we know that our
memories are genuine?
3) What is the nature of perception? To what extent
does current knowledge affect future perception?
4) What knowledge is inherent to humans and what is
learned after birth? Can new facts be assimilated
without innate concepts?
5) To what extent are inferences based on perceptions
valid? What is the proper way to make such
inferences?

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 It is helpful to note the basic (Socratic) distinction made
between beliefs, which hold to opinions, and knowledge,
which holds to “truth”. Knowledge concerns apodictic facts
that are absolute and simply cannot be false (while opinions
can be and often are false). According to Karl Popper the
only way we can distinguish between truth and not-truth is
by subjecting test-statements to experimental invalidation.
Plato though otherwise; he believed that truth is not subject
to invalidation.
So then the epistemological question: where does our
knowledge come from? And to take it further (as many
Philosophers have): what are the limits of human
knowledge? On this, the two main competing philosophical
branches of the early modern ages: Rationalism and
Empiricism is of great importance. Rationalist thinkers like
Descartes argue that all knowledge comes from reason, and
everything in the world of homo cogitans is fundamentally
rational. It is through the human mind that the human
knows. Empiricist at that point, the British thinkers; Berkeley,
Hume, Lock) insist that most, if not all, “real” human
knowledge can only arrived at through human experience. It
is through the human sense that the human knows.
There is also the theologically – driven idea of
knowledge as (divine) revelation (think God, by his spirit,
giving to the writers the Holy Bible). There is an interesting

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blurring of the lines separating belief and knowledge here. St
Augustine gives us an eloquent discussion of reason vs faith.
One issue that is of interest to many epistemologists is
the analysis of knowledge, that is trying to find an answer to
the question “what conditions need to be satisfied to say
that someone knows something?” for a long time, the
conditions seemed clear to most philosophers to know
something, you must believe it, it has to be true and you
have a justification for believing it. The problems raised by
the Getter problem have reopened this question for many
and a great number of new problems have arisen. This kind
of question is considered the most general of questions in
epistemology, while concerns about, say, the different ways
of knowing are a much more specific set of questions within
epistemology.

Axiology or The Theory of Value

Axiology is from two Greek words axios meaning
“worthy” and logos meaning “science of” or “study of”. It is
the study of the worthiness of a thing. It is the theory of the
value of a thing. “It also called theory of value, the
philosophical study of goodness, or value in their widest
senses.” (Akpa E., 2012). It is the science of human values,
enables us to identify the internal valuing systems that
influence our perceptions, decisions and actions to clearly
understand “why” we do what we do.

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 The term value means the worth of something; to say
that an object has value means that it is worthy, useful,
important, cherished, desired and needed. Value influences
our everyday decisions, choices and actions. Both at
personal or group levels, local or national levels, polices are
made and decisions are taken based on values. Axiology is
divided into ethics and aesthetics.
Ethics is concerned with evil and good /right and wrong
bearing on moral conduct. It investigates the concepts of
“right” and “good” in individual and social conduct.
Philosophical ethics concerns itself with discovering a
system. One may use to determine who or what is good, or
with evaluating system that others have proposed.
Aesthetics is concerned with the problem of beauty
and ugliness. It studies the concepts of “beauty” and
“harmony”. It is the philosophical study concerned with the
understanding of beauty and its manifestation in art and
nature. It consists of two parts; the philosophy of art and the
philosophy of the aesthetic experience and character of
objects or phenomena that are not art.
Axiology is extended to include inquiry about values of
any kind whatever such as religious, social or economic
values.
The problem of axiology is to classify criteria or
principles which will determine what is good in human
conduct, what is beautiful in art, what is right in social

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organization, finally what these have in common as well as
what distinguishes them from one another.

Logic
Logic is from Greek word logos – word, discuss,
argument, speech, judgment, proposition, thought, reason
etc. Logic is not dispute, quarrel, any argument or
disagreement. Logic is beyond our everyday or day to day
usage of the word logic, it is not logistic. For Aristotle, who is
the father of logic has it as “ a proposition which is either
true or false a definition, a syllogism or a demonstration.
Plato also has it that logis is a judgment of ontological
implication. Irving Copi (1982) as in Centre for Distance
Learning and continuing Education, University of Abuja, also
defines it as the science or art of making a distinction
between straight and crooked reasoning. It is a field of study
dealing with the criteria for the evaluation of arguments.
It is the study of the act of correct reasoning. It is the
study of coherency of thought and its logical validity. It is the
acquisition of the skill of presenting clear, correct and
coherent reasoning.
Many thoughts are not logically valid because the
intellectual process did not observe the logical rules of
correct reasoning. So also many judgments are not logical
because they do not satisfy the tenets of the laws of thought
or logic. When the fundamental laws of rational discuss or

26
thought or logic are not properly adhered to, they give
judgment that are illogical or have a logical jump or
irrational. This is the case of judgments that comes out from
cultural prejudice or presupposition, biases and emotions
etc.
It is a rational discourse into the laws of thoughts. It is
not any discourse but the study of rules guiding thoughts. It
is the science of reasoning. It is not the study of argument as
disputes or wrangles but the study of rationally classical
argumentative way of asserting or denying a conclusion’s
validity.
Logic establishes rules for a connecting links in a chain
of thoughts. These rules also enables us to recognize flaws
and weaknesses.

Two major divisions of logic

(1) Deductive logic (2) Inductive logic
Deductive logic is also called formal logic. It is a process
from premises to conclusions or drawing a conclusion from a
general statement or arguing from general to particular e.g.
this room is for students. I am not a student therefore I
cannot use it.
Inductive logic: This is other hand proceeds from a
particular data to only partially conclusive judgments or to

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be simpler still, it is a reasoning from particular facts to a
general conclusion.
Example: Our car just crossed the bridge therefore the
bridge is safe.
In either process, logic helps to make us more sure on
how to reach sound or unsound beliefs about the true or
false. In this respect it is not only a legitimate but also
indispensable aid to epistemology.

RELEVANCIES OF ALL THE BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

TO EDUCATION

Metaphysics
Even a cursory glance at basic metaphysical issues
reveals their importance for every educational practice. It is
crucial that every educational program be based upon fact
and reality rather than fancy, illusion, or imagination.
Different metaphysical beliefs lead to differing
educational approaches and even separate systems of
education. Teacher’s instructional methods will differ
dramatically, depending on whether they view each student
as Desmond Morris’ “naked ape” or as a child of God.
Likewise, discipline will be handled differently, depending on
whether one thinks children are essentially good, as was
asserted of Rousseau’s Emile, or believes their goodness has
been radically twisted by the effects of sin.

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 Why do Religious institutions spend millions of Naira
each year for a private system of education when free public
system are widely available? Because of their metaphysical
beliefs regarding the nature of ultimate reality, the existence
of God, the role of God in human beings as God’s children.
Metaphysics is a major determinant of everything we as
teachers do in the classroom.

Epistemology
Closely related to metaphysics is the issue of
epistemology. Epistemology seeks to answer such basic
question as “what is true” and “how do we know? The study
of epistemology deals with such issue as the dependability of
knowledge and the validity of sources through which we gain
information. According, epistemology stands with
metaphysics at the very centre of the educative process.
Both educational systems and teachers in those systems
deal in knowledge; they are engaged in an epistemological
undertaking.
Epistemology has a direct impact upon education on
moment by moment basis. For example, assumptions about
the importance of the various sources of knowledge will
certainly be reflected in curricular emphasis and teaching
methodologies. Because Religious teachers believe in
revelation as a source of certain knowledge they will
undoubtedly choose a curriculum and a central role for the

29
scared book in that curriculum that differ substantially from
curricular choices by public school teachers. The entire
philosophic world view of their faith will color the
presentation of every topic they teach. That, of course, is
true for teachers of all philosophic persuasions. It constitutes
an important argument for educating our youth in schools.

Ethics
The significance of axiology for us then is to examine
and integrate these values as they enter into the lives of the
people through the institution of education.
Teachers’ belief about reality and truth will lead them
to conclusions in the third great philosophic realm – axiology.
Answers the questions: “what is of values?” People are
valuing beings. They prefer some things over others, rational
individual and social life is based upon a system of values.
The daily news tells us that there is no universal
agreement on value systems. Different answers to the
questions of metaphysics and epistemology produce
different value systems.
Values define what a people or a society view as good
or preferable in terms of behaviour (ethics) and beauty
(aesthetics). Therefore, Religions have invested great effort
and expenses to pass on to the younger generation their
beliefs about good behaviour and beauty. These issues are
flash points for controversy both in daily life and in the

30
classroom when parents, teachers and students disagree
about various issues, such as television, music, or sexual
behaviour. The realm of axiology contains some of the most
explosive human issues.

[Link]/ict/vol_08/08cc_153-[Link]

Figure 1 graphically illustrates the relationship between

philosophic beliefs and practice. It indicates that a distinct
metaphysical and epistemological view point will lead the
teacher to a value orientation. That orientation, with its
corresponding view of reality and truth, will determine what
educational goals are deliberately chosen by teachers as

31
they seek to “act out” or implement their philosophical
beliefs in the classroom.
As a consequence, the goals teachers chose suggest
appropriate decisions about a variety of areas; Students’
need the teachers’ role in the classroom, the most important
thing to emphasize in the curriculum, the best teaching
methodologies to communicate the curriculum and the
societal function of the school only when one has taken a
position on such matters can appropriate polices be
implemented.
As figure 1 indicates, philosophy is not the sole
determinant of specific educational practices. Elements in
the everyday world (such as political factors, economic
conditions, and expectations of the immediate family or
community) also play a significant role in shaping and
modifying educational practice. However, it is important to
realize that philosophy still provides that basic boundaries
for educational practice for any given teacher in a specific
school. The same con be said for other practical activities.
Only when teachers clearly understand their philosophy
and examine and evaluate its implications for daily activity
in their society can they expect to be effective in reaching
their personal goals and those of the school for which they
teach. This is so because, as KNIGHT’S law declares. “It is
impossible to arrive at your destination unless you know
where you are going”

32
 Corollary number 1 is important for every teacher and
individual schools. “A school (or teacher) that does not come
close to attaining its goals will eventually lose its support.”
Dissatisfaction with education occurs when schools lose
their distinctiveness and teachers fails to understand why
their schools should be unique. Such teachers and schools
without a clearly understood and implemented philosophy is
an impossible contradiction and a waste of money.
Corollary number 2 is therefore crucial to the health
and even survival of educational system and the teachers in
schools. “We think only when it hurts.” In too many places,
education is already hurting. The greatest gifts we as
educators can give to the society are;
(1) To consciously examine our educational
philosophy from the perspective of societal values.
(2) To carefully consider the implications of that
philosophy for daily classroom activity, and then
(3) To implement that philosophy consistently
and effectively

Logic
If the target in mathematics education is
understanding, the question of what counts as proof is
crucial, that is, which proofs have a right to play a role in
understanding mathematical knowledge. The next two
sections approach proof with respect to its relation to

33
argumentation, its nature and conceptions. These issues are
informing the didactic choices of the logic course and they
are framing the whole design of it.
Proof & Argumentation
Hanna & de Villiers (2007) claim that understanding the
relationship between argumentation and mathematical proof
is essential for designing learning tasks and curricula aiming
at teaching proof and proving. When researchers view
mathematical proof as distinct from argumentation the
educational implications are very different from those who
see argumentation and proof as parts of a continuum. Duval
(1991) pointed to a dramatic discontinuity between
deduction and argumentation: in the former one must
distinguish between status and content of a statement; and
status (e.g. hypothesis, conclusion) in contrast to content,
depends only on the organization of deduction, and
therefore, he claims, the validity of a mathematical
statement, unlike in any other field, relies only on
logical/operational value, not on epistemic value. From the
other stand, Boero, et al (1996) assert that it is only by
engaging in conjecturing and argumentation that students
develop an understanding of mathematical proof. They claim
that a ‘cognitive unity’ exists between the production of a
conjecture during argumentation and the successful
construction of its proof. This conjecturing/argumentation
approach to proof received many criticisms since the natural

34
language employed in students’ argumentation patterns
seems to be in conflict with the logic associated with
deductive reasoning. So Balacheff (1991) claims that
argumentation is an obstacle to the teaching of proof.
Following Perelman ‘whereas mathematical proof in its most
perfect form is a series of structures and of forms whose
progression cannot be challenged, argumentation has a non-
constraining character. It leaves to the author hesitation,
doubt, freedom of choice; even when it proposes rational
solutions, none is guaranteed to carry the day’ (in Balacheff
1999), he argues that the major source for the rupture
between argumentation and proof is ‘the necessity of the
latter to exist relative to an explicit axiom system’. Barrier
et al (2009) claim that their model-theoretic approach calls
for continuity between argumentation and proof. In their
opinion the proof process is a dialectic one between
syntactic and semantic aspects in proof construction.
Support for this view comes from Azzouni (2005) who says
that traditional mathematical proofs, in contrast to formal
derivations, seem to be intrinsically semantic, not syntactic,
by recognizing the properties of the objects the inferences
are about. He claims that the certainty mathematicians have
about their successful ordinary proofs does not come from a
deductive justification, but from what he calls ‘inference
packages’, which explain mathematical intuition, the
semantic presence of objects in proofs and tacit reasoning.

