HEAT ENGINES

Engine terminologies
1. Bore: This is the diameter of the cylinder.
2. Stroke: Thisis the maximum length of travel of the piston from one extreme position to the otherin one direction.
3. Top Dead Centre (TDC): This is the position of the piston at the end of its travel when moving towards the cylinder head.
4. Bottom Dead Centre (BDC): This is the position of the piston at the end of its travel when moving towards the crank case.
5. Piston displacement (PD): This is the volume displaced by the piston when it moves from TDC to BDC. It is also known as
the swept volume.
6. Clearance volume (CV): Thisis the space or volume between the top of the piston and the engine cylinder head when the
piston is at TDC. It is also called combustion chamber.
By default, clearance volume is a sixth of piston displacement:
1
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑥𝑃𝐷
6
7. Total Cylinder volume (TCV):This is the sum of the piston displacement and the clearance volume.
𝑇𝑉𝐶 = 𝑃𝐷 + 𝐶𝑉

8. Compression ratio(CR):The ratio of total cylinder volume to clearance volume

𝑇𝐶𝑉
𝐶𝑅 =
𝐶𝑉
𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦, 𝐶𝑅 = 𝑇𝐶𝑉: 𝐶𝑉
9. Engine size:This is given by the bore and stroke of the engine e.g. a 100mm x 124mm engine has a bore of 100mm and a 124mm
stroke.
Example
Given a one cylinder engine of size 100mm x 124mm, determine:
(i) The piston displacement
(ii) Clearance volume
(iii) The total cylinder volume and
(iv) The compression ratio
Solution
(i) 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒
𝜋𝑑2
= 𝑥𝑙
4
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑙 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
22𝑥1002
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑃𝐷) = 𝑥124
7𝑥4
= 974 285.71𝑚𝑚3
974 285.71
= 𝑐𝑚3
1000

= 974.3𝑐𝑚3
1
(ii) 𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝐶𝑉) = 𝑥𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
6
1
= 𝑥974.3𝑐𝑚3
6
= 162.4𝑐𝑚3
(iii)𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
= (947.3 + 162.4)𝑐𝑚3
= 1 109.7𝑐𝑚3

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

(iv) 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
1109.7
=
162.4
= 6.833
How engine power is developed
Although engine systems vary with different fuels, all develop power in the same manner. For an engine to operate, a definite series
of events must take place. These are;

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 Fill the combustion cylinder with combustible mixture (SI engines) or only air (CI engines).
 Compress the fuel-air mixture or air only in the combustion cylinder into a smaller space.
 Ignite the mixture by introducing a spark (SI engines) or spraying fuel (CI engines) causing expansion in the combustion
cylinder which pushes the piston hence producing power.
 Drain the combustion cylinder off the burned gas in readiness to refilling it with a fresh charge.
Aspects affecting an engine’s power output
1. Displacement: Other factors constant, engine output increases with engine displacement. A given displacement can be obtained
with fewer cylinders of greater individual displacements or several smaller cylinders of smaller individual displacements.
2. Compression ratio:Other factors held constant, a higher compression ratio results in a higher engine output. A high compression
ratio is desirable because it allows an engine to extract more mechanical energy from a given mass of air-fuel mixture due to its
higher thermal efficiency.

