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Contents
Introduction to Biological • Overview and importance of biology in engineering,
Sciences • Origin of Life,
• Cell Theory and Structure

Module I

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Role of Biology in Engineering

Role of Biology in Engineering
 Biomedical Engineering:
 Biomaterials: Understanding biological materials helps in designing
• Biology plays a crucial role in various engineering implants and prosthetics that are biocompatible.
fields specifically in the areas:  Tissue Engineering: Combines biology with engineering principles to
develop artificial organs and repair damaged tissues, which is vital for
• Biomedical engineering, advancing healthcare.
• Environmental engineering,  Medical Devices: Biology informs the design of devices like heart rate
• Biotechnology. monitors and MRI machines, drawing on knowledge of human
physiology.

 Biotechnology
 Genetic Engineering: Engineers manipulate genetic material to create
new crops or medicinal products, showcasing the intersection of
biology and technology.
 Synthetic Biology: This emerging field combines biology and
engineering to design and construct new biological parts, devices, and
systems for practical applications.

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Role of Biology in Engineering

Contents
 Environmental Engineering:
 Bioremediation: Utilizes microorganisms to clean up contaminated
environments, demonstrating how biological processes can enhance • Overview and importance of biology in engineering
environmental safety.
 Sustainable Design: Engineers use biological systems to develop eco- • Origin of Life
friendly products and processes, promoting sustainability.
• Cell Theory and Structure
 Ecosystem Management: Understanding biological interactions aids in
designing projects that preserve ecosystems while meeting human
needs.

 Agricultural Engineering:
 Crop Improvement: Biology helps in developing genetically modified
organisms (GMOs) for enhanced yield and resistance to pests.
 Soil and Water Management: Understanding biological systems
contributes to better agricultural practices, optimizing resource use
while minimizing environmental impact.

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Characteristic of Life
Life – Definition and Regulation
• Homeostasis
– Regulation of the internal environment to maintain a constant state; for example, electrolyte
concentration or sweating to reduce temperature • The oxford dictionary defines life as “the condition that distinguishes
• Organization animals and plants from inorganic matter, including the capacity for
– Being structurally composed of one or more cells growth, reproduction, functional activity, and continual change preceding
• Metabolism death”.
– Maintain energy and regulate life through Catabolism and Anabolism
• Any contiguous living system is called an “organism”.
• Growth
– Maintenance of a higher rate of anabolism than catabolism • Organisms undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, possess a
• Adaptation capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, reproduce and, through natural
– The ability to change over time in response to the environment selection, adapt to their environment in successive generations. More
• Response to stimuli (Irritability) complex living organisms can communicate through various means.
– A response is often expressed by motion (Chemotaxis, phototaxis in plants) and reaction of body
against any stimuls (+ve and –ve).
• These complex processes, called physiological functions, have underlying
• Reproduction physical and chemical bases, as well as signalling and control mechanisms
– The ability to produce new individual organisms, either asexually from a single parent organism, or that are essential to maintaining life.
sexually from two parent organisms

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Origin of Life Theories about origin of life

• Philosophers and scientists from time immemorial • The Oparin-Haldane theory (Abiogenesis)
have attempted to explain how and where life • 1920 - British scientist J.B.S. Haldane and Russian biochemist
originated on this planet earth. Aleksandr Oparin independently set forth similar ideas concerning
• Today, earth is the only planet where life exists. The the conditions required for the origin of life. Both believed that
earth was formed about 4.8 billion years ago and life organic molecules could be formed from abiogenic materials in
started about 3.8 billion years ago. the presence of an external energy source (e.g., ultraviolet
• Initially earth was a hot revolving ball of gas consisting radiation) and that the primitive atmosphere was reducing (having
very low amounts of free oxygen) and contained ammonia and
of atoms of various elements.
water vapour, among other gases.
• Due to the extremely high temperature, the atoms of • Coacervates - Oparin believed that life developed from
these elements could not combine to form molecules. coacervates, microscopic spontaneously formed spherical
• Earth was divided into three-layers aggregates of lipid molecules that are held together by
– Heavy elements such as iron and nickel were found in electrostatic forces and that may have been precursors of cells
the center. • Haldane believed that simple organic molecules formed first and
– A comparatively lighter ones like those of aluminium and in the presence of ultraviolet light became increasingly complex,
silicon formed the middle layer. ultimately forming cells.
– The lightest elements like hydrogen, oxygen and carbon • Haldane and Oparin’s ideas formed the foundation for much of
were found in the outermost layer. the research on abiogenesis that took place in later decades
• Different theories were given by various scientists with
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The Miller-Urey experiment Spark-discharge Apparatus