35
Understanding a proof means being familiar to an inference
package, that is, when the concepts employed in a proof
facilitate the use of an inference package.

36
 CHAPTER 3

PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION

The meaning of philosophy has been established as a
search for a general understanding of values and reality by
chiefly speculative rather then experimental. The meaning of
education shall be treated and the relevance of philosophical
knowledge/endeavour to education.
Education
Generally, education is a form of learning in which
knowledge, skills and habits of a group of people are
transferred from one generation to another through
teaching, training, research or simply through auto
didacticism.
A look at the etymological meaning of education will
give a broader understanding of it. Education is from a Latin
word educare – “bring out”, “bring forth what is within”,
“bring out potential” and ducere, “to lead”, educatio – “a
breeding, a bringing up, a rearing”, educo – I educate, I
train. Which is related to the homonym educo – “I lead forth,
I take out; I raise up, I erect.
Education is a system of leading person or group of
persons to the knowledge of truth. It is a lead, breed or
nurturing of oneself to deliver, acquire, improve or grow in
knowledge. It is the act or experience that has a formative
effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an

37
individual. Webster defines education as the process of
educating or teaching. Educate is further defines as “to
develop the knowledge, skill, or character of…”
Furthermore, the term education can be view from two
prospective from a broad compass and in a restricted sense.
In the broad sense, it represents all experiences of the
individual through which knowledge is acquired, the intellect
enlightened, or the will strengthened. Informal education is
covered by this sense. In the strict sense of it, it employed to
designate the consciously planned and systematically
applied formal education or training, carried on through the
various social agencies of education, especially the school. In
this sense, teaching and discipline are employed. Here,
teaching implies the art of transmitting to the individual the
intellectual content of civilization. Discipline, on the other
hand, implies the introduction of the individual to the moral
life of the community and the techniques of self – control.
Thus, from these definitions, we might assume that the
purpose of education is to develop the knowledge, skill, or
character of students. In the ancient Greece, Socrates
argues that he help people given birth the innate knowledge
in them through what he called “epistemic midwifery” (e-
ducere – “to lead out”). Plato say that a good education
consists in giving to the body and to the soul all the beauty
and all the perfection of which they are capable.” The
sophists, a group of itinerant teachers, promised to give

38
students the necessary knowledge and skills to gain
positions with the city – state. In the view of Horace Mann,
“education alone can conduct us to that enjoyment which is,
at once, best in quality and infinite in quantity.” Herbert
Spencer emphasized that “education has for its object the
formation of character.” There are different views and
understandings of the meaning of the term education. In the
modern times, it has acquired two different shade of
meaning namely: (1) an institutional instruction, given to
students in school colleges formally; and (2) a pedagogical
science, studied by the student of education.
The words of Adam education is the dynamic side of
philosophy. Philosophy take into its orbits, all the dimensions
of human life. Similarly education also reflects the
multifaceted nature of human life. Therefore, education is
closely related to various aspects of human life and
environment. Hence, the term education has a wide
connotation. It is difficult to define education by single
definition. Philosophers and thinkers from Socrates to Dewey
in West and host of many contemporary philosophy and
education have attempted to define education.
However, education can be understood as the
deliberate and systematic influence exerted by a mature
through instruction and discipline. It means the harmonious
development of all the powers of the human being; physical
social, intellectual, aesthetic and spiritual. The essential

39
elements in the educative process are creative mind, well
integrated self, socially useful purposes and experience
related to the interests of the individual as of a social group.
In the historical development of man, education has been
the right of a privileged few. It is only in recent centuries
that education has come to be recognized as a human right.
All have equal right to be educated as education has become
sine quo non of civilization. Our discussion of the concept of
education and the concept of philosophy form the basis of
arriving at the definition of philosophy of education.

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
All human societies, past and present, have had a
vested interest in education; and some will have claimed
that teaching (at its best an educational activity) is the
second oldest profession. While not all societies channel
sufficient resources into support for educational activities
and institutions, all at the very least acknowledge their
centrality and for good reasons. For one thing. It is obvious
that children are born illiterate and innumerate, and ignorant
of the norms and cultural achievements of the community or
society into which they have been thrust; but with the help
of professional teachers and the dedicated amateurs in their
families and immediate environs (and with the aid, too, of
educational resources made available through the media
and nowadays the internet), within a few years they can

40
read, write calculate, and act (at least often) in culturally
appropriate way. Some learn these skills within more facility
than others, and so education also serves as a social –
sorting mechanism and undoubtedly has enormous impact
on the economic fate of the individual. Put more abstractly,
at its best education equips individuals with the skills and
substantive knowledge that allows them to define and to
pursue their own goals, and also allows them to participate
in the life of their community as full – fledged, autonomous
citizens. But this is to cast matters in very individualistic
terms, and it is fruitful also to take a societal perspective,
where the picture changes somewhat. It emerges that in
pluralistic societies such as the Nigeria there are some group
from within by thinking for themselves and challenging
communal norms and belief; from the point of view of groups
whose survival is thus threatened, formal, state – provided
education is not necessarily a good thing. But in other ways
even these groups depend for their continuing survival on
educational processes, as do the larger societies and
national – states of which they are part; for as John Dewey
put it in the opening chapter of his classic work “Democracy
and Education” (1916), in its broadest sense education is the
means of the social continuity of life (Dewey, 1916, 3).
Dewey pointed out that the primary indictable facts of the
birth and members in a social group make education a
necessity, for despite this biological inevitability – the life of

41
the group goes on. The great social important of education is
underscored, too, by the fact that when a society is shaken
by a crisis, this often is taken as a sign of educational
breakdown; education, and educators, become scope goats.
It is not surprising that such an important social domain has
attracted the attention of philosopher for thousands of years,
especially as there are complex issues aplenty that have
great philosophical interest.
The following are some issues that philosophers have
deeply thought about and philosophy is still in the process of
answering these questions. Is Education as transmission of
knowledge versus education as the fostering of inquiry and
reasoning skills that are conducive to the development of
autonomy (which, roughly, is the tension between education
as conservative and education as progressive, and also is
closely related to differing views about human – perfectibility
– issues that historically have been raised in the debate over
the aims of education); the question of what this knowledge,
and what these skills, ought to be – part of the domain of
philosophy of the curriculum; the questions of how learning
is possible, and what is it to have learned something – two
sets of issues that relate to the question fo the capacities
and potentialities that are present at birth, and also to the
process (and stages) of human development and to what
degree this process is flexible and hence can be influenced
or manipulated; the tension between liberal education and

42
vocational education, and the overlapping issue of which
should be given priority – education for personal
development or education for citizenship (and the issue of
whether or not this is a false dichotomy); the differences (if
any) between education and enculturation; the distinction
between educating versus teaching versus training versus
indoctrination; the relation between education and
maintenance of the class structure of society, and the issue
of whether different classes or cultural groups can – justly -
be given educational programs that differ in content or in
aims; the issue of whether the rights of children, parents,
and socio-cultural or ethnic groups conflict – and if they do,
the question of whose rights should be dominant; the
question as to whether or not all children have a right to
state – provided education, and if so, should this education
respect the beliefs and customs of all groups and how on
earth would this be accomplished; and a set of complex
issues about the relation between education and social
reform, centering upon whether education is essentially
conservative, or whether it can be an (or, the) agent of social
change. It is here that philosophy of education plays an
important role in providing direction to education on the
following issues as well as providing a theory of knowledge
for education to work upon. Philosophy of education is
essentially a method of approaching educational experience
rather than a body of conclusions. It is the specific method

43
which makes it philosophical. Philosophical method is critical,
comprehensive and synthetic.
Therefore,
1) Philosophy of education is the criticism of the
general theory of education.
2) It consist of critical evaluation and systematic
reflection upon general theories.
3) It is a synthesis of educational facts with
educational values. In brief, it is a philosophical
process of solving educational problems through
philosophical method, from a philosophical
attitude to arrive at philosophical conclusions
and results. Thus, it aims at achieving general
as well as comprehensive results.

SCOPES OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

The scope of philosophy of education is confined to the field
of education. Thus, it is philosophy in the field of education.
The scope of philosophy of education is concerned with the
problems of education. These problems mainly include
interpretation of human nature, the world and the universe
and their relation with man, interpretation of aims and ideals
of education, the relationship of various components of the
system of education, relationship of education and various
areas of national life [economic system, political order, social
progress, cultural reconstructions etc.),’ educational values,

44
theory of knowledge and its relationship to education. The
above mentioned problems-constitute the scope of
philosophy of education and explain its nature. Thus, the
scope of philosophy of education includes following,
a] Aims and Ideals of Education: Philosophy of Education
critically evaluates the different aims and ideals of
education. These aims and ideals have been prorogated by
various philosophers in different times. They are the
character building, man making, harmonious human
development preparation for adult life, development of
citizenship, utilization of leisure, training for civic life training
for international living, achieving social and national
integration, scientific and technological development,
education for all, equalizing educational opportunities,
strengthening democratic political order and human source
development. These and other aims of education presented
by educational thinkers in different times and climes are
scrutinized and evaluated. Thus, philosophy of education
critically evaluates different aims and ideals of education to
arrive at.
b] Interpretation of Human Nature: A philosophical
picture of human nature is a result of the synthesis of the
facts borrowed from all the human science with the values
discussed in different normative, sciences. The philosophical
picture, therefore, is more broad as compared to the picture

45
of man drawn by biology, sociology, psychology, economies
and anthropology and other human science.
c) Educational Values: Value is typically a philosophical
subject since it is more abstract integral and universal.
Philosophy of education not only critically evaluates the
values but also systematizes them in a hierarchy.
Educational values are determined by philosophical values.
Educational values propagated by different philosophers
have been derived from their own world, view and their
outlook on the purpose of human life. Therefore a scrutiny of
the world views, outlook, beliefs is the specific function of
philosophy and it is necessary for the philosophical
treatment of the values.
d] Theory of Knowledge: Education is related to
knowledge. It is determined by the source, limits, criteria
and means of knowledge. The discussion of all these falls
within the jurisdiction of epistemology, one of the branches
of philosophy, therefore, an important area of the
functioning of philosophy of education is related to theory of
knowledge.
e] Relationship of education and various area of
national life and various components of the system of
education: One of the most important contributions of the
philosophy of education to the cause of education is the
provision of criteria for deciding the relationship of state and
education, economic system and-education, curriculum,

46
school organization and management discipline etc. These
problems have led to the evaluation of different philosophies
of education. The criteria of judgment everywhere are
determined by philosophy, therefore, philosophy of
education provides the criteria for critical-evaluation and
judgment in these fields.
Nature of Philosophy of Education
Philosophy of education is one of the -areas of applied -
philosophy. There -are -three -branches -of-philosophy
namely ‘metaphysics, epistemology and axiology.
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that investigates -
principles of reality transcending -those of any -particular
science. It is concerned with explaining the fundamental
nature of being and the world. Metaphysics is the study of
the nature of things. Metaphysicians -ask what kinds -of
things exist, and what they -are -like. They reason about
such things as whether or not people have free will, in what
sense abstract objects can be said to exist and how it is that
brains are able to generate minds.

Axiology: the branch of philosophical enquiry that explores:

 Aesthetics: the study of basic philosophical questions
about art and beauty. Sometimes philosophy of art is -
used :to describe only -questions about art, with
“aesthetics” the more -general term. Likewise
“aesthetics” sometimes applied even more broadly

47
 than to “philosophy of beauty” :to the “sublime,” to
humour; to the frightening--to any of the responses we
might expect works of art or entertainment to elicit.
 Ethics: the study of what makes actions right or
wrong,- and of how theories of right action can be
applied to special moral problems. Sub disciplines
include meta-ethics, value theory, -theory -of conduct
and applied ethics.

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies

knowledge. It attempts to answer the basic question: what
distinguishes true (adequate) knowledge from false
(inadequate) knowledge? Practically, this question translates
into issues -of scientific methodology: -how can -one -
develop theories -or -models that are -better than competing
-theories? It also forms one of the pillars of the-new sciences
of cognition, which developed from the information
processing approach to-psychology, and from artificial -
intelligence, as an -attempt -to -develop computer programs
that -mimic a human’s capacity to use knowledge in an
intelligent way. When we look at the history of epistemology,
we can discern -a-clear trend, in spite-of-the-confusion of
many seemingly contradictory -positions. The first -theories-
of knowledge stressed its absolute, permanent character,
whereas the later theories put the emphasis on its relativity
or situation-dependence, -its -continuous development -or

48
evolution, and -its active -interference with the world -and its
subjects and objects. The whole trend moves from a static,
passive view o-f knowledge towards a more and more
adaptive and active one.

