Chapter 1: Introduction
Table of Contents:
general questions
general notes
WHAT IS HUMAN DEVELOPMENT?
WHAT IS A THEORY?
WHAT DO WE EXPECT FROM A THEORY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT?
WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES TO UNDERSTANDING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE
LIFESPAN?
summary
general questions
Questions Answers
Theories explain observations and becomes a formal
scientific theory when there is evidence, experimentation,
observation, assumptions, definitions, and hypotheses. A
theory can help explain a fact but facts are indisputable
while theories guide research in human development. A
What is a theory?
theory is composed of assumptions, domains, range of
applicability, constructs, and hypotheses. Meanwhile, a
good theory is characterized by logic, internal consistency,
parsimony, testability, the integration of previous research,
and that it deals with a relatively large area of science.
What do we expect from a theory of Theories offer explanations on behavior and mental
human development? activity. It explains the direction of change in human
development which provides framework for optimal
development. It looks into the mechanisms that account for
growth and the relevance of early experiences. Two
complementary terms are highlighted in significance:
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
canalization which refers to a person's response that is
shaped by repeated exposure to the experience, and
plasticity that refers to the ability to adapt. Theories also
explain how environmental and social contexts, such as
culture and worldview, affect development. Factors such
as risk factors, protective factors and resilience, are also
given attention in theories of human development. Lastly,
theories offer practical implications for prevention,
intervention, and education.
There are several challenges that should be taken into
consideration in understanding human development
across the lifespan: 1. A person is changing in a changing
environment 2. Change is both quantitative and qualitative
What are some of the challenges to
3, Human development is a product of biological,
understanding human development
psychological, and societal systems 3. Human beings are
across the lifespan?
conscious, reflective, and goal oriented. Self-directed goal
behavior is a challenge for human development theories
since it begs to answer the question how individuals
decide on a goal and focus on it. </aside>
There are many theories because it serves and answers
different questions and purposes. There are theories that
focus only on the biological nature, others psychological,
Why are there so many theories? environmental, and some focuses on the
interconnectedness of the three systems in human
development. Each theory also seeks to answer differing
questions about human nature.
general notes
scientific inquiry
observation
Describe the incident
theory
Explain the how and why
Chapter 1: Introduction 2
Most used frameworks in the lifespan development
1. Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
a. Children creating meaning out of experience
b. Helped in age appropriate curricula and learning environments
2. Sigmund Freud’s theory of development
a. Motives, desires, and constraints
b. Links the internal sexual motives with patterns of reproductive behavior and
their implications for human evolution
3. Albert Bandura’s theory of social learning
a. Modeling and observation
b. Self-efficacy pointed the importance of confidence
c. Applied in coaching, classroom instruction, and workplace performance
4. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory
a. Identity and sense of self in the society
b. One of the first theories to provide a model of development that extends over
the life span
c. Links to student achievement, career exploration, ethnic identity, and gender
role development
WHAT IS HUMAN DEVELOPMENT?
Describes patterns of constancy and change across the lifespan
Development refers to the change that occurs over time and has a direction
to be able to tell that a change is developmental, one must observe if there is a
pattern in these changes that directs towards a more complex level (example:
puberty, walking) and can be seen from one individual to another
human development suggest a focus on the human species only, not all life forms
special considerations in the study of human development
Chapter 1: Introduction 3
humans have ideas and experiences that influence their outlook
humans enjoy a wonderful capacity for a symbolic thought
humans have a comparatively long life span during which their capacities
change dramatically
Human development describes patterns in constancy and change towards a
direction that is observable from one person to another and that is unique to the
human species only. It should be put into consideration that humans have ideas
and experiences, a capacity for symbolic thought, and a long span that goes
through dramatic changes.
WHAT IS A THEORY?
A logical system of concepts that help explain incidents or observations and contributes
to the development of a body of knowledge
formal scientific theory
supported by extensive evidence, systematic experimentation, and observation
set of interconnected statements that includes assumptions, definitions, and
hypotheses which explain and interpret observations
function: to describe unobservable structures mechanisms, or processes and to
relate them to one another in order to explain observable events
example: the process of learning is unobservable but it becomes
observable through asking questions, giving a test, or presenting a situation
where the information learned is needed
note: In human development, theory is differentiated from research and from facts. The
research process is guided by a theory. Facts are indisputable that even through a
Chapter 1: Introduction 4
theory may explain the incidence of a fact, it still does not change facts.