• 1953 - American chemists Harold C. Urey and
Stanley Miller tested the Oparin-Haldane theory – It consisted of a flask, a gas chamber
and successfully produced organic molecules from and a condenser connected in series.
some of the inorganic components thought to – The flask consisted of water, which was
have been present on prebiotic Earth. boiled thoroughly to produce water
• They combined warm water with a mixture of four vapour. The gas chamber consisted of
gases—water vapour, methane, ammonia, and two tungsten electrodes placed at a
molecular hydrogen—and pulsed the distance of 0 to 1 cm and connected to
“atmosphere” with electrical discharges. terminals.
• One week later they found that simple organic – When the electrodes were connected
molecules, including amino acids, had formed they produced a high energy spark of
under the simulated conditions of early Earth. about 75,000 volts.
• Urey and Miller designed a glass apparatus which
came to be known as Spark-discharge apparatus.

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An experiment The Current Scenario

• Prior to the experiment, Urey and Miller evacuated the entire
apparatus.
• Through the inlet, they passed a mixture of ammonia, methane • Miller, who died in 2007, left unanalyzed samples
and hydrogen in the ratio of 2:2:1 by volume. from these experiments with a former student,
Jeffrey Bada.
• Along with the water vapour produced in the flask, these gases
were made to enter the spark discharge chamber when the • Bada, of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La
electrodes were switched on. Jolla, Calif., and colleagues used modern techniques
• Chemical reactions occurred in the spark discharge chamber and such as high-performance liquid chromatography
the products formed were cooled by circulating water in the and time-of-flight mass spectrometry to study the
condenser. preserved samples.
• These products were collected from the trap and subjected to • These modern techniques, which were many times
analysis. more sensitive than those used in the 1950s,
detected a total of 23 amino acids, including 7
• The experiment was run continuously for about a week.
organosulfur compounds in a sample that Miller
• The products contained many simple organic compounds which had produced by using a gaseous mixture of
included amino acids like glycine, alanine and aspartic acid. hydrogen sulfide, methane, ammonia, and carbon
• This experiment clearly supported the hypothesis that in the dioxide.
ancient earth primitive gases could have reacted with one
another to form simple organic molecules, in the presence of
high-energy sources.

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Modern conceptions of abiogenesis

Modern conceptions of abiogenesis…
• Modern concept supports the abiogenetic theory given by Oparin-
Haldane and the Miller-Urey experiment.
• Progressing with the same ideas, now the biologists are working on • Some scientists have proposed that abiogenesis
the different model of evolutions, where they are trying to explain
occurred more than once.
which process occurs first in complex organic molecules whether
Self-Replication or the metabolism. • Based upon the nature of the abiogenic materials
• Whether these molecules first became self-replicating entities different types of life arose and each lifeform with
lacking metabolic functions or first became metabolizing protocells
that then developed the ability to self-replicate.
distinct biochemical architectures and at various
• The habitat for abiogenesis has also been debated: sites.
– Originated from nonlife in hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. – Ultimately, however, phosphate-based life (“standard” life) gained
an evolutionary advantage over all non-phosphate-based life
– deep below Earth’s surface (methane or hydrogen abundancy)
(“nonstandard” life) and thereby became the most widely
– even on ocean shores (where proteinoids may have emerged distributed type of life on Earth.
from the reaction of amino acids with heat and then entered the
water as cell-like protein droplets).
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Theories of Origin of Life Theory of Special Creation

1. Theory of Special Creation • A Mythology based theories which believes that all forms
of life created by god. It has no scientific basis. It is religion
2. Theory of Spontaneous Generation based concept.
– As per Hindu mythology, Lord Brahma, has created earth and
3. Theory of Catastrophism all life forms.
– According to the Christian and Islamic belief, God created
4. Cosmozoic Theory (Theory of Panspermia) this universe, plants, animals and human beings in about six
natural days.
5. Theory of Chemical Evolution – The Sikh mythology says that all forms of life including
human beings came into being with a single word of God.
• Special creation theory believes that the things have not
undergone any significant change since their creation