As you can tell, the different branches of philosophy overlap

one another.- A philosopher considering whether people
ought -to give excess wealth -to the -poor -is asking an -
ethical question. -However, -his investigations might lead
him to wonder whether or not standards of right and wrong
are built into the fabric of the universe, which is a
metaphysical question. If-he -claims -that -people -are
justified taking -a -particular stance -on -that -quest-ion, -he -
is -making at -least -a tacit epistemological claim. At every
step in his reasoning, he will want to employ logic to
minimize the 10 chance of being led into -error by the great
complexity and obscurity -of the questions. He -may very
well look -to some -of the ethical, metaphysical, and
epistemological writings of past philosophers to-see how his
brightest predecessors reasoned about the -matter. Aspects
-of-each branch -of philosophy -can -be studied -in -isolation,
-but -philosophical questions have a way of leading to other
philosophical questions, to the point that a full investigation
of any particular -problem is likely-eventually -to involve
almost -the whole -of the -philosophical enterprise. One view
on- education believes or subscribes to the view that

49
philosophy of education comes under the umbrella of
axiology. As a branch of-philosophy it utilizes philosophical
methods for the solution -of philosophical problems with a
philosophical attitude to arrive at philosophical conclusion. In
this comprehensive process it includes facts concerning
education
-and synthesizes them with values. The other school of
thought -believes that education as a discipline utilizes or
needs to incorporate all modes of philosophical inquiry;-
metaphysical, axiological and epistemological. As
individuals- -involved in the -process -of education right from
-the -aims, -purpose, functions and -building theory we need
to look at any body of knowledge or generate new
knowledge based on the three modes of philosophical
inquiry.

THE IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION TO

THE CLASSROOM TEACHER
Philosophy of education is frequently seen as a highly
academic or abstract study that is of little use to the
classroom teacher. This is not very correct, for, it does have
some practical value to the teacher:
(1) One of the functions of philosophy of education is
to help teachers to think more clearly about educational
matters. People in the field of education tend to use
terms loosely or vaguely. By emphasizing clarity and

50
 decision in the use of terms, educational philosophy can
help establish what is meant. For example, what do we
mean by ‘child-centered education, discovery, learning,
discipline , readiness, interests? What do we mean
when we speak of learning, teaching, equality, of
opportunity? Clarification of ideas about such matters
is a first step towards a more effective curriculum
planning.
(2) In considering the objectives of education,
philosophy of education can be very helpful because of
its emphasis on clarification of meanings of concepts
such as those mentioned above; and because
educational philosophers have given much thought to
the aims of education, their willings in this field would
give considerable guidance and induce deep thinking
by teachers involved in curriculum planning.
(3) When teachers are considering objectives for their
school or for a particular subject they may have a very
long list of desirable or worthwhile objectives for their
pupils. They may therefore have to select from it. In
making this selection the relative importance of each
objective will have to be considered. This would involve
making value judgments, and philosophy has a part to
play in the clarification of values.
(4) When teachers are designing learning
opportunities, they need to ask themselves many

51
 questions; for example, the question “ what shall I
teach?” Here the analysis and discussions of
philosophers on such issues as the nature of knowledge
and the whole concept of education can help provide
the answers.
(5) A group of teachers undertaking curriculum
development will find it valuable to have a philosopher
in their group at the crucial points in their work when
decisions about objectives, content and methods are
being made to help them clarify their meanings and
intentions, and consider the value judgments being
made by asking appropriate time (Nicholls and Nicholls,
1972).
(6) Philosophy of education helps to clarify problems.
The philosopher of education helps to define and refine
the problem under consideration until it has been
reduced to its bare essentials. One value in the study
of a variety of philosophies of education is that it allows
one to see a number of different and alternative
solutions to a single problem, each point of view
providing us with a different measuring standard for
current educational practices.
(7) A study of philosophy of education helps us to
clarify our own thinking and beliefs about education.
By studying the best thoughts on education over the
centuries we can find the method of approach and

52
 solutions to problems that have bothered us. The study
of the history of educational thought also enables us to
see where our beliefs are incompatible and where they
are internally inconsistent or in need of modification.
(8) By studying philosophy of education, the teacher
can build own view or philosophical system through
which the total educational programme may be usefully
viewed, and within which he may make intelligent
decisions and help bring about modifications in the
existing educational structure.
(9) Finally the development of a logical and critical
mind that results from the study of formal philosophy
and philosophy of education cannot but help the
classroom teacher in his approach to educational
matters.
Similarities between philosophy and education
1) They are concerned in one way or the other with the
nature of man and universe. In philosophy, this concern
is shown through a synthesis of various findings and
experiences after which speculations are made. In
education, consideration of aims leads to a concern for
the purpose of life, the nature of the universe and
man’s place in it. Stated differently, educational aims
cannot be divorced from the primary concerns of
philosophy. Black (1956) ahs it that “all serious
discussion of educational problems, no matter how

53
 specific, soon lead to considerations of educational
aims, the varieties of experience. But these are the
perennial themes of philosophical investigation.”
2) Educators do not only determine aims, they are also
involved in making judgmentson what teaching
methods are better; what amount of freedom should
teachers and pupils enjoy in class; who should control
education and even who should be educated. In one
way or the other then, educators are always engaged in
deciding between alternatives. It thus means that since
several of the decisions they are required to make
cannot be arrived at empirically, the educator
necessarily relies on the sound and logical reasoning of
philosophy to achieve his task. Hence, philosophy
assists educators in formulating goals or even
constructing arguments.
3) Educators also rely on philosophy to clarify the
meaning of mch of much of what they engage in. as an
educator, one may be required to teach; to base such
teaching on learners’ interests or even follow a child’s
nature; discipline pupils and even promote democracy
in schools. But what precisely does teaching mean and
how can it be distinguished from indoctrination and
conditioning? What is interest and what is its
connection with need? What is nature and how is it
different from instinct? What is discipline and how is it

54
 related to punishment? What is democracy and what is
its connection with freedom and authority? Hence, as
educators, we get a clearer idea of our task when we
utilize the analytic effort of philosophy, because it is
through philosophy that meaning are made explicit.
4) Philosophy and education are both concerned with
knowledge. In education, the interest is in transmitting
such knowledge to learners. Although concerned with
knowledge, however, philosophy is more interested in
examining the grounds os knowledge. In a way, it
determines criteria of knowledge and uses this to
evaluate whate educators transmit in schools.
5) Education and philosophy are inescapably involved with
value issues. In education, for instance, we are
concerned with what values to transmit and even
knowledge transmitted must be considered valuable in
the given society. In the same vein, philosophy takes
its bearing from the beliefs and values of a society and
goes further to examine them. In this way, while
“philosophy articulates the beliefs of a culture,
education carries them out” (Brameld, 1947).
6) Like science, education takes its bearing from the
speculations of philosophy. Its aims, methods and even
classroom relationships are greatly influenced by
philosophical thinking. Like science too, educational
practices provide fertile ground for philosophical

55
 interpretation. Consequently, philosophy benefits
heavily from educational findings by utilizing these to
understand the nature of man.

Differences
1. In contrast to education which is a practically
observable activity, philosophy may be considered an
activity only in a week sense in which individuals utilize
its methods to solve intellectual questions. Hence, while
we cannot observe the activities of a philosopher, we
can observe teaching, punishment, discipline,
discussion or order forms of activities common in the
educational enterprise.
2. Education is more practical than philosophy. In
consequence of this, some methods of studying
education are different from those utilized in studying
philosophy. In general, education can be studied
scientifically as it is done with psychological and
sociological issues affecting education when
observations are made or experiments are conducted
to understand problems of some importance. As it has
been pointed out, philosophical investigations do not
employ empirical means. They only examine the
methods and conclusions of the other disciplines as well
as identify inconsistencies, where found. Apart from this
distinction, however, both education and philosophy

56
 employ historical analysis in which attempts are made
to search the past for answers to questions that are
pertinent to the present.
3. The function of philosophy is primarily critical and
therefore it is source of constant evaluation of existing
positions, leading to change. On the other hand,
education primarily serves a conservative function by
handing down accepted norms and values of the
society to growing generations. One the whole then,
philosophy is more radical than education.
4. Philosophy is not a body of knowledge and so it pays
less emphasis in handing down accepted positions or
does not consider understanding these very important.
What is more important is how the individual masters
the tools of philosophy which will enable him examine
issues critically. Education on the other hand is mainly
concerned with handing down facts as contained in the
various subjects taught in schools to learners. Thus,
whereas an educated individual is necessarily one who
has acquired knowledge and skill, a philosopher is not
necessarily one has amassed a body of philosophical
views or positions. He is judged more by his critical
attitude. Stated differently, education is more a matter
of content whereas philosophy is of attitude.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY AND THEIR IMPACT ON

EDUCATION
This section is aimed to buttress the meaning, educational
aims, curriculum content and methodology of each of the
five philosophical schools of thoughts; viz: Idealism,
Realism/Naturalism, Pragmatism and finally the
youngest school of thought which is Existentialism.
IDEALISM
(a) MEANING OF IDEALISM (Idealist metaphysics
viewed) Idealism is a doctrine that believes that whatever
exist is mental. Ojih I.C (1995) has it that, “the term idea has
been used to human mind. Idealism seems to be the oldest
philosophical ancient times but also span across the cradles
and March of eastern and western civilization.” Idealism per
se refers to the philosophical doctrine that lays emphasis on
the importance of the human mind, spirits or souls. It is a
school of though that reduces everything in existence to
ideas and images of the world as perceived and interpreted
by the human mind. Ultimate reality, in other words, is
spiritual, not physical; it is mental, not material. The
physical world exists quite all right; the world of houses,
hills, trees, stars, animals, e.t.c. Which our senses perceive
exists. But real as these things are , they are not ultimately
real. How did the idealist come to this conclusion? Plato
first maintained that we cannot trust our sense perceptions

58
in determining reality. In life many things may appear one
way but after a close examination one may find that they are
full of considerations. For example, if you look at your finger
nail, it appears white. But a closer examination will show
you that it is not purely white. Thus for the idealist, physical
objects are merely manifestations (or shadows) of a more
fundamental in corporal (or non-physical or non-material
reality).
Idealist Epistemology:- for Socrates and Plato knowledge
derived from the senses must always remain uncertain and
incomplete, since the material world is only a distorted copy
of more perfect sphere of being. True knowledge is derived
from reason alone, for reason is the faculty that discerns
(sees) the pure spiritual forms of things beyond their
material embodiments
Idealist Axiology:- Idealist believe that values and ethics
are absolute. The good, the true and the beautiful do not
change fundamentally from generation to generation or from
society to society. In their essence they remain constant.
They are not man-made but are part of the very nature of
the universe. They are fundamentally rooted in existence;
they are real existences or independent entities on their
own. Evil is incomplete good rather something which exists
by itself.
IDEALIST AIMS OF EDUCATION

59
 Idealists believe that education should bring the child
closer to the spiritual elements of nature. Idealists believe
that the child should be taught to see the universe as
possessing meaning and purpose. Generally, idealists agree
that education should stress the development of the mind,
the search for truth, self-realization and character
development. The following are the idealistic aims of
education:
1) The search for truth/Intellectual
Development:- The aim of education should be
directed towards the search for truth. Plato believed
that truth could not be found in the physical world
because it is an impermanent world that is ever
changing. A True education should lead one to God.
Since God is pure idea, then God can only be reached
through ideas. Therefore a true education is one that
is concerned with ideas rather than matter. Thus
idealists think of man as a thinking being. Having, a
mind capable of attaining truth. This is what
education should help him achieve.
2) Self-Realization:-Emphases on the mental
and spiritual qualities of man has led many idealist
philosophers to concentrate on the concept of the
individual and his place in education. Butler sees the
self as the centre of idealist metaphysics and
therefore the centre of idealist education. For Horn,

60
 education is an account of man finding himself as an
integral part of a universe of mind. Education should
encourage the will to perfection for the pupil, and it
is an activity whereby man shapes himself into the
likeness of God. Man, apart from being a part of a
community of minds, is also connected with the mind
of God. Therefore, all education is religious. One of
the primary functions of education is to open the soul
to God.
3) Character Development:-Idealists are
concerned with character development and believe
that a good education should make this one of its
major aims. Thus Plato says that religious ideas
should be present in ways that the student can use
them for guidance. The movement towards wisdom
(God) becomes the highest moral principle. Kant
also advocates character development as a proper
aim of education, but makes reason, not God, the
source of moral law. Consequently, the only thing
morally valuable is a good will. Thus one who has a
good will knows what duty is and conscientiously
seeks to do what it is. Butler says that any education
worthy of the name is character education…
The three major aims of idealist education are
contained in the aims and objectives of education in Nigeria.
Nigeria system of education seek to help the individual to

61
develop himself intellectually. It also aims to help the
individual to realize himself by providing him opportunities
to develop his abilities and potentialities to the full:
Education in Nigeria also aims to develop the child’s
character for the benefit of himself and the society. Thus
the national policy on education (Revised 1981) states that
instruction should inculcate the following values among
others: “Moral and spiritual values in personal and human
relations, and shared responsibility for the common good of
society” (section 1(3).
The policy states that Nigeria’s philosophy of education is
directed towards self-realization, better human relationship,
individual and national effectiveness, among other
objectives.
CURRICULUM CONTENTS
Idealists are not primarily concerned with producing
students with specific technical skills as they are in giving
them a broad understanding; they do not favour specialized
learning as much as they do learning that is more
comprehensive and general.
Idealists appropriate the value of a curriculum, but stress
that the most important thing in education at any level is to
teach students to think. Reading should not be used for
indoctrination. Rather they should be used to encourage the
child to think about the ideas involving brotherhood, truth
and fair play. They hold that the most important part of

62
man’s existence is his mind, which should be nourished and
developed.
Horn suggests seven(7) major subjects: Physics,
psychology, mathematics, Grammer, Literature and history.
The ultimate aim of the present National policy on Education
is to tilt the balance in favour of the study of sciences.
Hence the policy statement that admission into post-
secondary institutions should be in the ratio 60:40 present in
favor of the sciences.
IDEALIST METHODS OF EDUCATION
For Plato, the method of learning is the dialectic, that is
critical analysis of mental processes. Through this critical
method of thinking man could see things in Toto. Dialectic
has come to be a matter for logical arguments, which means
ideas are discussed and argued about and only if they
emerge victorious will there be reason to believe in them.
In addition to the dialectical method, some idealists
argue that truth can also be discerned through intuition and
revelation. The idealist supports the lecture method, but
lecture is a means of stimulating though rather than merely
passing information. The main purpose of giving a lecture is
to help the students to understand truth.
Idealist also make use of such method as projects,
supplementary activities, library research and art work. As
self-realization is an important aim of education , the idealist
emphasizes the importance of self-activity in education.