3. Gas flow: Since the cylinder must be filled, it is important that the fuel-air mixture (SI engine) or air (CI engine) is able to flow
in freely through the intake system into the combustion cylinder. In naturally aspirated engines, the only moving force is the
partial vacuum created by the intake stroke of the piston. It is therefore important that the intake system be shaped and arranged
so that it does not retard the flow. The intake valve must be large and open wide enough to permit free flow. Equally important,
free flow through the exhaust system is desirable if the burnt gases are to be removed efficiently.
4. Engine speed: In a 4-stroke engine, there is only one power stroke in the 4-stroke cycle while in the 2-stroke engine; there is
one power stroke in the 2-stroke cycle. The engine power output therefore tends to increase with engine speed.
Expresing engine power
The horsepower is the unit of measure for rating engine capacities. Categories of power are necessary for conveying information
about an engine’s performance. The most common ones include:
 Indicated horsepower: The total power developed by all cylinders and received by pistons without friction and losses in the
engine. It is the maximum theoretical power output of the engine developed based on gas pressure occurring in the cylinder after
combustion. It is a value of primary interest to engine designers.
 Friction horsepower: This is the power required to run the engine at a given speed without producing any useful work. It
represents the friction and pumping losses of the engine. This friction represents power loss and heat production.
 Flywheel/Brake horsepower: This is the power output at the engine flywheel and is the maximum power obtained from an
engine. It is the power delivered by an engine and is available at the end of the crank shaft at the engine flywheel. It is measured
using a suitable dynamometer.
 Draw bar horsepower: The power developed at the hitch or draw bar available for pulling, dragging or similar tractive effort.
 PTO horsepower: This is power measures at the PTO shaft while the engine is operating under a load. It is a function of torque
and speed measured in revolutions per second (rps) or revolutions per minute (rpm). There is usually some gear reduction
between engine speed and PTO shaft. The reduction increases torque value but reduces speed.
 Rated horsepower: This is used by engine manufacturers to indicate the power an engine should be expected to produce under
normal operating conditions. Rated power is not necessarily the operation point for best fuel consumption. It is expressed in
term of recommended power and speed.
Classification of internal combustion engines
Internal combustion engines may be classified based on the fuels used as diesel also known as compression ignition (CI) engine or
petrol also known as spark ignition (SI) engine. They may also be classified based on the number of strokes made by the piston in
one power cycle as 4-stroke or 2-stroke engine.
Comparison between diesel and petrol engines.
1. Fuel supply: In petrol engines, fuel and air are mixed outside the engine (in the carburettor) before moving into the combustion
chamber. In Diesel engines there is no pre-mixing of fuel and air outside the combustion cylinder. Only air is taken into the
combustion cylinder, compressed and then sprayed with diesel.
2. Ignition: Petrol engine depend on a spark produced by a spark plug to ignite the fuel-air mixture after compression. The diesel
engines use the heat derived from compressed air in the cylinder to cause ignition when a diesel spray is introduced from the
injector nozzle.
3. Compression ratio: Diesel engines have compression ratios of between 15:1 and 20:1, while petrol engines have compression
ratios of between 5.5:1 and 7:1. The higher compression ratio in diesel engines raises the temperature of the air to about 600oC
which is well above the flash point of the atomized diesel. This gives diesel more efficiency as the higher compression ratio
results in greater expansion of gases in the cylinder following combustion. The result is a more powerful stroke.
4. Design of engine parts: Engine parts for petrol engine are generally lighter in weight compared to those for diesel engine. Diesel
engines have beefed up parts such as the piston pins, piston rods, crank shafts and bearing to support the crank shaft.
5. Grade and type of fuel: Petrol engine only use petrol, while diesel engines also uses diesel. It is not possible to interchange the
fuels.

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Comparison of 4-stroke and 2-stroke engines.
A 4-stroke engine is one where one power cycle of the engine is completed in two revolutions of the crankshaft or four strokes of
the piston.
 Intake stroke: This occurs when the piston is moving from the TDC to BDC. The intake valve is open while the exhaust valve
is closed. In SI engines, fuel air mixture enters the cylinder while in CI engines, air only enters.

 Compression stroke: Occurs immediately after the intake stroke when the piston moves from the BDC to TDC. At the start of
the compression stroke, the intake valve closes and the exhaust valve remains closed. The piston moves to TDC compressing
the air fuel mixture (in SI engine) or only air (in CI engine).

 Power/Expansion stroke: This occurs immediately after the compression stroke. Power is developed from the fuel-air mixture.
Fuel is sprayed into the cylinder (in CI engine) or spark is produced by a spark plug (in SI engine) at the end of the compression
stroke. Both the intake and exhaust valves remain closed. The fuel-air mixture burns, expands forcing the piston to move from
the TDC to BDC.

 Exhaust stroke: This occurs immediately after the power stroke as the piston moves from the BDC to TDC. At the beginning of
the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens while the intake valve remains closed, burnt gases left in the cylinder are expelled by
the piston. At the end of the exhaust stroke, the intake valve opens and the cycle repeats itself.

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In a 2-stroke engine, the whole sequence of events i.e. Intake, compression, power and exhaust are completed in two strokes of the
piston or in one complete revolution of the crankshaft.
 The first stroke is (suction + compression): At the start of the cycle, the piston is at the bottom. As the piston moves up on
compression stroke of a previous charge, partial vacuum is created in the sealed crankcase. The piston uncovers the inlet port
and air rushes through the carburettor taking fuel-air mixture with it into the crankcase.