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Theory of Spontaneous Generation Theory of Catastrophism

• Living organisms could arise suddenly and • It is simply a modification of the theory of Special
spontaneously from any kind of non-living Creation. It states that there have been several
creations of life by God, each preceded by a
matter. They called it Abiogenesis or Biopoesis
catastrophe resulting from some kind of geological
• Supporters: Aristotle, Epicurus, Von Helmont disturbance.
• They believed spontaneity as : • According to this theory, since each catastrophe
– Fly maggots from meat completely destroyed the existing life, each new
creation consisted of life form different from that
– Fist and Frog from mud
of previous ones.
– Insects from dew
• Supporters: Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) and
• Opposed by – Louis pasteur, Fransisco redi, Orbigney (1802 to 1837)
Spallanzani

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Cosmozoic Theory (Theory of Panspermia) Theory of Chemical Evolution

• According to this theory, life has reached • This theory was proposed independently by two
scientists - [Link], a Russian scientist in 1923 and
this planet Earth from other heavenly J.B.S Haldane, an English scientist, in 1928.
bodies such as meteorites, in the form of • This theory is also known as Materialistic Theory or
highly resistance spores of some Physico-chemical Theory.
organisms. • According this theory, Origin of life on earth is the
result of a slow and gradual process of chemical
• This idea was proposed by Richter in 1865
evolution that probably occurred about 3.8 billion
and supported by Arrhenius (1908) and years ago.
other contemporary scientists. • The first life arose from a collection of chemical
• The theory did not gain any support. This substances through a progressive series of chemical
reactions.
theory lacks evidence, hence it was
• Solar radiation, heat radiated by earth and lighting
discarded. must have been the chief energy source for these
chemical reactions.

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Cells
Contents • All living organisms, unicellular or multicellular, are made
up of cells. The cell is the simplest unit of matter that is
alive and is called as structural and functional unit of life.
• Overview and importance of biology in engineering • Each cell is amazing world in itself. It takes in nutrients,
• Origin of Life convert these nutrients into energy, carry out specialized
functions, and they grow with time and self-propagate
• Cell Theory and Structure by reproduction for survival.
• Each cell differentiates into specific cell type for playing
specific role in the life of organism. Means, specific
organs for specific function. For eg, Cardiac, Hepatic,
Nerve, Myeloma etc.
• About 300 different types of cell have been identified so
far.

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In Humans Blood Cells

approx.200 Cells types
Blood cells sex cells • RBC (Erythrocytes) – Carry oxygen
• Platelets (Thrombocytes) – it form clots to stop bleeding
• Nerve Cell (Neuron) • WBC (Leukocytes) - Cells of Immunity
• Muscle Cell (Myocyte) – Lymphocytes ( regulate immune system)
• T-cells, B-cells and NK cells
• Skin Cells (Epithelial)
Pancreatic cells – Monocytes
• Bone cell (Osteocytes) Nerve cells
• Dendritic cells are antigen-presenting cells which are able to mark out cells that are antigens
• Fat Cell (Adipocytes) (foreign bodies) that need to be destroyed by lymphocytes.
• Macrophages are phagocyte cells which are larger and live longer than neutrophils.
• Cartilage cells Macrophages are also able to act as antigen-presenting cells.
(chondrocytes) – Granulocytes (Phagocytic cells, capable to ingest bacteria, virus etc. )- 60% of
total WBC
• Sex Cells (Gametes) Fat cells
• Neutrophils ( can ingest upto 20 bacteria in lifetime)
skin cells
• Stem Cell • Eosinophils (involved in allergic reactions and attacks parasites and worms)
• Basophils ( release histamine to control allergy and also triggers inflammation and heparin,
• Blood Cells (RBC,WBC) which prevent blood to clot)

Bone cells Stem cells

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Cell History
• In 1665, the first cell was discovered and named by
Robert Hooke while observing dead cork samples
with a crude lens.
• Anton Von Leeuwenhoek in 1674 first saw and
described a live cell in algae Spirogyra. Also called
Father of Microbiology.