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Role of the school
1. The school should provide a conducive atmospheric
environment for proper spiritual and character
development. The students are expected to learn good
behaviours from the teachers. They are expected to
develop good characters as a requisite for spiritual
development. All these are possible is the environment
reflects the essence of such virtues.
2. The school should also be a discipline-centered. Even
though the school has provided a conducive
atmosphere for character learning and spiritual
development, they are not expected to be passive by
allowing each individual develop freely on his own. The
school should play active role in guiding the student to
the desire value.
3. The school is also expected to interpret and pass on to
children the accumulated knowledge and wisdom of
past generations. In this regard, the school is expected
to play a mediating role because it stands between the
traditions, wisdom and knowledge of the society on the
one hand and the growing individual on the other. The
is not aware of these traditions but nonetheless needs
them in order to survive in such a society. It is the
responsibility of the school to conserve these traditions
and hand them over to the children.

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Strengths
1. Idealists stress on character and moral development is
particularly important because it succeeds in making
individuals appreciate what good conduct is. Character
and moral development enables individuals to
appreciate the existence of others in a world which
only proper appreciation of these can lead to peaceful
co-existence.
2. Education, in whichever way it is conceived, requires
the acquisition of knowledge of some sort. It is our
ability to acquire knowledge that is responsible for
man’s progress in this world. In the light of this, the
high cognitive emphasis in idealist philosophy is vital
because it enables man to develop his powers of
reason upon which his understanding of the world
depends.
3. In a world that is becoming too materialistic, where
man has failed to recognize the source of all we find on
earth, and his superiority over everything else, idealism
comes in as an adequate philosophy which duly
recognizes the personal and spiritual sides of man.
4. Disloyalty like indiscipline has considerable
consequences on any human group. Both threaten the
continued existence of such groups. But idealism
stresses the loyalty of the individual to the group in

65
 which he finds himself. Individuals are encouraged in
idealism to look at themselves as part of the larger
whole with the whole being superior to them. Most
human conflicts have arisen due to lack of
understanding of this basic fact for when taken far, it
amounts to the view that the whole world is nothing
but a unit in which even the various nations or races
are only parts of the larger world community.
5. Emphasis on cultural transmission in important
because it ensures the stability of societies. When
transmitted to growing generations, it represents the
best means that individuals in such societies have to
tackle their problems.
6. In a large measure, idealists have a positive view about
the child because they look at him as having a soul
which is spiritual and which is part of the spiritual
universe. The result is that it makes teachers to have a
positive view about children and that even those who
may be regarded now as bad can be transformed.
7. Others are attracted to the philosophy of idealism
because of its systematic and comprehensive
approach. No other school of philosophy, practically
speaking, matches idealism in this aspect. Its inclusion
of everything conceivable in the universe into its
philosophy is fascinating. Every concept is closely fitted

66
 into the system in a very thorough and convincing
manner.

Weaknesses
1. Often, idealism encourages uncritical acceptance of
whatever is handed down or what is considered good.
The individual is therefore rendered powerless to
exercise his own judgment. Such forceful or
authoritative means only succeeds in making the
individual accept rules dogmatically. It therefore extols
conformity and stifles autonomy.
2. Idealism also have the weakness of being conservative.
Its emphasis on the transmission of culture lends
weight to this criticism. There is that distrust by
idealists for what is new. According to them, the
accumulated wisdom of past generations that have
succeeded in taking man through various upheavals
are more important than all that happens now. Thus,
the general claim is that idealism glorifies the past to
the detriment of the present and future.
3. Very few will disagree with the claim that idealist
curriculum lacks relevance. While a concern for
character, moral and spiritual development is
admirable, the fact remains that, in general, these do
not include those things that can enable man solve his
immediate problems. Man lives in a world that daily

67
 threatens his existence. Problems of hunger, disease,
shelter and others need to be tackled but not with the
kind of curriculum advocated by idealists.
4. Teachers seem to be credited with too much while
students are hardly considered as being important. This
is obviously wrong. While it can be accepted that
effective teaching depends on how well teachers
prepare and communicate, this is only one side of the
issue because the students who are the recipients must
be made to respond positively to the learning
materials, otherwise there can be no learning. Thus, to
decide matters of curriculum content as well as
methods of teaching without considering the interests
of learners or simply without involving them in the
teaching-learning process is to limit their
understanding of what is being presented to them.
5. In idealism, children learn primarily through
memorization of what is hardly understood. Such
memorization of facts only enables students to stock
these facts which might only be useful when they are
reproduced during examinations. This happens because
the students are not given the opportunity to critically
examine their facts and apply them to diverse
problems that they are likely to be faced with.
6. The separation of the material from the spiritual world
is also on of its weakness, particularly by the

68
 experimentalists because the spiritual cannot be
experienced by man and so its reality cannot be
proved. Since such a spiritual world cannot be
experienced, critics maintain that man should not
concern himself with it. To them, the world of man is
the material world and that should be what we should
try to understand. Idealist concept of mind as a
spiritual organ or body related to the spiritual world has
also been its weakness because we cannot claim to
know its location and much less confirm its relation to
the purported spiritual realm.
7. Also, the view that values are objective because they
originate from the eternal world has been attacked by
many. Values, to such critics, define man’s relationship
to objects, situations or ideas in which case they derive
from interests and need and so do not have a
transcendental and timeless character. Instead, they
change as needs and interests do.
8. Finally, idealist theory of knowledge has constantly
come under attack. According to this theory, an idea is
true if it coheres with a larger system of truth. To
critics, this theory is only valid to ideas in a system, like
the truth about angles in a circle. The truth about the
presence of a tree on an island does not depend on
another truth. In this way, the idealist theory of truth
does not seem to have general application.

69
Influences in Nigerian Education
There are several aspects of our educational practices
which appear to have been influenced by idealism. These
include, stress on moral and spiritual development;
emphasis on religious and moral instruction; the importance
attached to self-realization; existence of a core-curriculum;
importance of the teacher; emphasis on intellectual
development, as well as cultural transmission. Idealist belief
of the essential moral and spiritual nature of man has been
very evident. Certain objectives of the National Policy on
Education are clearly in line with this foremost idealist view.
Such objectives include “developing moral and spiritual
values in inter-personal and human relations” as well as
‘respect for the worth and dignity of the individual’. At the
pre-primary level, one of the aims is the teaching of good
habits, while at the primary school level, it is character and
moral training and the development of sound attitudes.”
Closely related to moral and spiritual development is the
issue of religious and moral instruction. The elementary
schools, like the Junior Secondary Schools, have this in their
curriculum, and every individual is expected to offer them.
The fact that some countries keep the issue of religion out of
schools supports the heavy idealist influence in our
curriculum where it is even mad compulsory.

70
 The Nigerian education system is diversified so as to
enable every individual fully develop his latent potentiality.
This is perfectly an idealist influence for as we have seen,
Plato had claimed that every individual has innate ideas at
the time of birth. The aim of education is as such to develop
such innate ideas. When these are sufficiently developed,
the self of the individual is realized. Self-realization is heavily
stressed in the National Policy on Education.
Idealists in general maintain that there are certain
essential truths which every individual must be exposed to.
A corollary is found in the present system of education
where a core-curriculum is recommended at the Junior and
Senior Secondary Schools. Also, the transmission of culture,
quite central in idealist philosophy of education, is
emphasized in our education system. It is clearly stated in
the National Policy on Education that:
Widespread ignorance among Nigerian
groups about each other and about
themselves will be remedied by instituting
a compulsory first year course in the
culture and history of our people.
Statements of aims like, “to inculcate social norms”, “the
study of social norms and values of the local community and
the country as a whole through civics and social studies” and
“to develop and project Nigerian culture, art and languages
as well as the world cultural heritage,” support this view.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
REALISM
MEANING OF REALISM
Literally, Realism as a philosophic school is derived from
“real + ism”. Realism is of the tenet that the things of
human experience, the things in the material universe, exist
in themselves. They have “real” existence. Their existence is
“true” and “objective.” That is their existence is
independent of the thinking subject – independent of the
person who thinks (or does not think) about them. Put in
another way, these things or “realities” are extra mental
realities, apart and different from the mind that perceives
them or thinks about them. This is in contradistinction from
such idealist philosophy as Berkeley’s, which holds the
theory of esse est percipi (to be is to be perceived) and
which in consequence virtually equates existence with
perception, arguing that the “tree” or any object for that
matter, cannot exist unless there is somebody or some
“mind” to perceive it.

Realist Metaphysic:- Realism among other things believe

that the universe is real and that matter, knowledge and
values have independent existence. In other words, there
are natural laws, that determine and regulate the existence
of every phenomenon in the universe. These natural laws

72
are responsible for the natural orderliness which we see. For
instance, night follows day, the stream runs downwards. The
sciences tell us that the world is real. The fact that things are
discovered by the sciences show that things were already
existing before our knowing it.

Realist Epistemology:- Realists argue that the world we

perceive is not a world that we have created mentally, but
the world as it exist. For realists therefore, an idea or
proposition is true when it “correspond” with those features
of the world that it claims to describe. True knowledge
therefore, is knowledge that corresponds to the world as it
is.

Realist Axiology:- All realist agree with idealists that

fundamental values are basically permanent, but they differ
among themselves in their reasons of thinking so. For
classical realists there is a universal moral law available to
rational beings. Religious realists agree with classical
realists that we can understand much of this moral law using
reason. But scientific realists deny that values have any
supernatural support. Good is that which accommodates us
to our environment, evil that estranges us. According to
scientist realist we most promote the good by taking
measures to improve our genetic constitution and overcome
evil by improving the environment in which we live.

73
REALIST AIMS OF EDUCATION
For religious realists matter is not so important in itself
except when it leads to something beyond itself. Using a
study of nature for transcending matter is for the religious
realists the major reason for its existence. By studying the
world carefully and by discovering its order and regularity we
can come to know God. Religious realists believe that this is
our prime purpose and God created the world to provide a
means through which man could come know Him. Thinkers
like words worth and emersion believe that we can
transcend nature by thinking, and venture in to other realms
of thought. Religious believe that this transcending function
should be the principal aim of education.
Scientific or secular realists advocate the study of
science and the scientific method, for, man needs to known
the world in order to use it to ensure his own survival.
Spencer (1957), for instance, makes survival or self-
preservation as a primary and fundamental aim of
education. In other words, the things a child needs to know
are those things which ensure his existence as an individual,
as a member of family, and as a citizens.
Scientific or secular realists argue that there are
essential ideas and facts to know that can be learned by a
study of the physical word. They stress the study of basic

74
knowledge, both for the purpose of survival and the
advancement of technical and scientific uses.
Although realists argue that much of education should
develop technical expertise and turn out technicians and
scientists, they do not oppose the study of the humanities.
Realists do not support mere memorization and rote-
learning of facts. Neither do they object to problem-solving,
project and enjoyable experience in learning activities. But
such methods should be fruitful by producing students with
both background knowledge and skills. This can only be
done by providing students with basic essential knowledge.
To impart a selection of this knowledge to the growing
person is the school’s major task. Realists there give the
initiative in education to the teacher as transmitter of the
cultural heritage. It is the teacher, not the student, who
must decide what subject matter should be studied in the
class
Realists stress the “practical” side of education and
their concept of practical includes education for moral and
character development. Teacher should impart certain well
defined values. The child should understand clearly the
nature of right and wrong, respecting what is objectively
good and beautiful regardless of changes in moral and
aesthetic fashion.
Scientific realists are more of naturalistic in their ethics.
Spencer for instance holds that science provides for moral

75
as-well-as intellectual education because the study of
science requires integrity and courage.
The child should be taught to live by absolute and
universal moral standards because what is right is right for
man in general and not simply for members of a particular
race or society.
Nigeria’s policy on education(1981), contains aims and
objectives which are in line with major aims of the realist
philosophy of education, viz, understanding of the world
around us, production of scientific and technical man power
for technological and economic development. Thus the
policy states that the national educational aims and
objectives include
(1) The inculcation of the right types of values and
attitudes for the survival of the individual and the
Nigerian society.
(2) The training of the mind in the understanding of the
world
(3) The acquisition of the appropriate skills abilities and
competencies both mental and physical as equipment
for the individual to live in and contribute to the
development of his society” (section 1(5) ).