 The second stroke (Power + Exhaust): The previous charge is ignited, pushing the piston down on power stroke; this seals the
fuel-air mixture in the crankcase and compresses it. When the piston reaches the BDC the exhaust post is opened and the spent
gases escape and the fuel-air in the crankcase is transferred to the combustion chamber.
Note:
Scavenging is the processes of removal of exhaust gases from the engine cylinder. The entire exhaust gases do not go out in normal
stroke, hence some type of blower or compressor is used to remove the exhaust gases in a 2- stroke engine. There are also a number
of differences between the 2-stroke and 4-stroke engines. Some of these differences are:
1. The 2-stroke engine has no intake and exhaust valves. Gas movement in a 2- stroke engine takes place through holes called ports
in the cylinder. There is the inlet port, the transfer port and the exhaust port. The opening and closing of these ports is done by
the edge of the piston during its movement within the cylinder.
2. The crankcase of a 2-stroke engine is gas tight unlike that of a 4-stroke engine that has a crankcase breather.
3. A 4-stroke engine has a dedicated lubrication system unlike the 2-stroke engine that has its lubricating oil mixed with fuel.
4. 2-stroke engines are small and light per horsepower as compared to 4-stroke engines that are bigger and heavier.
5. 2-stroke engine are prone to carbon deposits forming in the combustion cylinder due to the fact that fuel is mixed with lubricating
oil. This is not the case with 4-stroke engines.

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Engine parts

1. Cylinder head: This is the top of the engine that seals off the top of cylinders. It usually houses valves, intake and exhaust
manifolds and cooling passages in water cooled engines. The cylinder head is sealed to the engine block with a cylinder head
gasket and carefully tightened using attaching cap screws or studs. This is critical in preventing distortion or gas leaks that lose
power from the cylinders. The pictures below show a cylinder head and a cylinder head gasket.

2. Cylinder/engine block: This is the main support for the other basic engine parts. The blocks are cast with end walls and centre
webs to support the crankshaft and camshaft and have enlargements in their walls to make room for oil and coolant passages. It
also has the fins projecting on the outside surface in case of air cooled engines. The cylinders are often cast into the block or
machined to receive replacement liners (sleeves). The picture below shows a cast in block cylinder on the left and a cylinder
liner/sleeve on the right.

3. Sump/crankcase/oil pan: This is attached to the bottom of the cylinder block. It encloses the cranks on the crankshaft. Preformed
or formed-in-place gaskets are used to seal the joint between the cylinder block and the oil pan.

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4. Cylinders: These are hollow tubes in which the pistons move back and forth. They may be cast into the cylinder block or made
separately and installed as liners or sleeves as shown in the diagram below. The chief advantage of liners is that replacement is
less expensive.

5. Camshaft:Rotates to open and close the valves by cam action. One intake and one exhaust cam is provided for each cylinder,
along with bearing journals. The camshaft is normally driven by gearing from the crankshaft. How the cams are arranged on the
shaft determines the firing order of the engine. The contour of each cam decides the time and rate of opening of each valve.
Camshafts may also be used to drive ignition timing mechanism, lubricating oil pump, and fuel pump. The picture below shows
a cam shaft.

6. Valves: These open and close the combustion cylinder to allow in fuel-air mixture (in SI engines) or air only (in CI engines) into
the cylinder and the exhaust gases out of the cylinder. Every cylinder has an intake and an exhaust valve. Modern engines may
have a pair of intake and a pair of exhaust valves for every cylinder.

7. Pistons: These moves back and forth in the cylinder applying the force of combustion to the crank shaft. They receive the force
of combustion from the expanding gases and transmit it to the crankshaft through the connecting rod. They carry along with
them piston rings which help in sealing the combustion chamber and wiping lubricating oil from the cylinders. The piston should
be strong and light. For this reason, they are constructed from cast iron or aluminium alloys.

8. Piston rings: These are place round the piston and are of two types; Compression rings which form an airtight seal between the
piston and cylinder wall. The oil control ring which controls lubrication between the piston and cylinder wall. Both the
compression and oil control rings help cool the piston by conducting heat away from the piston to cylinder walls and out through
the cooling system. In the picture below, the first two from left are compression rings while the third is an oil control ring.

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 9. Piston/gudgeon/wrist pins: The piston pins also called wrist pin or gudgeon pin is used to connect a piston to a connecting rod.

10. Connectingrod: This transmits the motion of the pistons to the crank shaft. Connecting rods must be light and yet strong
enough to transmit the thrust of the piston to the crankshaft. The connecting rod has a shank with a small eye at one end and a
large head at the other. The eye forms a bearing for the piston pin, while the head forms a bearing for the crankshaft. The head
end of the connecting rod is split and has a bearing cap which is bolted on. Two split bearing halves are inserted into the head
and cap.