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Cell Theory Modern Cell Theory

• Three components: • All known living things are made up of cells.
– All organisms are composed of one or more cells (Schleiden and • The cell is structural & functional unit of all living things.
Schwann, 1938-39)
• All cells come from pre-existing cells by division. (Spontaneous
– The Cell is the basic unit of life. (Schleiden and Schwann, 1938-39)
Generation does not occur).
– All cells are produced by division of pre-existing cells (Virvhow 1858)
• Cells contains hereditary information which is passed from cell
to cell during cell division.
• All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
• All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life occurs
within cells.

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Cell Size
Prokaryotic
• Cells differ greatly in size, shape and activities.
• Human eyes have a resolution of about 100 µm. But, most of the and
biological structures are smaller than the unaided human eye can see.
• Mycoplasma, the smallest cell, is only 0.3 µm (micrometer) in length
Eukaryotic Cells
while bacteria could be 3 to 5 µm.

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Bacterial cell
Prokaryotic Cells • A typical bacterial cell is composed of Cell wall, Plasma membrane, Nucleoid, Ribosomes, Pilli, Flagella, storage
granules and a Capsule. Not all structures are present in all prokaryotic cells; it may vary from one species to
other.

• The prokaryotic cells are represented by bacteria, blue-

green algae (cyanobacteria), mycoplasma and PPLO
(Pleuro Pneumonia like organisms).
• They are generally smaller and multiply more rapidly than
the eukaryotic cells.
• There are four basic shapes of bacteria
– Bacillus (Rod like)
– Coccus (Spherical)
– Vibrio (Comma Shaped)
– Spirillum (Spiral)

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Bacterial cell • Capsule (or slime layer) Bacterial cell • Cell Wall
– A thick polysaccharide layer outside the cell wall. – Made up of murein (not cellulose), which is a
– Not present in all bacteria. Found only in some glycoprotein (also called peptidoglycan).
Capsule (or slime layer) gram +ve bacteria, if a capsule is present, then Cell Wall – There are two kinds of cell wall, which can be
flagella are not. Cell or Plasma membrane distinguished by Gram staining.
Flagella (singular flagellum) – Used for sticking cells together, as a food reserve, • Gram +ve bacteria have a thick cell wall, stain purple,
as protection against desiccation and chemicals Cytoplasm may have spores and are sensitive to penicillin and
lysosomes (an antibacterial enzyme found in tears and
Pilli and Fimbriae and as protection against phagocytosis. saliva)
• Flagella (singular flagellum) • Gram –ve bacteria have a thin cell wall with an outer
lipid layer, have no spores and stain pink – these are
– A thin and long filamentous extension or
thought to be more highly evolved.
whip-like protrusion that aids in cellular
locomotion • Plasma membrane or cell membrane
– It is extended from the cell wall and used for the – Boundary (“wall”) between the cell and the
environment. Allows nutrients/ regulates
motility of bacteria.
movement in and out of the cell. (“Selectively
– Bacterial flagellum is composed of three parts – Permeable”).
filament, hook and basal body. – Made of phospholipids and proteins like eukaryotic
• Pilli and Fimbriae membranes.
– Hair-like structures on the surface of the cell that • Cytoplasm
attach to other bacterial cells. Shorter pili called – Cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance that is sometimes
fimbriae help bacteria attach to surfaces. described as "the cell-matrix".
– Contains all the enzymes needed for all the
metabolic reactions, since there are no organelles

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Bacterial cell • Nucleoid Bacterial cell • Mesosomes