CURRICULUM CONTENTS

76
 Although realists have divergent (or different) views as
to what subjects should make up the curriculum, they agree
that studies should be practical and useful.
Locke (1961) advocates such practical studies as
reading, writing, drawing, geography, astronomy, arithmetic,
history, ethics, law and supplementary studies in dancing,
fencing and riding. He stress that play and physical
activities have educational values. He emphasizes physical
and intellectual development of the child, as-well-as
character development. He advocates studies in languages,
especially French and Latin. He even suggests that grading
and carpentry should be included in the curriculum
Realist curriculum pays great attention to the use of
didactic and object studies in education. Pestalozzi believes
that sense impression of nature is the true foundation of
human instruction because it is the only true foundation of
human knowledge. All that follows is a result of this sense
impression, that is of experiences derived through our five
senses. Pestalozzi curriculum includes spinning and
gardening, and even subject like arithmetic should be taught
practically, by counting objects in nature.
Froebel also believes in object studies and his primary
education methods rely on gifts, songs and games. Herbert
think that teaching should involve two or more subject. For
example, geography, economics and history should be

77
taught together so that the students can see the relationship
between then which can provide basis of new knowledge.

REALIST METHOD OF TEACHING

Realists stress the use of critical reason, aided by
observation and experiment, in education. Basically the kind
of education advocated by secular or scientific realists is
technical, leading to specialization. Realists do not bother
too much about the personality of the teacher; what is
important is imparting knowledge about the world to the
students.
Realists advocate the lecture method and other formal
methods of teaching. Although objectives such as self-
realization are valuable, those can best be achieved when
the student is knowledgeable about the physical world. Thus
the student must be expose to the facts and the lecture
method can be effectively organized in an orderly way to
accomplish this, Realist support other methods, too. But
they insist that whatever method is used must be
systematic, organized and productive of dependable
knowledge. Realist believe that education, dealing with the
factual side of learning, must not necessarily be presented in
ways that are painful and boring; indeed, learning should be
enjoyable and useful.
Locke (1961) advocates that learning should be made a
play and reaction for children, and believes that play is a

78
major aid to learning. Child should not be given boring
lessons; a child should not be pushed beyond his level of his
readiness; he should be given positive regard to encourage
further learning; and he should never be pushed beyond his
natural inclinations by the teacher.
Herbert also recommends that child should be kept
occupied as-much-as-possible and that corporal punishment
should be use when necessary. His recommendations seem
to be due to the realists administration for precision and
order. This desire for order and precision is to be found in
such present day practices as ringing of the bell, set time
period for study, departmentalization ( or grouping) of
knowledge, daily lesson plans, course teaching, increasing
specialization in curriculum and hierarchical administrative
organization.
There are areas of agreement and disagreements
between realists method of education and the methods
taught trainee teachers and which teacher on the field use.
While realists do not about the personality of the teacher,
the Nigerian teacher is advised to be presentable and worthy
of emulation by his students in his life style. Realists lecture
method are used by Nigerian teachers at all level of
education. But in teacher education institutions teachers are
taught and encourage to use other more practical methods
and less of the lecture method, especially at the nursery,

79
primary and secondary levels because of the disadvantages
of this method at these level of education
The use of play way methods in learning, making
lessons as interesting as less boring as possible and giving
children positive regards. In accordance with realists
prescription, it is the teacher, not the student, who
determines what the child is to learn. The teacher and his
students have to follow a prescribed syllabus that is
supposed to satisfy the needs and interests of the children.
Role of the School
In the view of realists, the school is an institution
created by the society to conserve its norms and values by
passing on these to the growing generations. To this extent,
the role of the school is essentially socialization. The school
in this way does not initiate change for the society. Rather,
the change process is initiated by society and the school
only comes in to introduce younger members of such
societies to the values that the society currently holds.
Strengths
1. In contrast to idealism which emphasizes
what cannot be directly observed by man,
realism takes our attention to the world in
which we live – the material world. While
many individuals do not necessarily doubt
the existence of a separate world from our
own material one, there is that feeling that

80
 no matter man’s concern for it, he cannot
understand what it is like. Such persons
therefore are easily drawn to realism which
appeals to what they can directly observe
and so to what is actually real in their
understanding or to common sense. They
recognize brute facts and not abstract ideas.
2. The idea of actuality and potentiality also
holds promise because it offers a more
acceptable explanation to various changes
we find. It does not appeal to some abstract
transcendental force to account for such
changes. Rather, the principle of change,
they claim, lies in every individual. This
appeal is more obvious in education where it
is taken to mean that with appropriate
conditions every individual can realize his full
potentialities. It therefore goes without
saying that the union of matter and form in
realism has more appeal than its separation
in idealism.
3. In some respects, realism is recommended
because of its concern for discipline and hard
work. It considers the entire responsibility of
learning to be that of the learner and
because the understanding of facts is very

81
 important, a clear distinction is made
between idle play and learning. Learning is
seen as a serious business and students are
compelled to take it more seriously than the
pragmatist learner would. Moreover, the
teachers’ domineering role gives him
absolute responsibility over students’
activities, thereby ensuring even greater
discipline and keen attention to school
activities.
4. Many individuals admire realism because of
its concern for intellectual development.
There is no doubt that man’s greatest
endowment is intelligence. His ability to
conquer space, fight hunger and disease
have all come from the remarkable
development of intelligence. There is some
difference between a school which is
concerned with the transmission of
knowledge and a centre where skills are
acquired. Thus, schools that emphasize skill
acquisition in preference to intellectual
development are simply abandoning their
primary function. Realism, which emphasizes
intellectual development, is therefore

82
 concerned with the most important aspect of
education.
5. The stress on specialization is a worthwhile
one, for without it man cannot develop in the
various spheres he has been able to develop
at the moment. With specialization, the
possibility of gaining deeper insight into what
one is doing is enhanced efficiency.
Weaknesses
1. Realism focuses too much attention intellectual
development to the neglect of other vital aspects of the
human personality. A worthwhile education must
achieve a just balance of the psychomotor, cognitive
and affective aspects of man. In realism, however, the
cognitive is seen as the only worth developing. This
obviously leads to unbalanced development.
2. In a constantly changing world, the stress on
acquisition of facts is a serious weakness. When facts
are seen as being so important, we become slaves to
them. The end which the facts are meant to serve is
forgotten while the means is made the end in itself.
Facts as facts have no use in themselves. Their use
only lies in the extent to which they can enable man
solve problems or interpret situations. Moreover,
because facts no matter how important easily become
obsolete, what should be more emphasized in schools

83
 is the development of critical thinking and problem
solving skill as the pragmatists do.
3. Realism (particularly of the scientific group) lays too
much stress on the material world and fails to
recognize the existence of any higher realities. The
idealist separation of matter and form or matter and
spirit is sufficiently religious. To realists, however,
matter has independent reality in which case no higher
reality controls it. The failure to include spiritual
development arising from this belief is certainly a
limitation.
4. While specialization may be good for both the recipient
and the society, it has very little advantage. This is
because the individual who specializes, particularly
when he does so prematurely, runs the risk of not being
able to see the relationship between what he knows
and some related areas. He may grow deep into his
chosen area but once he lacks this cognitive
perspective, he is less likely to find meaning in what he
does or even connect it to man’s use or advantage. The
over-specialized becomes increasingly remote from the
ordinary individual.
5. The high stress on intelligence has already been
commended. They rightly believe that man should use
his reasoning power to understand the world in which
he has found himself. Despite this optimism, however,

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 their acceptance of certain permanent natural laws
offers more gloom. It means that man must perpetually
adjust to suit these laws. He is incapable of using his
intelligence to meet his dreams and aspirations.
6. The teacher and subject-centered approaches to
education they recommend make learning a horrifying
experience to the learner. With the teacher exercising
unrestrained control of the educational process and
subject matter drawn without considering learners’
interest, teaching and learning become a one way
process with learners driven by fear to uncritically
accept everything teachers hand down to them.
7. Realists stress on rote-learning, the logical outcome of
their concern for the teaching and learning of facts, is
an evil too dangerous to require further description.
8. Realism also have weakness on the view of a child as a
potential adult. This view has obvious implications for
curriculum development. We tend, by such reasoning,
to fix our attention to that adult stage which the child is
to grow into. The end (adult stage) rather than the
present (childhood stage) comes to determine what we
are to teach the child. The present is therefore
sacrificed for the future as both content and methods
do not sufficiently consider present needs, interests
and capabilities of students.

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 9. Finally, realism, like idealism, is generally too
conservative in its educational philosophy. The desire
to transmit culture to succeeding generations only
means that every growing child is made to fit into this.
Little can be challenged as whatever is in the culture is
considered truth that requires no further critical
evaluation. The result is simply that individuals come to
look at change as abnormal. Conformity in a way
becomes inevitable.

Influences in Nigerian Education

There are, as expected, many areas of similarities in all
that we have seen concerning realism and current
educational practices in Nigeria.
Realism, more than any other educational philosophy,
stresses the importance of evaluation, both as a method of
teaching and as a means of determining what has been
learned. In Nigeria’s educational system, use of standardized
tests has all along been common. Also, the heavy stress on
continuous assessment throughout the education system is
a clear influence of realism. While it is true that attempts
have been made at integration in the areas of integrated
science and social studies, it is very clearly seen that much
of what is taught is neither a thorough going subject-
centered curriculum nor an integrated and problem-centred
one. It is rather a combination of both.

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 There is also the fact that curriculum content, like
methods of teaching, proceed from simple to complex. For
instance, while the main concern at the primary level is
literacy and numeracy skills, at the secondary level, it
becomes more complex to include the abstract sciences like
physics, mathematics, chemistry as well as the technical and
vocational subjects. At the higher levels, the students are
introduced to more difficult and abstract concepts.
Perhaps, the greatest influence of realism on Nigerian
education is the increasing emphasis on acquisition of skills
as a necessary condition for the survival of the individual
and society. One of the main aims of Nigeria’s Philosophy of
Education is “the acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities
and competencies both mental and physical as equipment
for the individual to live in and contribute to the
development of society”. Beginning from the junior
secondary school, the curriculum includes wide ranging
subjects, the aim being to enables every individual acquire
basic knowledge in one form of skill or another.
Realists accept, as fact, the existence of the physical or
material world. On the basis of this, they assert that an
adequate education must aim at enabling man understand
this physical world whose forces considerably shape his
existence. One of the national educational aims is the
training of the mind in the understanding of the world
around. There is a clear recognition of the basic realist view

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that an adequate understanding of the world around. There
is a clear recognition of the basic realist view that an
adequate understanding of the material environment
inevitably leads to better adjustment in it.
Despite the increasing concern for technical and
vocational education, the Nigerian school system still
emphasizes intellectual development more than anything
else. The entire system is still structured to promote this
because individuals are encouraged to seek for increasingly
higher levels of education. Even examinations are more
cognitive based.
A very important aim of realist education is self-
realization. This is best achieved when individuals are
offered wide ranging options from which they identify with
their natural inclinations. These ideas are clearly expressed
in the National Policy on Education as measures to
implement the policy. It is stated that (1) “Educational and
training facilities will be multiplied and made more
accessible to afford the individual a far more diversified and
flexible choice. (2) “Universal basic education in a variety of
forms depending on needs and possibilities will be provided
for all citizens.” These measures obviously lead to achieving
self realization which is stated as one of the ideals which it is
geared towards.
Realists stress specialization in education because it
leads to the attainment of indepth knowledge. In the

88
Nigerian education system, specialization is encouraged.
Individuals begin to identify with their inclination at the
senior secondary level and proceed to the university to have
further specialization. Increasingly, university departments
are being broken into smaller units, thus calling for even
greater specialization.
Like idealism, realism belongs to the essentialist
tradition which advocates the teaching of a core curriculum
in schools. This has already been examined under idealist
influences on Nigerian education.