11. Crankshaft: This converts the up and down motion of the pistons into rotary motion. It ties together the reaction of all
the pistons into one rotary force that drives the machine. The crankshaft is forged or cast from heat treated steel alloy for extra
strength. It is usually made in one piece.

12. Main bearing: This support the crank shaft in the cylinder block. The crankshaft has to be kept from moving back and
forth in the block. To prevent back and forth movement, one of the main bearings is a thrust or end thrust bearing. This bearing
has flanges on its sides. In the engine, flanges on the crankshaft come up against the thrust bearing flange. This prevents endwise
movement.

13. Flywheel: This is a heavy metal disc attached to the crankshaft on the rear. It serves the following purpose:
 Smoothens out the speed of crank shaft by storing energy as momentum between power strokes. This has the effect of stabilizing
the whole engine.
 It is a power tap off point of the engine. It is a convenient mounting- point for the clutch
 It is a convenient place for cranking the engine during starting. In the automatic start engines, it is a convenient place for mounting
the starter ring gear.

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14. Timing drives: These links the crankshaft, camshaft and other key parts of the engine to ensure that each is doing its
job at the right time. It can be a set of timing gears, timing chain of timing belt.
Engine systems
1. Fuel system:
Fuel is a substance consumed by the engine to produce energy. The most commonly used fuels for IC engines are petrol, diesel and
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).
Clean fuel is a must for tractor operation. Foreign materials in the fuel system can block fuel line or cause serious damage to the
engine. Diesel fuel system must inject a precise amount of atomized and pressurized fuel into each cylinder at the proper time. The
diesel fuel system has to do the following:
 Must supply the exact amount of fuel to each cylinder for every power stroke.
 Must inject fuel into the cylinders at the right time. Fuel delivered too early or late causes power loss.
 Must be able to delivery fuel into the cylinders at the required rate. Smooth operation of the cylinder is affected by the length of
time required to inject the fuel. The higher the engine speed, the faster the fuel must be injected.
 Must break up the fuel into fine particles (Atomization) and thoroughly mix with air for complete combustion.
 Must evenly spread the fuel in each cylinder to unite with all available oxygen. This makes the engine run smoothly and develop
maximum power.
Quality of fuel
The quality of fuel mainly depends on itsVolatility, Calorific value and ignition quality.
Volatility is the ability of a fuel to vaporize at a given temperature. It indicates the operating characteristics of the fuel inside the
engine.
Calorific value (heat value) is the heat liberated by combustion of a fuel. Different fuels have different Calorific values.
Ignition quality refers to the ease of burning the fuel in the combustion cylinder measured by the octane and Cetane numbers of
the fuel. Octane number is standard yardstick for measuring knock characteristics of fuels. Cetane number is the relative measure
of the interval between the beginning of injection and auto-ignition of the fuel.
Detonation or engine knock refers to violent noise heard in an engine during the process of combustion after the piston has passed
over the TDC. It is an undesirable combustion and results in sudden rise in pressure, a loss of power and overheating of the engine.
It may cause damage to the pistons, valves, gasket and other engine parts.
Causes of detonation
 Improper combustion chamber
 High compression pressure
 Early ignition timing
 Improper fuel
 Inadequate cooling arrangement.
Pre-ignition is the burning of fuel- air mixture in the combustion chamber before the piston has reached the TDC. This is likely
due to excessive heat in the combustion cylinders.
Fuel flow in diesel fuel engines
In operation, fuel flow by gravity from the fuel tank to the primary fuel filter where coarse impurities and moisture are removed
from the fuel. From the primary fuel filter, the fuel is drawn by the fuel transfer pump whichalso called fuel lift pump. The pump
activated by a camshaft pushes the fuel through the secondaryfuel filter which removes fine sediments that may still be in the fuel.
The clean fuels then goes to the injection pump where it is put under high pressure and delivered to the fuelinjectors. The fuel
injector nozzle atomizes the fuel and sprays into the combustion cylinder. The fuel that leaks out from the injection nozzles passes
out through leakage pipe and returns to the fuel tank through the overflow pipe. The diagram below shows the fuel, air intake and

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exhaust systems. The system has a sediment bowlbeing part of the primary fuel filter. A sediment bowl acts primarily as a fuel

drain for water and small sediments.