– The region of the cytoplasm that contain – Special intracellular structure which is formed by the
DNA. It is not surrounded by nuclear extensions of plasma membrane into the cell. These
Nucleoid Mesosomes extensions are in the form of vesicles, tubules and
membrane. Sometimes also referred as
lamellae.
Plasmid nuclear body or nuclear zone. Storage Granules – They help in cell wall formation, DNA replication and
Ribosomes • Plasmid distribution to daughter cells.
– Small circular DNA, used to exchange DNA – They also help in respiration, secretion processes, to
between bacterial [Link] in genetic increase the surface area of the plasma membrane
engineering, they often contain genes and enzymatic content.
giving resistance to antibiotics. – In some prokaryotes like cyanobacteria, there are
other membranous extensions into the cytoplasm
• Ribosomes called chromatophores which contain pigments.
– The smaller 70S type. Two units 50S and • Storage Granules (or Inclusion bodies)
30S. – Reserve materials in prokaryotic cells are stored in
– They are the site of protein synthesis. the cytoplasm in the form of inclusion bodies.
– Several ribosomes may attach to a single – These are not bound by any membrane system and
lie free in the cytoplasm, e.g., phosphate granules,
mRNA and form a chain called
cyanophycean granules and glycogen granules.
polyribosomes or polysome. The ribosomes
– Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and purple and
of a polysome translate the mRNA into
green photosynthetic bacteria.
proteins.

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Eukaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

• The structures that make up a
Eukaryotic cell are determined by
the specific functions carried out by
the cell.
• Thus, there is no typical
Eukaryotic cell.
• Nevertheless, Eukaryotic cells
generally have three main
components:
– Cell membrane
– Nucleus
Animal cell Plant cell – Variety of cell organelles.
Figure : Electron micrograph of an ultra-thin section of a
dividing pair of streptococci (20,000X).

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Animal Cell Structure

Animal Cell Structure Cell membrane
• Also called plasma membrane, It is outermost layer and is a double layer of lipids and proteins that
surrounds a cell and separates the cytoplasm.
• Cell membrane • All cells have a cell membrane. It is selectively permeable, which means that it only lets certain
• Cytoplasm molecules enter and exit . It can also control the amount of some substances that go into or out of
the cell.
• Mitochondria
• Phospholipids are a main component of the cell membrane. These are lipid molecules made up of a
• Endoplasmic Reticulum(ER) phosphate group head and two fatty acid tails. The properties of phospholipid molecules allow them
• Golgi Apparatus to spontaneously form a double-layered membrane (phospholipid bilayer).
• Ribosomes
• Nucleus
• Nucleolus
• Chromatin
• Centrosomes (Centrioles)
• Lysosomes
• Microvilli ( sing. Microvillus)
• Peroxisomes (or microbodies)

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Animal Cell Structure Animal Cell Structure

Cell membrane
• Cell membrane has transmembrane proteins, which are embedded in the membrane but Cytoplasm
stick out on both sides. Some of these proteins are receptors which bind to signal • Cytoplasm refers to the fluid that fills the
molecules, while others are ion channels which are the only means of allowing ions into or cell, which includes the cytosol along with
out of the cell. filaments, proteins, ions and
• In addition, the cell membrane contains glycolipids and sterols. One important sterol is macromolecular structures as well as the
cholesterol, which regulates the fluidity of the cell membrane in animal cells. When there organelles suspended in the cytosol.
is less cholesterol, membranes become more fluid, but also more permeable to • The living contents of a cell excluding the
molecules. The amount of cholesterol in the membrane helps maintain its permeability so nucleus and large vacuoles.
that the right amount of molecules can enter the cell at a time, not too many or too few. • Many biochemical processes take place here,
e.g., glycolysis, protein synthesis.
• The cytoplasm is unusual because it is unlike
any other fluid found in the physical world.

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Animal Cell Structure Animal Cell Structure

Mitochondria Mitochondria…
• They are a double membrane structure. The • The process of cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria. During this process,
outer membrane is smooth, but the inner sugars and fats are broken down and energy is released in the form of adenosine
membrane is folded inwardly to form triphosphate (ATP). ATP powers all cellular processes, and mitochondria produce a
extended projections called cristae. cell’s ATP, so mitochondria are commonly known as “the powerhouse of the cell”.
• The two membranes produce two inner • The aerobic steps of respiration occur here – Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport
compartments, the inter-membrane space
System.
between the outer and inner membranes and
the region enclosed by the inner membrane, • The quantity of mitochondria within cells varies with the type of cell. Liver, muscle
called the matrix. and nerve cells are rich in mitochondria. Bone and fat cells have low numbers of
• Some of the steps of cellular respiration occur mitochondria.
in the matrix of the mitochondrion. Thus,
there are many enzymes found in the matrix
as well as on the inner membrane.