Components of a Theory
identifies a domain
situation or problem the theory is attempting to address
cognition, language, learning, motivation, or identity development
understanding the focus of the theory helps to identify its range of applicability
a theory is evaluated in terms of the domain it was originally intended to explain
in order to evaluate a theory, you must first understand what its assumptions are
theories include assumptions about scientific processes, human behavior, or
development
provides a platform from which a theory is built but may or may not be testable
and or may or may not be correct
may be influenced by the cultural context of the theorist
each theory is comprised of key constructs
refers to unobservable relationships or processes
in human behavior, constructs such as intelligence, motivation, and goals, are
used
theories offer if-then links or testable hypotheses
“what does the theory predict?”
from a single hypothesis, one can interpret may observations about human
behavior and predict others
Requirements of a Good Theory
logical and internally consistent
the abstract concepts can be observed and measured
should be parsimonious
Chapter 1: Introduction 5
it means that the theory should be simple
is relative to the theory
should integrate previous research
should deal with a relatively large area of science
tentative and open to revision based on new observations
Components of a theory Characteristics of a good theory
assumptions logical
domains internally consistent
range of applicability parsimonious
constructs testable
hypotheses integrates previous research
deals with a relatively large area of science
Theories explain observations and becomes a formal scientific theory when there
is evidence, experimentation, observation, assumptions, definitions, and
hypotheses. A theory can help explain a fact but facts are indisputable while
theories guide research in human development. A theory is composed of
assumptions, domains, range of applicability, constructs, and hypotheses.
Meanwhile, a good theory is characterized by logic, internal consistency,
parsimony, testability, the integration of previous research, and that it deals with a
relatively large area of science.
WHAT DO WE EXPECT FROM A THEORY OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT?
offer explanations about the origins and functions of human behavior and mental
activity, and how people change, grow, and remain the same over time
Chapter 1: Introduction 6
provides explanations for 6 questions:
1. What is the direction of change over the lifespan?
provide framework for optimal development
the age-related characteristics of social, emotional, physical, and
cognitive competence of a person
2. What are the mechanisms that account for growth from conception through old
age? Do these mechanisms vary across the lifespan?
3. How relevant are early experiences for later development?
Canalization
a person’s response, whether in a neural or behavioral level, is shaped
and narrowed though repeated experiences
(ex.: an infant can perceive a wide range of sounds but repeated
exposure to harsh environments narrows their senses to a
neurological and behavioral responses that make them sensitive to
threat)
Plasticity
the capacity to adapt and reorganize neurological, psychological, and
behavioral responses
4. How do environmental and social contexts affect individual development?
individuals develop contexts (physical, cultural, family, school, work,
community)
culture
social, standardized ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that are
shared by members of a society
concepts, habits, skills, arts, technologies, religions, governments
of people
provides worldview
a way of making meaning of the relationships, situations, and
objects people encounter in daily life
Chapter 1: Introduction 7
transmitted through a process of socialization
5. What factors are likely to place the person at risk at specific periods of the
lifespan?
risk factors
factors that disrupt development
protective factors
aspects of the person, the caregiving or intimate relationship, or the
larger social environment that provide a positive influence on
development
resilience
ability to adapt successfully to events that threaten optimal functioning
ability to anticipate threat, adapt readily, and even become stronger or
more competent under disruptive conditions
6. What are the practical implications of the theory for prevention, intervention, or
education?
Theories offer explanations on behavior and mental activity. It explains the
direction of change in human development which provides framework for optimal
development. It looks into the mechanisms that account for growth and the
relevance of early experiences. Two complementary terms are highlighted in
significance: canalization which refers to a person's response that is shaped by
repeated exposure to the experience, and plasticity that refers to the ability to
adapt. Theories also explain how environmental and social contexts, such as
culture and worldview, affect development. Factors such as risk factors, protective
factors and resilience, are also given attention in theories of human development.