Maintenance of fuel system:
(i) Carburettor jets to be cleaned regularly to avoid blockage.
(ii) Fuel filter to be washed or replaced.
(iii) The hole in the fuel tank (breather) should always be kept clean.
(iv) Bleeding should be done whenever air is trapped in the system (bleeding may be done at the filter or injector pump).
(v) Sediment bowl should be cleaned regularly
2. Air intake and exhaust system:
This system has two basic functions; to deliver clean fuel-air mixture or just air into the engine and to transmit exhaust gases away
from the cylinders after combustion. Both functions are vital to engine operation. The air entering must be clean. If foreign particles
enter the engine through the intake system, serious engine damage may occur. The exhaust system should enable the engine to
expel exhaust gasses properly to avoid overheating and a possible damage to the engine.
The diesel engine air intake system has many of the basic components of the petrol engine; however they do not have a carburettor.
In diesel engines, air from the pre-cleaner goes into the air cleaner. The air pre-cleaner removes all large floating objects that may
be in air. The air cleaner removes all solid particles in air before moving into the combustion cylinder. Air cleaners are of two
types; the oil-bath type also called the wet type and the filterelement typealso called the dry type. The dry type air cleaner has a
filter element with a large surface area which reduces the speed of air while passing through it. The reduced speed causes dust
particles or dirt in the air to be deposited on it or is stopped by its surface. The wet type air cleaner has the incoming air impinged
upon the surface of oil kept in a container in the lower part of the casing. Foreign particles in the air are trapped in the oil and
inlet/intake then the air passes through a wire element before reaching engine. The wire element also arrests the remaining dirt
particles in the [Link] the air cleaner, the air enters the intake manifold which leads it to the combustion cylinder through the
intake valve. The diagrams below shows air flow in a wet type and the dry type air cleaners.

In bigger diesel engines, the air intake system may be fitted with a turbo charger and an inter cooler. The turbo charger is an
exhaust driven turbine that drives a centrifugal compressor wheel. The compressor wheel is located between the exhaust manifold
and the muffler. The turbo charger by compressing air forces more air into the engine cylinder. The amount of fuel the engine can
burn is increased and the engine power is also increased. All the engine’s exhaust gases pass through the turbine. After passing the

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turbine, the exhaust gases are released to the atmosphere. The compressor wheel is mounted on the same shaft as the turbine.

As a result of forcing more air into the combustion cylinder, air temperature increases when compressed. The resulting tendency
of the heated air to expand reduces its density. This offsets a portion of the original compressive effect achieved by the turbo
charger. Inter coolers are installed between the turbo charger and the intake manifold to reduce the temperature of the compressed
air thereby permitting more air into the combustion cylinder. The inter cooler consists of a group of tubes through which air or
engine coolant is circulated to cool compressed air from the turbo charger. The compressed air passes round the tubes and gets
cooled.
The exhaust system carries away heat, burnt and unburnt gases from the engine and muffles engine sounds. The exhaust system
has the following components; Exhaust valve which seals the burning gases inside the cylinder until most of the energy has been
expended then opens so that the cylinder can clear before the next fuel-air mixture or air is admitted. The exhaust gases then pass
through the exhaust manifold to the muffler (silencer). The muffler carries away the gases and reduces the noise from the engine.
The diagram below shows the valve system.

Maintenance of air intake /exhaust system:

The major maintenance practice for the air intake and exhaust system is to check and clean or replace the air cleaners as
recommended by the manufactures. Also ensure that there are no blockages or dents in the system that may retard flow.
3. Cooling system:
The engine cooling system is designed to regulate the operation temperature and prevent the engine from overheating. About a
third of the total heat energy contained in fuel must be carried away as heat by the cooling system. By regulating the operating
temperature, the cooling system keeps the engine at the best heat level for each operation. During starting, the engine should be
allowed to warm up quickly but must be cooled when operating under heavy loads. By regulating the operating temperature, the
cooling system keeps the engine from running too cold which causes unnecessary tear and wear, poor fuel economy and
accumulation of water and sludge in the crankcase. The cooling system also keep the engine from overheating so as to prevent pre-
ignition, detonation, engine knock, burning of pistons and valves and lubrication failure.
Purpose of cooling engines:
(i) To maintain optimum temperature of engine for sufficient operation under all conditions.
(ii) To dissipate surplus heat to protection engine components such as the cylinder, cylinder head, piston, piston rings and valves.
(iii) To maintain lubricating property of oil inside the engine cylinder for normal functioning.
Bad effects of high temperatures in the engine:
(i) Cylinder and piston may expand to such an extent that the piston seizes in the cylinder and stop the engine.