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 CHAPTER
PRAGMATISM
MEANING OF PRAGMATISM:
The term pragmatism is coined out of Greek word
“Pragime” meaning action, to accomplish or make. This
school maintains that the truth of reality of an idea is
determined by the practical consequences of acts
application. That an idea can only be regarded as being true,
after it has been practiced. The basic question to ask is, does
it work? If it works then it can be accepted as being true.
Pragmatism has been called different names:
“pragmaticism”, “Instrumentalism”, “functionalism”,
“Experimentalism”. The basic principle of pragmatism are
that:
1. Reality changes
2. Man is essentially social and biological in nature
3. Values are relative, and
4. Intelligence must be critically used

Pragmatism argues that the world is neither dependent on

nor independent of man’s idea of it. Reality amounts to the
interaction of the human being with his environment; it is
the sum total of what we experience. Man and his
environment are “co-ordinate”; that is, they are equally
responsible for what is real.
The world has meaning only to the extent that man
reads meaning into it. If the universe itself has some deeper

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purpose, it is hidden from man. And what man cannot
experience cannot be real to him
Pragmatism believes that change is a characteristics of
reality and that we must always be prepared to change the
way we do things.
Pragmatist metaphysics
Pragmatism holds that experience of man causes
changes in his concept of reality: in other words there is no
fixed absolute and ultimate reality as held by idealists and
realist. They believe that idea, concepts and beliefs are
meaningless unless they eventuate into practical
consequences i.e. unless they are put to work. For them,
pure intellectual undertaken is good but not enough. Ideas
should be put into practice. Ideas like God, soul, death,
heaven, hell are mere illusions because they cannot be
practically accounted for. Because of this they hold that “the
known devil is better than the unknown angel”. The
pragmatist rejects any interest in metaphysics especially the
realist and idealist type. But they still see man as an
experiencing organism and organism that cannot exist
without interacting with his environment. Man is a struggling
being who fixes and goes for his interest, desires and goals.
Pragmatist Epistemology: Pragmatism believe that
mind is active and inclined to explore; it is not passive and
receptive. The mind does not face a world that is separate
and apart from it. Rather the world we know is partly formed

91
by the mind that knows. Pragmatists such as Pierce and
Dewey argue that the truth of an idea depends on the
consequences that are objectively observed when the idea is
put into practice or operation. They also maintain that the
methods of intelligence is the ideal way to acquire
knowledge. We understand thins best by locating and
solving problems when faced with a problem, the
intelligence proposes hypothesis to ideal with it.
Pragmatist Axiology:- For pragmatists values are
relative, not absolute. Ethical and moral values are not
permanent, as they are for idealists and realists. They must
change as cultures and societies change. This is to say that
no particular precept or rules should regarded as generally
or universally binding what matters is the circumstances in
which it is exercised.
Pragmatists implore us to test the worth of our values
in the way that we test the truth of our ideas. We should
consider the problems of human affairs objectively and
scientifically,. And choose the Values that seem most likely
to resolve them
PRAGMATIST AIMS OF EDUCATION
Pragmatist believe that education is a necessary of life.
Education renews the individual so that he is able to face the
problems that he encounters in his interaction with the
environment. Civilized society exists argue Dewey (1959),
because education is transmitted from generation to

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generation. Without this, social life cannot exist. Dewey
therefore believes that education should not be regarded as
mere acquisition of subject matter apart from life itself.
Man is capable of understanding what we does;
therefore the process of education is only fulfilled when we
promote this kind of understanding. Helping man to reason
becomes education as opposed to training. The school
should provide the proper kind of environment for the
development of reason.
The school must be the place where the order
environments, namely, family environment, religious
environment, work environment, etc., are coordinated into a
meaningful whole.
Education is not a preparation for life but life itself. The
lives of children are important to them, as the lives of the
adults are to them. Thus educators should be aware of the
interests and motivation of the children as-well-as the
environments from which they come. In sum Dewey believe
that individuals should be educated as social beings capable
of participating in and directing their affairs. This means
providing a freer interaction between groups and developing
all the potentialities an individual may have for future
growth. Education is a way to free the individual to engage
in continuous growth directed towards social aims.
The aims of education said Dewey, should, (1) grow out
of existing condition, (2) be tentative, at least in the

93
beginning and be flexible, and (3) most important of all must
always be directed towards freeing of activities. This last
condition is central to Dewey’s idea of education. For him
the aim of education is growth Hence he says since growth
is a characteristics of life, education is the same as growing.
Dewey is speaking of growth here as an enlargement of the
capacity to learn from experience and to direct future
experience in a meaningful way
According to Kilpatrick (1927), the ultimate concern of
the individual should be that all people shall have the fullest
and finest life possible Education then, becomes teaching
children how to live. This is to achieved in three stages: (1)
provision of opportunities to live, (2) provision for learning
experience, and (3) providing conditions for proper character
development.
Pragmatist feel that education should be both an
experimental process and something which assist social
reform. It should promote a humanistic spirit in man and the
desire to explore and find new answers to the present day
problems in economics, politics and social life. It should
promote true individualism of the person that will result in
reducing his reliance on custom and tradition in solving
problems and make him rely on his intelligence to achieve
his goals and interests.
When changes occurs in social life, we must reconstruct
our education programme to meet the changes. Learning

94
help us to meet environmental changes and also affects our
character. In this way education has a moral influence and
should play an important role in helping us to become the
kind of moral persons who are interested not only in
promoting our own growth but also in promoting the growth
of others.
The main points in the pragmatists’ aims of education
are that: Education is necessary as a means of maintaining
and developing civilized society; it should develop the
individual’s understanding and equip him with ability to
solve problems in life and live in harmony with other
members of society; it should develop all the potentialities of
the individual so that he achieves self-realization; it should
help him think independently; it should develop his
character; and education should help solve current political
and social problems. It may be said that all these aims of
education are embedded in the national policy on education
(Revised, 1981)
PRAGMATIST METHOD OF TEACHING
Pragmatist educators prefer methods that are flexible
and can be used in many different ways. Similarly they
prefer school buildings and furnishings that are functional.
There is no one way to educate children. Therefore we
should be aware of a variety of usable methods, including
settings and situations from inside the school to the wider
community outside.

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 Teacher and students should see that all knowledge is
related. The teacher should construct learning situations
around particular problems whose solution will lead his
students to a better understanding of their social and
physical environment. Instead of following the traditional
subject matter, both the teacher and the class should draw
on whatever knowledge proves useful in solving the
particular problem with which they are engaged, such as “
transportation through the ages or contemporary sexual
mores” . in studying transportation through the ages, for
example, knowledge of economics, politics and geography
may have to be drawn on. All subjects become more
meaningful to the student and so more easily mastered
when the student can use them as means of satisfying his
needs and interests.
The teacher should be constantly aware of the
motivation factor in learning. Since pragmatist are
concerned with teaching children how to solve problems,
they feel that real life situation encourage problems solving
ability in a practical situation when the students decide to
find out the monthly traffic flow in a city, this becomes a
problem and they decide on how to go about it.
The motivation is there and the teacher serves as a
resource person. He is concerned with helping the children
to get maximum education out of the situation

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 In a sense the methods of learning are important to
pragmatists than what is learned. They fell that if one knows
how to go about solving problems, then he is equipped to
handle things which the school may not be able to deal with,
since the school does not know what kinds of life problems a
person may face in the future.
Pragmatic educators argue that the needs and interests
of the child should be met. But ‘need’ and ‘interests’ does
not necessarily imply the dictates of the child’s whims and
caprices.
The concept of experimentation is basic to pragmatic
philosophy. Dewey believes that education by its very
nature is experimental. Education process of
experimentation because there are always new thing to
learn and different things to experience. Life does not stand
still and there is a constant need for improvement. Because
of this, experimental education becomes flexible to meet the
needs of an ever-changing world, and gives individuals
security and a sense of constancy by helping them to learn
to understand and exercise control over the direction of
change. Thus pragmatic methods are not fixed ‘cookbook’
methods, but are capable of been changed to fit changing
situations.
Kilpatrick (1927) also suggest the project approach to
learning. A project approach enables the students to receive
a general education. Project are decided by group discussion

97
with teachers as moderator. Children co-operate in pursuing
the goals of project.
All pragmatists agree that the proper method of
education is experimental, flexible, open-ended and directed
towards developing the individuals capacity to think and
towards reconstructing experience in social life.
Some of the pragmatists’ methods are to be found in
use in Nigeria’s educational system while others remain
mere theories in which trainee teachers are instructed.
Some teachers do value their class arrangement and
methods depending on what is to be taught.
The teaching of social studies and integrated science is
aimed at helping students to see the interrelation of
knowledge and subjects. All these are in line with the
pragmatists methods of education. In teacher education
institution students are taught to motivate their pupils’
motivation in teaching.
They are also taught to take into account pupils’
individuals differences, needs and interest in the
presentation of their lessons. But it is doubtful that Nigeria
teachers practicalise these theories. One reason for these
has been given: too large classes per teacher. Other
reasons are that the teacher is given a prescribed
curriculum or syllabus which he has to follow to the letter;
the necessary infrastructural facilities are not there; while
the poor conditions of service of teachers do not encourage

98
even the most committed teacher to want to put in all he
has learned about methods of teaching. The only exceptions
to this are probably private schools’ teachers
The experimental method, the discovery method and
the project method of learning suggested by pragmatists are
taught trainee teachers in Nigeria. But again it is doubtful
whether these methods are put into practice in the field for
the same reasons given above. Much Nigeria’s National
Policy on Education (Revised 1981) does not object to
general or broad education (as advocated by pragmatist) it
also supports specialized and technical education to provide
the needed manpower for Nigeria’s technological, economic
and social development.
PRAGMATIST CURRICULUM
Pragmatists oppose the traditional approach to
curriculum where teaching is separated from experience and
compartmentalized or divided into different subjects. When
this happens, they argue, facts become removed from
experience and made to fit general principles which may not
be helpful. Dewey argues that the result of
compartmentalization or fragmentation of knowledge has
been to focus primary attention on the subject matter and
neglect the contents of the child’s experience. In this
method the child may, for instance, be able to quote a
passage from Wole Soyinka without seeing how this can
teach him about his own life.

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 However, Dewey also criticizes those who make the
child the starting point, the centre and the end of education,
that is, those who advocate child-centered education. This
makes all the studies bothersome to the child and all lessons
become tasks. Dewey says the first approach or method
emphasizes “discipline” while the second emphasizes
“interests”. But the mistake is to see a gap between the
child’s interest and subject matter. For, subject matter is not
something necessarily fixed and ready-made outside the
Childs interests. The problem lies in how subject matter is
organized and presented to the children. For example,
students are taught history simply as something ‘good’ for
them. But it may be remote and foreign to their everyday
experience. What the study of history should do is to enable
the child to connect his own experiences, customs and
institutions with those of the past. In this way it will enrich
his own personal life.
Pragmatists advocates a classified curriculum. For
instance, they support studies in occupations, and hygiene,
and topic such as the family and the economy.
Students draw information and ideas from whatever
source are applicable . Resources includes book periodicals,
travels, field trips, guest speaker, and any other community
or human resources. Students then extract what is
important and relevant to their problem, and draw
conclusions and construct suitable generalization about

100
problem. They evaluate their own growth and development
which determines the stages for the next phase of
education.
In many ways the pragmatic curriculum is a process as
much as a distinct body of subject matter. However, The
traditional disciples are not neglected. Students and utilize
them for light they throw on the problem and the
significance they have in students growth. Pragmatic
curriculum is therefore composed of both process and
content but it is not fixed or an end in itself.
Nigerian education has diversified curricula from which
students make their choices according to interest, needs and
abilities.
However, the traditional approach to curriculum is still
very much with us. Social studies, made up of history,
geography, economics, etc., and integrated science,
comprising physics, chemistry, biology and mathematics are
taught in primary schools and junior secondary school level.
These studies com form somewhat with the pragmatists
‘core’ approach s to the curriculum. But at the higher levels
of education the approach to the curriculum is still
traditional. Students study the various subjects separately
and there is hardly group approach to studying these
subjects as advocated by pragmatists.
Role of school

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 The idea of a democratic teacher presupposes
democratic school for just as the pupil cannot be free to
learn in an authoritarian classroom environment, teachers
too cannot effectively operate in an autocratic school
environment. Indeed, by merely advocating democracy in
the class, the school generally has to be democratic, for a
society is either wholly democratic or it is not. In this way,
pragmatists favour the view of the school as a democratic
community because it is only under such a school
arrangement that common understanding can develop. But
it is also true that without the opportunity for developing
common understanding, a democratic community cannot be
created. In consequence of this, apart from favouring a
democratic structure, the pragmatic school should also
provide opportunities where learners and teachers interact
in order that they can be like-minded, thereby developing
such understanding. While referring to democracy as being
more than a form of government, but instead as a mode of
associated living, Deway (1944) insisted that the more
numerous and more varied points of contact induce greater
diversity of stimuli and secures a liberation of powers which
remain suppressed in the absence of such sharing.
The school is also expected to serve as a link between
new experiences in school and those of the outer society.
This is because education is viewed as the process in which
present experiences should be of benefit to later

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experiences. To effectively play this role, the school selects
and presents those experiences which grow from and
illuminate those of the outer society. Another role the school
is expected to play is that of providing variety of learning
experiences in order to cater for the different interests and
needs of the learners. This inevitably implies the provision of
a diversified curriculum.
Strengths
a) To some, pragmatism’s lack of concern
in metaphysics and its interest in the observable
environment which man directly experiences is of
more practical relevance. Such an interest, it is
argued, brings man into close relationship with the
physical and social environment which directly
affects his living.
b) The experimental attitude in
pragmatism which requires that ideas should always
be subjected to verification is commendable because
it ensures that our actions are not entirely directed
by tradition and superstition but by objective facts. In
this light, it abhors dogmatism as it compels us to
submit our ideas to criticism and revision.
c) In an ever changing society, its view of
knowledge as a property of insight is commendable.
By laying emphasis on insight, pragmatism highlights
the necessity to acquire the tools necessary for man

103
 to confront unforeseen problems intelligently. A
changing society presupposes our inability to rely on
ready-made answers in meeting future problems. It
reveals the uncertainties and absurdities of life, a
situation which renders the acquisition of a body of
facts inadequate. Pragmatism is therefore admired
because it advocates the acquisition of the tools of
intelligence while providing the right mental attitude
to face every problem with intelligence.
d) Pragmatism, to others, is accepted
because it advocates pluralism of opinion and this is
in keeping with the actual character of democratic
human societies. Pluralism does not only tolerate
differences of opinion but in fact encourages them. It
does not therefore subscribe to blind allegiance,
tradition, custom or authority. Rather than such
allegiance, pluralism has been the driving force for
the development of most human societies.
e) Pragmatism favours a diversified
curriculum in order to take care of differences in
interests and needs of the learners. It recognized the
basic fact of life that every individual is a unique
being whose uniqueness has to be identified and
developed. To expose every individual to the same
curriculum as the traditional philosophies advocate is
to ignore this important fact.