Lastly, theories offer practical implications for prevention, intervention, and
education.
Chapter 1: Introduction 8
WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES TO UNDERSTANDING HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFESPAN?
1. Change in the person is taking place in the context of a changing environment.
a challenge for each theory is to conceptualize the reality of a changing person
in a changing environment
2. Change is both quantitative and qualitative.
quantitative changes - height, weight, etc.
qualitative changes - lying, creeping, crawling, walking, talking etc.
theories of human development face the challenge of accounting for both
quantitative and qualitative changes and explaining how they operate together
3. Human development is a product of the interaction of three dynamic systems:
biological, psychological, societal.
biological system
all processes necessary for physical functioning
genetic factors, physical maturation, vulnerability to disease, nutrition,
exercise, sleep and rest cycles, reproductive and sexual functions
psychological system
all mental processes needed to make meaning out of experiences, to learn,
and to take action
symbolic abilities, memory, language, problem solving capacity, coping
strategies, creativity
societal system
all processes a person needs to become integrated into society
social roles, family, participation in social institutions, exposure to
discrimination or inter-group hostilities, exposure to environmental toxins
and hazards
Chapter 1: Introduction 9
the analysis of human development is incomplete without the recognition of the
interaction of these three systems
4. Human beings are conscious, reflective, and goal-oriented.
the capacity of an individual to analyze, reflect, and evaluate themselves and
decisions guide the direction of their own development
The concept of nature and nurture are often times presented as
constructs that account for the direction of growth. It is no longer
seen as separate but two interconnected constructs that guide
development. However, with this analysis, it omits a third dimension
—self-directed goal behavior.
Human beings are adaptive and flexible. They have the
capacity to choose a goal, a domain, and focus their resources
in it. This raises the question “how individuals decide which
domains or goals to select and how they remain focused on the
domains or goals they have chosen”
the challenge to theories of human development is to offer an
explanation for the choices individuals make that ultimately
contribute to the direction of development
Chapter 1: Introduction 10
There are several challenges that should be taken into consideration in
understanding human development across the lifespan:
1. A person is changing in a changing environment
2. Change is both quantitative and qualitative
3, Human development is a product of biological, psychological, and societal
systems
3. Human beings are conscious, reflective, and goal oriented.
Self-directed goal behavior is a challenge for human development theories since
it begs to answer the question how individuals decide on a goal and focus on it.
summary
The document provides an in-depth look at the concept of theory, particularly as it
pertains to human development. It outlines the structure and components of a theory,
which is defined as a logical system of concepts that serves to explain observations and
contributes to the development of a body of knowledge. The document elaborates on
the aspects that make a good theory. These include logical consistency, internal
coherence, simplicity (also referred to as parsimony), the ability to be tested and
observed, the capacity to integrate previous research, and the ability to deal with a
relatively large area of science.
The document further addresses the challenges that arise in the course of
understanding human development across the lifespan. One of these challenges is the
fact that individuals are constantly changing within a likewise changing environment,
which makes it difficult to isolate and study specific factors. Changes in human
development are also both quantitative and qualitative in nature. Quantitative changes,
such as changes in height or weight, are measurable while qualitative changes, like the
progression from crawling to walking, are more subjective and harder to quantify.
Another significant challenge pointed out is the complex interaction of the biological,
psychological, and societal systems in human development. The biological system
Chapter 1: Introduction 11
includes all processes necessary for physical functioning like genetic factors and
physical maturation. The psychological system encompasses all mental processes
needed to make meaning out of experiences, including symbolic abilities, language, and
problem-solving capacity. The societal system includes all processes a person needs to
become integrated into society, such as social roles and family.
The document also stresses the fact that humans are conscious, reflective, and goal-
oriented individuals. This suggests that humans have the capacity to analyze, reflect
upon, and evaluate themselves and their decisions, which guides the direction of their
own development. This conscious and goal-oriented nature of humans introduces a
third dimension to the classic "nature versus nurture" debate in human development -
the self-directed goal behavior. This dimension challenges human development theories
to explain how individuals decide on a goal and remain focused on it.
Chapter 1: Introduction 12