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(ii) Lubricating ability of the oil inside the cylinder would be destroyed due to high temperature and there may be no sucking of
air into the combustion cylinder.
(iii) Pre-ignition of fuel would take place and would cause engine knocking as well as loss of power.
Cooling systems are classified on the basis of the coolant used as follows; air cooling, water cooling and combined water-air
cooling.
Air cooled engines
Heat is conducted away from the working components of the engine to the atmosphere directly. In such engines, cylinders are not
grouped in a block. The cylinder of an air cooled engine has fins to increase the surface area for heat exchange for faster cooling.
The cylinder is always enclosed in a sheet metal casing called cowling. The flywheel has blades projecting from its face, so that it
acts like a fan drawing air through a hole in the cowling and directing it around the finned cylinder. For maintenance of air cooling
system, passage of air is kept clean by removing grasses, etc. using a stiff brush or pressurized air. When a separate fan is provided,
the belt tension is to be checked and adjusted if necessary. An air cooled engine is simple in design and construction since water
jackets, radiator, water pump and thermostat are not required. The system has the disadvantage that there is likelihood of uneven
cooling of the engine parts and the engine temperatures is generally high during operation.

Water colloed engines

Water circulates around the cylinder to absorb heat from the cylinder walls. The heated water is then pumped to either a large
reservoir tank as in water cooled engines or the radiator as in a combined water-air cooled engines. The combined water-air cooling
system is the most effective.
The radiator is the major component of the combined air-water cooling system. It transfers heat from the coolant to the atmosphere
and also provides a reservoir for the coolant needed to operate the cooling system efficiently. The radiator holds a large volume of
water in close contact with a large volume of air so that heat is transferred from the water to the air easily. Hot water flow into the
radiator at the top and cold water flows out from the bottom. Tubes or passages carry the water from the top of the radiator to the
bottom, passing it over a large metal surface. Air flows between the tubes or through the cells at right angles to the downward
flowing water. This helps in transferring the heat from the water to the atmosphere.

A fan is usually mounted on the water pump shaft. It is driven by the same belt that drives the water pump and the dynamo. The
purpose of the fan is to provide strong air current through the radiator to improve heat dissipation from the coolant. Water jackets
are cored out around the engine cylinder so that water can circulate freely around the cylinder as well as around the valve opening.
The water flowing through the jackets take away heat from the engine and take to the radiator. A flexible connecting hose connects
the engine and the radiator both at the top and at the bottom. A thermostat (Heat operated valve) controls the flow of coolant
between the engine and the radiator to maintain operating temperatures. The thermostat is a special valve which closes the inlet
passage of water connected to the radiator. The thermostat is placed in the water passage between the engine and the top of the
radiator. Its purpose is to close this passage when the engine is cold, so that water circulation is restricted around the engine, causing

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the engine to reach operating temperatures more quickly. The radiator cap is a special lid for the radiator; it opens at certain high
pressure to release excess pressure that may build up in the radiator which may lead to a burst.

Maintenance of cooling system:

(i) Remove trash from radiator fins.
(ii) Coolant level should be checked and topped up when necessary.
(iii) Replace leaking pipes/hoses.
(iv) Fan belt tension should be checked and corrected.
4. Lubrication system:
The internal combustion engine is made of many moving parts. Due to continuous movement of two metallic surfaces over each
other, there is wearing of moving parts, generation of heat and loss of power in the engine. Lubrication of moving parts is essential
to prevent all these harmful effects.
Purpose of lubrication
(i) Reduces wear and prevent seizure of rubbing surfaces.
(ii) Reduce the power needed to overcome the frictional resistance in the engine.
(iii) Remove heat from the piston and other parts.
(iv) Provide a seal between the piston rings & cylinder.
(v) Remove foreign or worn out materials between the engine working parts.
Three methods of engine lubrication are commonly used; splash lubrication, force feed lubrication and petroil (or oil mist)
lubrication.
Splash lubrication
It is more generally used in small single-cylinder air cooled engines. This system has been used in tractor engines when the engines
were running at much lower speeds than it is today. The oil mist lubrication is common in small two-stroke engines, and consists
of mixing a small quantity of oil with the petrol.
Force feed lubrication
It is preferred in all modern internal combustion engines, however it is possible to find a combination of splash and force feed
lubrication system in an engine.
The force feed lubrication system consists of the oil pump which is usually located in the oil pan (sump/crankcase). The pump
is driven by the camshaft in the engine. The lower end of the pump extends down into the oil in the crankcase and it is covered
with a screen to keep off foreign particles that may attempt to enter the system. The pump supplies oil under pressure to various
parts of the engine through the oil galleries (passages in the engine through which oil is pumped). Oil filter cleans off foreign
materials in the oil. Lubricating oil becomes contaminated with various materials such as dirt, metal particles and carbon. The oil
filter removes all the dirt element of the oil in an effective way. Some oil filters can be cleaned by washing, but in general old filters
are replaced by new filters at specified intervals. Oil filters may be classified as full flow or bypass filter. In a full flow filter, the
entire quantity of oil is forced to circulate through it before it enters the engine. A spring loaded valve is usually fitted in the filter
as a protection against oil starvation in case the filter gets clogged. The bypass filter takes a small portion of oil from the pump and
returns the filtered oil into the sump. Over a period of operation, all the oil in the crankcase passes through the filter. Through the
filter, the balance oil reaches directly to the engine parts. A magnet may be provided in the sump to attract and hold worn out metal
parts from the engine. Pressure relief valve control the quantity of oil circulation and maintain correct pressure in the lubricating
system. A crankcasebreather connects the space above the oil level in the crankcase with the outside atmosphere. The purpose of
the breather is to prevent build up of pressure in the crankcase. A pressure gauge indicates the amount of oil pressure developed
by the resistance of the flow from the pump. Oil coolers help dissipate heat from oil while oil heaters are used in temperate
countries to help pre-heat the oil for easy starting. The oil coolers and oil heaters are optional devices and therefore may not be
found in some engines. The diagram below show the flow of lubrication oil in a force feed lubrication system.

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Maintenance of lubrication system:
(i) Engine oil should be replaced as recommended.
(ii) Engine oil should be topped up when down.
(iii) Replace oil filters when necessary.
5. Electrical system:
Electrical system varies from tractor to tractor according to the engine type. A complete electrical system contains four basic
circuits:
 Starting circuit,
 Charging circuit
 Ignition circuit
The three circuits exist in petrol engines, but only two; the starting and the charging circuits exist in diesel engines. This is because
a diesel engine does not require ignition by an electric spark.
 Starting circuit:
This circuit is dedicated to cranking the engine during starting. It converts electrical energy from the battery into mechanical
energy for starting the engine. The starter switch activates the circuit making electrical energy to flow from the battery to the
motor switch also called solenoid switch. The resulting movement of the plunger engages the motor pinion gear with the ring
gear mounted on the engine flywheel and closes the switch between the battery and the starter motor. A larger current flows to
the starter motor which converts the electrical energy to mechanical energy to crank the engine.

 Charging circuit:
This circuit is dedicated to charging the battery and providing electric current during tractor operation. There are two types of
charging units; namely the alternator(see diagram below) and the generator. Both the generator and the alternator produce current
by passing a conductor through an electromagnetic field. The difference between the two lie in the method of rectifying the
alternating current (a.c) produced to direct current (d.c.). The generator uses a split ring commutator while an alternator uses a
bridge of diodes. The electrical energy from the alternator/generator flow to the voltage regulator, current regulator and a cut-
out relay. The cut-out relay closes the circuit when the engine is running and opens the circuit when the engine is stopped to
prevent the battery from discharging through the generator. The voltage regulator prevents overcharging of the battery while the
current regulator prevents high flow of current through the system.

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 Ignition circuit:
This circuit is dedicated to production of an electrical spark in the engine cylinder at the precise time to ensure combustion of fuel-
air mixture. The ignition circuit may be a battery ignition system of a magneto ignition system. The ignition circuit is activated
using the ignition switch which may be the push pull type or key type. When the circuit is activated electrical energy flow from
the battery to the ignition coil. The ignition coil transforms the low voltage from the battery to a high voltage for production of
spark. The condenser consists of a pair of flat metal plates separated by air. The condenser is connected across the contact breaker
points. It is used to produce a quick collapse of the magnetic field in the primary coil to obtain extremely high voltage in the
secondary coil. In doing so, the condenser prevents sparking/arching across the contact breaker points, thus preventing the
distributor points from burning. The distributor is a rotary switch driven by the engine through gears at half the engine speed. The
distributor closes and opens the primary circuit and distributes the resulting high voltage current to the spark plug in engine
cylinders in proper sequence and in proper time. The spark plug produces an electric spark that ignites the fuel-air mixture within
each cylinder of the engine.
The magneto ignition is a self-contained unit driven by the engine that generates electricity which is transformed to a high voltage
when required. The magneto is driven using timing gears of the engine. Because it is capable of generating its own electricity, the
use of battery is not necessary unless the engine has other electrical equipment such as the lights or horn, wipers, etc.