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f) However, the greatest strength of
pragmatism is its promotion of democracy. By
encouraging the idea of democracy through its
concern for the organization of schools as minute
communities in which interaction is encouraged,
individuals emerge in the end fit to live in outer
democratic societies. In this way, it facilitates smooth
transition between school and the society where
interaction is inevitable.
g) Pragmatism recognizes the practical
utility of learning. The implication is that unless what
is learned can be translated to solve the problems of
the environment, the individual may not be said to
have acquired any learning. It therefore denounces
all forms of verbalism and knowledge for knowledge
sake.
h) Others too accept pragmatism as an
adequate philosophy because of the central position
in which it places the learner. It is his activities and
hence degree of understanding that defines the
nature and success of the educational process. The
good point here is that with such a view, a teacher’s
success is only judged by the degree to which
learners have learnt and never on any attribute of
the teacher alone.

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Weaknesses

a) One of the foremost weaknesses of pragmatism is that by

placing the concept of experience at the centre of its
metaphysics, it fails to recognize the place of a higher
reality than man in the universe. Not only this, it reduce
man’s mind to behaviour and so deprives him of his most
important distinguishing attributes from animals; mind,
spirit and soul.

b) Pragmatism also have another weakness on the ground

that it does not only fail to offer any absolute moral
principles but also because it encourages a rather strange
claim that an action or idea is right if its consequences are
favourable. The problem here is to determine when
consequences are favourable for while the individual who
performs an act may see the consequences as favourable,
others may see them as obnoxious. In situations involving
long-term consequences, it may be difficult ascertaining
if an idea has worked or will ever work.

c) A related weakness is the issue of their conception of

truth. To them, an action is right if it works. But here, like
in the case of moral principles, it is difficult to say whether
an action has worked or not because every action has
long and short term effects. Are we then to judge the
truth of the actions on the basis of immediate or long
term effects? Certainly, while we may admit that an

106
 action has not worked on the basis of immediate results,
we may not be able to say conclusively if it will not work
subsequently. Furthermore, to claim that truth is never
possible does not sound correct in a world where we feel
certain of many truths.

d) Pragmatism is also have the weakness of placing too

much emphasis on the present to the neglect of the past.
In doing this, it tends to ignore the contributions of the
past to the present. But the present is more assured when
it is built on the firm foundation of the past. Hence, by
paying little attention to the past, pragmatism is seen by
many as being inadequate.

e) Some criticize pragmatism because it leads to the

acquisition of fractional knowledge, resulting from its
“unorganized” methods of instruction. When instruction is
not systematic and organized, but only follows from
learners’ interests, active occupations or problems which
correspond with such interests, certain connecting
concepts will always be left out during teaching. At the
end, even if pupils adequately understand all what is
taught, because these are related to their interests, they
wll be unable to connect divergent themes, thereby
leaving gaps in their knowledge or what they know.
Specifically, pragmatic curriculum is criticized for lack of
attention to coherence and sequence (Laugo 1983).

107
f) Another weakness of pragmatism is that it glosses over
the distinct roles of the teacher in the teaching-learning
process, for it fails to show clearly what teaching and
learning a teacher has to do in a situation where learners
also learn and teach themselves. It is difficult to estimate
how much he can learn when he only limits himself to
directing or guiding learners. Another related criticism is
that if teachers only direct and guide, this undermines
their maturity and wisdom.

g) The type of curriculum pragmatists recommend has been

described as soft and permissive because it gives
students the opportunity of only selecting those course
aspects they can easily understand. But as Laugo (1983)
has said, “Variety and choice seem to conflict with such
currently appreciated ‘hard’ educational values as habits
of hard work, concentration and persistence.”

h) Pragmatism has been criticized for watering down the

curriculum and leading to little learning. According to
Lauglo (1983) “the ‘soft’ variant of the pragmatist
perspective, illustrated by such words as life adjustment
education, learning experiences, self-realization, personal
growth… has increasingly come under attack… the
diffuseness of these values allows them to be used as
justifications for curriculum practices that produce little
learning.” He then quoted Lauwerys (1967) as saying

108
 that, “the view that as long as children are busy playing
with objects or visiting factories or rambling about the
woods, they are learning things just as worthwhile as
anything that could be learned at a desk or in a
laboratory” cannot support this point.

i) It has also been argued that concern for real-life problems

as pragmatists recommend in their curriculum will hardly
lead to scientific development because science is very
theoretical in nature and so is different from the
operations of practical life problems. On this, Scheffler
(1973) has said:

It holds at best for simple types of practical

thinking and for technological applications,
but it does not do justice to science as
scientific theories do not, generally, grow
out of practical conflicts, nor do they, in
themselves, serve to guide practical
activities; they are embedded in complex
intellectual structures linked indirectly, and
as wholes, to contexts of evidence and
experiment… An education modeled on
scientific thinking could not possibly
remain content with the student’s initial
problems.

Influences in Nigeria Eduction

Pragmatists do not favour the teaching of organized

series of subject matter because, according to them, the
problems that man faces do not always require knowledge of
such distinct subjects for solution but a multiplicity of related

109
subjects. It therefore requires not the teaching of distinct
subjects such as biology or chemistry but those which are
integrated and where subjects are organized and taught
together. In Nigeria, the introduction of integrated science
and social studies in the Junior Secondary School curriculum
can therefore be seen as a pragmatist influence.

While it is true that until recently, curriculum activities

were usually planned and implemented without due regard
to the learners, who are to benefit from such a curriculum,
the present educational policy recognizes the central role of
the learners. In the National Policy on Education, it is clearly
stated that, “educational activity will be centered on the
learner for maximum self-development and fulfillment.” In
practical terms, curriculum planning at various levels now
takes into consideration the learners’ age, interests and
needs while he is also actively involved in its
implementation.

In pragmatism, education is considered an effective tool

that should take care of the problems or needs of the
society. The belief that educational value cannot be
considered in the abstract only implies that societies must
device aims of education according to their peculiar
problems. In Nigeria, the earlier system of education
introduced by the missionaries and colonialists has been

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replaced with one that is tailored to meet the needs of the
Nigerian society.

Another influence of pragmatism on Nigerian education

is the wide use of pragmatic methods of teaching-learning
by doing, as well as the project method. The traditional
lecture method, while still common, is gradually giving way
to a more involving learning process in which learners are no
longer passive. They are instead active individuals who are
guided by the teacher to perform different learning tasks. In
the National Policy on Education it is stated that
“Government will ensure that teaching methods employed in
(the primary) schools de-emphasize the memorization and
regurgitation of facts, encourage practical exploratory and
experimental methods, and in particular the development of
manual skills is stressed…” To this must be included the
great emphasis in acquiring vocational skills in the new
education system which pragmatists consider fundamental.

John Dewey (1944) has defined education as the

“reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds
to the meaning of experience and which increases the ability
to direct the course of subsequent experiences”. Thus, it is a
continuous process and has no end beyond itself. This is
clearly life-long education which is found to be the basis of
the country’s educational policy.

111
 The influence of pragmatism on Nigerian education can
also be seen in the emphasis placed on the development of
scientific and reflective thinking in almost all levels of the
country’s educational system can therefore be seen as an
influence of pragmatism.

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 CHAPTER EIGHT

EXISTENTIALISM
MEANING OF EXISTENTIALISM: According to
existentialism, man can discover the fundamental truths of
their own experience. Reality is what we experience.
Reality is lived. To describe the real world we must describe,
not what is beyond, but what is in the human condition.
Because it is concerned with lived reality and with the states
of felling in which reality is fully understood, existentialist
philosophy is more personal in style. For existentialists, the
physical universe, the world appear from man, has neither
purpose nor meaning. It is a contingency, i.e. something
that happens to be there. This does not mean that it is
capricious. The regularities or laws discovered by science
are genuine enough. But have direct significance to man. In
the universe man happens by chance. There is no world
order, no nature but his existence. Thus existence precedes
his essence because he must first exist if he is to be
anything at all. But existence does not make him. Existing,
he makes himself. What a man becomes is his own
responsibility. Either he makes himself or he allows himself
to be made by others. He chooses what he will be (his
‘essence’) or again allows it to be chosen for him. But in
either case he chooses. What follows these views is that, as
free men and free teachers we must seek to expose and

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fight all those forces in culture and society that tend to
dehumanize men by denying them freedom: Economic laws,
tyranny of the majority, stifling of individuality by social
conformity, etc.
Existentialist Metaphysics
Metaphysically, existentialism contend that man’s existence
is the only reality and only those objects and materials which
man is able to fee, touch and see reality exist. All invincible
objects are merely figment of human speculation. To them, a
known devil is real and the unknown is unreal. Existentialism
is ambivalent about the existence of God is an individual’s
experience. They believe that if man were to realize himself,
he must rid himself of the notion of an external and alien
God. Another strong metaphysical belief of existentialism is
the belief on solid individualism. They hold that the essence
of living depends on individual choice. In other words, life
has no other meaning and purpose than what the individual
chooses to be. Therefore, the individual should be given
unfettered mind to decide his fate. Existentialism is very
aware of social stratification and institutional arrangement
that may prevent the individual from exercising that
freedom of choice but said that the individual can always
find an escape route. That every choice an individual makes
about life has a consequence.
Existentialist Epistemology: much of existentialist views
on the nature of knowledge is based on “phenomenology”,

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that is a world view that seeks to describe the appearance of
things and events as they present themselves directly to our
private consciousness. Thus things and events posses a
subjective and an objective reality. “Subjective reality”
means the immediate and personal relationship that all of us
develop with nature. “Objective reality” of things means
that the woods, rocks, and the birds etc. all have their own
existence or reality apart from us, and science seek to
explain it. But more important is the fact that we have our
own understanding of reality. Thus my knowledge depends
on my understanding of reality, on my own interpretation of
the nature of being.

Existentialist Axiology: According to existentialists

freedom in itself is neither a goal nor an ideal. It is the
potential for action: I am what I do . My character can
change because I can always act directly. My destiny is my
own. Freedom is therefore dreadful, for I am responsible for
what I become. The drunkard, the drug addict, the poor, the
rich, the learned, the ignorant, you and I all of us have made
ourselves and can remake ourselves. I am free, therefore I
become. I am free to choose. The moment of choice is
important. There is a danger afoot, says Kierkegaard (1954)
because I may choose wrongly, or fail to see the opportunity
and let circumstances take their way. A serious choice is a
choice between actions involving fundamental values. This

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requires a deep contemplation and an examination of
oneself.
According to existentialists a moral act must be
performed for itself or for an end. But a Man must create his
own ends. If he adopt the ends of group or society, he must
make these ends his own by deciding in any situation that
this is the end to aim at. The end is decided in the situation.

EXISTENTIALIST AIMS OF EDUCATION

Existentialists believes that their philosophy is one into
which is drawn as a participant. The individual examines his
own feelings and relates ideas to his own life. Therefore in
existentialist education the emphases is not an intellectual
debates, but on creation, i.e. one can create ideas relevant
to ones needs and interests. Satre (1956) says “ existence
precedes essence” First come man, then the ideas are
created. Idea about heaven, hell, god, brotherhood, truth
and justice, bigotry, fear, greed are all manmade. Because
man is so important as a creator of ideas, education should
focus on him as a unique being in the world not only as
creator of ideas, but also a living, feeling being
A good education should encourage men to ask
questions such as ‘who am I’? ‘Where am I going?. ‘Why am I
here/’ in dealings with these questions we should recognize
that man is an irrational and emotional creature as much as
or more than he is unemotional and rational.

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 A good education is one that focuses upon man in all
his facets, It helps us in seeing ourselves with our fears,
frustrations, hopes, and the ways in which we use reason for
good and evil.
Education should promote an understanding of
“anxiety”. By anxiety, existentialists mean an awareness of
the tension of existence
Finally education should promote a sense of
involvement in life through action. People should encourage
to be committed and take stands. Existentialists, desire a
world in which our highest concepts are put into practice.
Not only in personal life, but in the world at large.

EXISTENTIALIST METHOD OF EDUCATION

According to existentialists much of what passes for
education is simply propaganda or even actually harmful to
the child, because instead of helping to bring out his
individuality and creativity, it stifles and destroys it. Instead
of seeing education a something a students is filled with or
something that a student is measured against or fitted into,
we should first look at the student as an individual and allow
him to play a very positive role in shaping his own education
and life. School and institutions should be free places where
a student is encouraged to do things because he wants to do
them.