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Animal Cell Structure Animal Cell Structure

• Golgi Apparatus
– called the "post office" of the cell or "packaging organelle"
because it plays a role in transporting proteins. • Microvilli ( sing. Microvillus)
– It is usually connected to an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) – Microvilli are finger-like projections on the outer-surface of
because it stores and then transports the proteins the cell.
produced in the ER
– Not all cells have microvilli. Their function is to increase the
surface area of the cell, which is the area through which
• Lysosomes diffusion of materials both into, and out of, the cell is
– Lysosomes are tiny sacs filled with digestive or hydrolytic possible.
enzymes that enable the cell to utilize its nutrients.
• Centrosomes (Centrioles)
– These hydrolases break down nucleotides, proteins, lipids, – The centrosomes contain the centrioles, which are
phospholipids, and also remove carbohydrate, sulfate, or responsible for cell-division. Centrioles divide to form spindle
phosphate groups from molecules. fibers during cell division.
– Responsible for ‘cell death’ – burst to carry out ‘autolysis’. – Centrioles are cylindrical structures that are composed of
groupings of microtubules arranged in a 9 + 3 pattern. The
– Single membrane structure pattern is so named because a ring of nine microtubule
"triplets" are arranged at right angles to one another.
– Centrioles replicate during the interphase stage of mitosis
and meiosis.

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Animal Cell Structure Animal Cell Structure

• Nucleus
– The nucleus contains DNA (genetic information), which
is organized into chromatin. When the cell prepares
to divide, the chromatin begins to condense into Nucleolus
recognizable structures called chromosomes. However,
– A region (in the nucleus) of densely
chromatin is not only composed of DNA. It also
contains histone proteins that organize the DNA. stained fibers and granules adjoining
– One of the main functions of the nucleus is to control chromatin. The nucleolus is
the production of proteins in the cell. responsible for the cell organelles (e.g.
• Nuclear Membrane lysosomes, ribosomes, etc.).
– The nuclear membrane separates the nucleus and the – In the nucleolus, rRNA is synthesized
nucleolus from the rest of the contents of the cell. • Chromatin
and assembled with proteins from the Ribosomes
– The nuclear membrane is a double membrane. In this – Chromatin is the very fine thread-like
membrane, there are holes, called nuclear pores, combinations of DNA and protein in cytoplasm to form ribosomal subunits. • Site of protein synthesis.
which regulate the passage of materials into and out non-dividing nuclei. The protein assists The subunits pass from the nuclear
of the nucleus. in the efficient packaging and pores to the cytoplasm where they
• Ribosomes interpret cellular
regulation of DNA activity. A human combine to form ribosomes. information from the nucleus
nucleus contains 46 such fine threads of
chromatin.
and so synthesize appropriate
proteins, as required.

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Animal Cell Structure Animal Cell Structure

• Peroxisomes (also called microbodies) • Centrosomes (Centrioles)
– Membrane-bound vesicles containing oxidative enzymes that generate and destroy hydrogen peroxide. They – The centrosomes contain the centrioles, which are responsible for cell-division. Centrioles divide to form
are involved in the catabolism of very long chain fatty acids, branched chain fatty acids, D-amino acids and spindle fibers during cell division.
polyamines. – Centrioles are cylindrical structures that are composed of groupings of microtubules arranged in a 9 +
– Other known peroxisomal functions include the glyoxylate cycle in germinating seeds ("glyoxysomes"), 3 pattern. The pattern is so named because a ring of nine microtubule "triplets" are arranged at right angles
photorespiration in leaves, glycolysis in trypanosomes ("glycosomes"), and methanol and/or amine to one another.
oxidation and assimilation in some yeasts. – Centrioles replicate during the interphase stage of mitosis and meiosis.