Maintenance for electrical system:

(i) Checking and adjusting the electrolyte level with distilled/ deionised water.
(ii) Grease corroded battery terminals
(iii) Fan belt tension should be checked and corrected.
(iv) Carbon deposits on spark plugs to be removed.
(v) Replace spark plugs with worn out electrodes
(vi) Contact breaker points cleaned.
(vii) Replace wires with poor insulation.

6. Power transmission system:

The tractor power train transmits power developed by the engine to the driving wheels, power take off (PTO) shaft and belt drives.
The transmission is a speed reduction mechanism, equipped with several gears.
Functions of power transmission system
(i) To transmit power from the engine to the rear wheels of the tractor.
(ii) Avail reduced speed to the rear wheels.
(iii) To alter the ratio of wheel speed and engine speed in order to suite the field conditions.
(iv) To transmit power through right angle drive.
Power trains may be classified as being mechanical or hydraulic. The mechanical drive power train has four basic components;
Clutch, transmission, differential and final drives.

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Clutch
It transmits power from the engine to the transmission and provides a means of stopping and starting the power flow to the
transmission.
Functions of the clutch
(i) Engine needs cranking by any suitable device. For easy cranking, the engine is disconnected from the rest of the transmission
unit by a suitable clutch. After starting the engine, the clutch is engaged to transmit power from the engine to the gear box.
(ii) In order to change the gears, the gear box must be kept free from the engine power, if this is not done, the gear teeth will be
damaged and engagement of gears will not be perfect. This work is done by the clutch.
(iii) When the pulley belt or the PTO drive of the tractor works in the field it needs to be stopped without stopping the engine. This
is done by the clutch. The diagram below shows a single plate dry friction clutch.

Transmissiongears
The individual forward and reverse speeds of the tractor are determined by the combinations of these gears. Transmissions systems
may be classified as mechanical, Hydraulic assist, hydraulic or automatic.

DifferentialSystem
It transmits power to the final drives and allows the driving wheel to turn at different speeds during a turn while still propelling
their loads. Differential lock is used to stop the differential action and direct power equally to both wheels.

The Final drive provides the final speed reduction and increases torque to the drive wheels. Most final drives must support the
weight of the tractor and withstand torque and shock loads.
The power take off (PTO) and the pulley drive are attachments in the power train of a tractor. They are designed to power
implements such as saw mills, Posho mills, Sheller, Bailers, Mowers, Forage harvesters, etc. the diagram below show the layout

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of a mechanical power train from the engine flywheel to the driving wheels.

Maintenance of the power train:

(i) Differential oil drained and replaced as recommended.
(ii) Gear box oil drained and replaced as recommended.
(iii) Hydraulic/transmission oil should be topped when down and replaced as recommended.
Tractor implement attachment options
1. Fully Mounted:Also just called mounted implements are those that are attached to the tractor through a hitch linkage in such
a manner that it is completely supported by the tractor when in the raised position. The linkage usually provides rotational
stability about the longitudinal axis and it permits depth or height control by vertical support from the tractor, if desired, while
the tool is in operating position.
2. Semi-mounted type: These are attached to the tractor though never completely supported by the tractor. In usual situation, the
hinge axis is transverse at the rear of the tractor and the hitch provides rotational stability about the longitudinal axis. The
implement may respond directly to tractor steering, but if vertical hinge axis is super-imposed on the horizontal axis (as on
large semi-mounted ploughs), the rear of the implement is guided by its own wheel(s).
3. Trailed/ pull type: These are the ones that are pulled and guided from a single hitch point and is never completely supported
by the tractor.
Note:
Most tractor implements are rear mounted. However it is possible to find implements that are side mounted, mid mounted or
front mounted. The main reason for front mounting a plough is to secure maximum ploughing efficiency from a high powered
four-wheel-drive tractor rather than to carry out two or more operations simultaneously. When using a large rear mounted plough
on a four-wheel-drive tractor, there is need for a considerable amount of front ballast if its front drive capability is to be effective.
Most leading plough manufactures consider it logical to substitute a two or a three furrow front plough for the usual cast iron front
ballast weights. The front mounted implement has the disadvantage that it adds to turning and road usage difficulties. The pictures
below show the various implement attachment options.

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