117
 Existentialists believes that no two children are alike.
They differ in the information, personal traits, interests and
desires they have acquired.
Further more, the effort in education to make the child
successful as a businessman, a lawyer, or an engineer, is not
necessarily the right course
Education should take place not only in particular
buildings, but throughout society, in places of business,
factories, military establishments, personal affairs etc. It
should not be limited to particular institutions and particular
houses. It should be universal, the education of the public in
the truest sense of the world. Schools often contain a
uniformity of materials curriculum and teaching.
Existentialists advocate a diversity in education, not only in
curriculum, but also in the way things are taught. Some
students learn well through one kind of method and others
through another kind There should be many alternatives for
learning for them
Existentialists are concerned about the role of the
teacher in the learning process. Too many teachers believe
that there is a ‘right’ answer and the reward or punish the
student, depending on the answer he gives. But
existentialists argues that the purpose of education is not to
find right answers, but to explore possibilities. In this regard
Burbar (1958) says that teaching and learning should be like
a ‘dialogue’ a conversation between the teacher and the

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students in which each part remains a subject for the other,
a conversation between ‘I’ and a ‘thou’, instead of verbal
manipulating in which the child is compelled to submit either
to the will and opinions of the teacher directly or to a body of
knowledge of which the teacher is the custodian and
transmitter
From what have been said above, it is obvious that
there is no absolute method of education for the
existentialists. Ideally, the student should be encouraged to
teach himself, as well as learn for himself, and whatever
method serves this purpose is a desirable one. Education
should help to enhance individuality, and when it does this, it
is good education.
Much of the criticisms leveled against the method of
education by existentialists apply to the methods of
education in Nigeria. Education is still largely confined to
classrooms. Children are camped together and taught the
same thing (in the same way) that are supposed to be
appropriate to their level, although at higher levels of
education students enjoy some degree of freedom to choose
courses that interest them. Teachers are still very much
process of ‘manipulation, rather than a ‘dialogue’ between
the teacher and his pupils. While students may voice out
their opinions,, it is the facts stated by the teacher from
textbooks that students finally imbibe and reproduce for the

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teacher in examinations. Deviation are rarely tolerated,
even if they sound reasonable.
However, in line with existentialists’ students are
encouraged to choose less prestigious studies such as
carpentry, woodwork, typing etc. in technical schools, when
it appears that their intelligence and aptitudes are too low to
enable them train for the prestigious occupations such as
medicine, law, accountancy, engineering, etc. The
inculcation of the dignity of labour is one of the aims of
education in the national policy on education (Revised
1981).
Finally, teachers are taught and encouraged to use the
best method of teaching according to the topic at hand.

EXISTENTIALIST CURRICULUM
The humanities stand out in the existentialist
curriculum. This seems to be because they contain greater
potential for introspection (reflection) and the development
of self-meaning than other studies. They deal with the
essential aspects of human existence such the relations
between people, the morbid side of human life and the good
side, the absurdities and the meaningful. In short the
humanities deal with sex, love, hate, death, disease, famine,
fire, flood, war, suffering and triumph-themes that should
engage the student intellectually and morally. Existentialists
want to see man in his totality- the perverted as well as the

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exalted, the mundane as well as the glorious, the despaired
as well as the hopeful, and they feel that the humanities and
the arts do this better than the sciences.
But existentialists do not have any hard and fast rule
about what should comprise the curriculum. The subject
that matters is the one in which the child finds self-
fulfillment and an awareness of the world. For some this
subject is natural science; for others it is history, literature,
philosophy or art. In short, they feel that if an individual
thinks a particular programme or course has meaning for
him, then there should be an opportunity for him to take that
course. Because needs and interests of people are varied
and complex, existentialist curriculum includes not only the
humanities, arts and natural science, but also vocational
training ‘confluent’ education, when attention is given to
both cognitive and affect in development appears to be in
line with existentialists “Education for happiness” or
“education for security”, or “education for personal
contentment” are all illusory.
The curriculum in Nigeria’s system of education is in
line with existentialists’ prescription, it comprises the
humanities, the arts, natural science, vocational and
technical subjects. But as noted elsewhere, because of the
over-production unemployment, and because of the need to
produce scientific and technological manpower for the
economic development of the nation, efforts are being made

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to achieve a 60:40 ratio in favour of those who study
sciences and technical.
The role of teacher.
In existentialism, a teacher’s primary responsibility is to
create opportunities that will enable students develop those
qualities necessary to enhance their abilities to make free
choices or decisions. Thus, rather than being autocratic, a
situation which would encourage complete dependence on
the teacher for directions, the teacher has to be democratic,
open-minded and tolerant in his dealings with his students.
In all, teachers need to have a positive concept of their
students, which serves to reassure the learners of their
ability to succeed. Teachers are encouraged to personally
identify with learners so that the learners do not feel
alienated or insignificant recognized for what they are. In a
way, teachers are expected to be nothing else than parents’’
substitutes, confidantes and guidance counselors by taking
every learner like a mother would take his children, with
very obvious show of love, acceptance, warmth and security.
In such a homely and friendly atmosphere, the pupils are
then without constraints to exercise their free choices.
Furthermore, Scudder (1968) has written that:
The teacher’s primary responsibility is not
to the scholarship but to his students. This
involves an I – Thou relationship… it is not
to offer them a cafeteria of ideas and
ideals from which to select, nor to subtly
guide their personality, growth, nor

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 impersonally to initiate them into the
prescribed principles of a discipline or
ethical system… he must not violate the
integrity of the student by attempting to
control his response.
Martin Buber (1935) has argued that
When the pupil’s confidence has been won,
his resistance against being educated gives
way to a singular happening: he accepts the
educator as a person. He feels he may trust
this man, that this man is not making a
business out of him.
Such confidence can only come about through great
intimacy between teacher and learner.
Also, the good existentialist teacher is not expected to
promote conformity but to develop the quality of autonomy
in the learners. He does not want imitators but individuals
who through their education have discovered their own
truths and hold these alongside those handed by the
teacher. Now, if teachers are to genuinely promote
autonomy in learners, they have to be similarly autonomous.
As Ozmon (1967), has said, existentialist “teachers must
become more “inner directed”, rather than “outer directed”,
in order to allow for more spontaneity and creativity. This
will also help to prevent them from becoming a prisoner to
rote and tradition”.
The existentialist learner is expected to perform several
roles, if the entire educational process is to achieve intended
goals. First, he is expected to be a free chooser by, choosing
from the wide variety of courses provided in the curriculum.

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Accordingly, he is expected to freely interact with elements
in the environment to gain knowledge rather than only
depending on what is handed down to him by the teacher.
He is also expected to be an autonomous individual rather
than an imitator of either his teacher or the crowd. He should
be prepared to differ from both of these if his subjective
feelings do not agree with what is held as either true or
normal. These roles of the teacher and learner can, however,
only be performed when both see themselves as being equal
in some way.
Strengths
In contrast to many traditional philosophies which only
concentrate on issues that have little bearing on the
existence of individual man, existentialism certainly presents
a welcome departure by focusing attention on man and the
problems of his existence. By showing such concern,
existentialism enables us to focus intensely at eh various
problems man faces, like hunger, poverty and crime, and
this can help us to device effective means for arresting
them.
Others admire existentialism because it recognizes the
worth and dignity of every individual. This recognition is
borne out of the feeling that every man is a thinking being
and so capable of making rational decisions. In a world
where many are prepared to dominate and control others,
existentialism offers a promising idea, namely, that every

124
individual when adequately informed can chart the course of
his own survival.
While the general tone of existentialism is one of
despair, anguish and pain, it is nonetheless optimistic about
man and society. Present conditions of pain, anxiety or
suffering are explained away as the result of wrong choices
with the result that the same individual is able, within the
limits of his intelligent choices, to choose alternatives that
can get him out of the uncomfortable situation.
In a world where to identify with the crowd is
rewarding, and where the majority is always right, whether
what they hold is ultimately true or not, existentialism holds
great promise by condemning conformity. Pointing out the
attraction of this philosophy, Akinpelu (1981) wrote that:
There is too much conformity in the
present society, too much following the
crowd blindly that individuals need to be
fortified to stand by their own
conscience and judgment to decide
whether they would follow or dissent.
Students in our various institutions of
learning need to be fortified by this
philosophy before joining in acts of
protests and demonstration.
Existentialism encourages the spirit of self-reliance.
This has commendable implications to both man and society.
To the student, if encourages him to be less dependent on
both his teacher or colleagues because such dependence
does not encourage him to face his problems in later life in
the absence of these individuals. To the various nations of

125
the world, it extends a note of warning that instead of
constantly depending on external aid for survival, every
nation should evolve means of tackling its problems because
ther is always a danger in such dependence.
The fact that existentialism encourages individual
autonomy and freedom of choice only means that it
promotes the ideals of respect for persons. Individuals are
fee to hold views quite contrary to those of the group. Thus,
minority views are not suppressed and so there is always
plurality of opinion, whether in the classroom, or in the
larger society.
The philosophy also enables us to reflect, even in our
moments of greatest glory and happiness, that many others,
in fact a greater proportion of the human race, are suffering
and do sincerely need our assistance. To the rich nations of
the world, it forces them to think about the predicament of
the poorer nations and the need for positive assistance.
Limitations
Several of the criticisms against existentialism have
often bordered on its extreme individualism which in the end
develops into other ills. One of such ills is that it leads to
indiscipline and irresponsible autonomy. In existentialism,
the individual is prevented from conforming to the ethos and
norms of the society. He is portrayed as one with intelligence
and so capable of choosing for himself. The unfortunate
consequence here is that children brought up under such an

126
atmosphere grow without respecting authority and tradition
as they from very early ages begin to believe in their own
rightness. Such feelings often degenerate into arrogance and
rebellion. Existentialism therefore sacrifices everything in its
too much insistence on individual freedom.
A cardinal promise of existentialism is the message of
hope it purports to offer in the midst of man’s tragic life.
However, some critics find this in actual fact a faux pas,
because the main picture it conveys is that of grief, sorrow
and gloom in which man is forever trapped in a world
without meaning and purpose. Such a picture does not
therefore motivate the individual to act in order to change
the situation. The message of existentialism is only to the
sick, the poor, the lonely and the troubled. It talks directly to
their condition because at such moments they confront the
world singly. In this sense, it does not propose anything to
the man who has succeeded in life generally or who is not
experiencing any grief.
Existentialism should also be criticized for ignoring the
formidable influence of the environment, both in the choices
we make and therefore on the lives we live generally. In
portraying a situation in which only our choices determine
what we can become, such factors as social class, race,
tribe, age and sex are ignored. Thus, no matter the inherent
capacity of man to chart the course of his live, he cannot

127
avoid such influences. Thus, man’s essence is to a certain
extent determined.
Influences on Nigerian education
The high value placed on individual development and
survival in our system of education is a case in point. While
the overall thrust in the present system of education is that
of instilling habits of “respect for the worth and dignity of the
individual”, as a thinking being, and “capable of making
rational decisions”, the emphasis on self-realization in our
national philosophy of education is a recognition of the worth
of every individual. The education system is aimed at
developing these abilities.
The Nigerian education system also encourages
freedom of choice. In the National Policy on Education, it is
stated that “educational and training facilities will be
multiplied and made more accessible to afford the individual
a far more diversified and flexible choice”. At the Senior
Secondary School level, individuals are offered a wide range
of subjects from which to choose those which meet their
interests. This is also true for the higher levels where the
elective course system allows individuals to exercise their
choice of courses. The increasing importance attached to
Guidance and Counseling in the new education system is
another obvious influence. Guidance and counseling helps
individuals to make appropriate choices for themselves. This
has become more necessary with the present system of

128
education in which individuals are required to make career
choices at very early stages of their educational career.
Existentialism, more than any other school of
philosophy, stresses the necessity for committed teachers
who also maintain good personal relationships with their
pupils as well as care about such pupils in the way parents
do. The view of the teachers as a sergeant-major or
policeman is giving way to a new kind of parent-substitute
teacher throughout the Nigerian school system in line with
existentialist thinking, particularly with the abolition of
canning.
Finally, the demand for teacher – pupil ratios of 1:25
and 1:30 in pre-primary and primary schools, intended to
increase interaction, is a great existentialist influence.

129
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 About the book
This book Philosophy of Education Simplified is a
child of indebt desire to promote the attitude of deep
thinking and need to seek for wisdom, Knowledge as this
would serve as a root for all development. Also to develop
critical thoughts and minds to prevent parochialism in taking
decision that has to do within this day and societal lives.
The book also emphasized on philosophical questions
about life, universe, man, body, soul and relationship
between philosophy and education with the sole aim of
developing the intellect of our young undergraduates and
college students to enable them withstand the life
challenges at large and academic pursuit in particular. This
book also targeted to the arousal of interest to philosophical
thoughts to and in policy making. These and a lot more are
the aim of this book. Hence we sought to make simple and
clear language. Common sense examples and crystal
historical facts. It is extremely beneficial therefore to get a
copy and read with the hope our valued readers would
always contact us for observations and necessary
contributions and/or constructive criticism for the
improvement.

135