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Animal Cell Structure

Plant Cell
• Endoplasmic Reticulum(ER)
– Single membrane structure. The membrane of the ER is
organized into a network of membranous tubules and sacs called
cisternae.
– The endoplasmic reticulum is where proteins and lipids are
produced within the cell, and is also concerned with the
transport of these materials within the cell.
– The smooth and rough regions of the ER are interconnected.
– Rough ER (RER): "Rough" indicates that there are ribosomes
attached to the surfaces of the endoplasmic reticulum. The RER
is in fact an extension of the outer nuclear membrane. Functions
of the RER include anchorage of newly synthesize proteins, and
the finishing of proteins
– Smooth ER (SER): "Smooth" indicates that there are no
ribosomes attached to the surfaces of the endoplasmic
reticulum. It is a network of pipe-like interconnected tubes.
Functions of the SER include synthesis of lipids, processing of
sugars, and detoxification of drugs and poisons

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Plant Cell Structure

Plant Cells – Structural Differences Cell Wall
• Plant cells have a thick (4-20um) cell wall which composed of
cellulose, Hemi-cellulose, pectin and lignin molecules.
• Cell Wall • It provides strength to the plant. Visible under light microscope.

• Plasma membrane
• Plasmodesmata
• Vacuole
• Microtubules
• Chloroplasts

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Plant Cell Structure

Cell Wall
Plasmamembrane
• Structure and Property: • also called the plasmalemma.
– Cell Wall is a thick, rigid structure of around 4-20um wide and is visible under light • Structure: It is a delicate, thin structure of
microscope; Cell wall does not have receptors. around 5-10nm wide and is visible under
– it is present in plant cell, bacterial, algae and fungal cell, helps in providing shape and electron microscope, and it is present in all
rigidity to the cell. types of cell, helps in the passage of molecules
– Metabolically Inactive and non-living. and protects the protoplasm.
• Composition: • Composition: Made up of lipids and proteins
– Made up of cellulose (plant cell), chitin (fungi), and peptidoglycan (bacteria). and carbohydrates.
• Functions • Functions:
– Cell wall provides rigidity to the cell, protect the cell from external shock and other – The plasma membrane is flexible enough to move
mechanical forces. closer to or away from the cell wall - according to
changes in the water content of the cytoplasm
– It is responsible for cell morphology.
within the cell.
– It prevents large molecule to enter into the cell. – As a differentially-permeable surface, the plasma
– Also, prevent the cell from being toxic. membrane controls movement of solutes in and
– Helps in maintaining the osmotic environment of the cell. out of the cell.

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Plant Cell Structure Plant Cell Structure

Plasmodesmata Vacuole
• Structure: Plasmodesmata (singular, plasmodesma) are tiny strands of • A cell's vacuole can occupy a large proportion of
cytoplasm that pass through pores in plant cell walls, forming "connections" or the total volume of the cell - e.g. 90% of the
"pathways“ between adjacent cells. volume of some mature plant cells.
• A majority of plasmodesmata also contain a narrow tube-like structure called the • Each vacuole is enclosed by a vacuolar
desmotubule, which is derived from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of the membrane called the tonoplast.
connected cells. • Contents of the vacuole:
• Function: – Cell sap, which is a solution of salts, sugars and
– These cell-cell connections are especially important for the survival of plant cells organic acids.
during conditions of drought. – Enzymes needed for recycling components of
– They allow certain molecules to pass directly from one cell to another and are important in cells, e.g. chloroplasts.
cellular communication. – Anthocyanins are sometimes present in cell
vacuoles. These are chemical pigments
responsible for some of the (non-green) colours of
glowers, e.g. reds, blues, purples.

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Plant Cell Structure Plant Cell Structure

Microtubules • Chloroplasts
– Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis and double
• Microtubules are hollow rope-like membrane structure.
structures composed of the protein – These two membranes create a thin inter-membrane
space between the membranes, and a larger space
tubulin. surrounded by the inner membrane.
– Within the larger space is another membrane system
• They facilitate addition of cellulose to arranged into flattened sacs called thylakoids. The
cell wall thylakoids are surrounded by a fluid called the stroma.
– The thylakoid membranes contain chlorophyll and other
• They form the spindles and cell plates of photosynthetic pigments arranges in photosystems,
dividing cells together with stalked particles, and is the site of
photosynthesis and ATP synthesis
• They play a role in cytoplasmic – Chloroplasts are very important parts of plant cells.
Some cells include up to 50 chloroplasts.
streaming (i.e. moving the fluid
– The number of chloroplasts per cell varies according to
cytoplasm within the cell) e.g. to/from the type of cell and its function. They are plentiful in leaf
cells that receive sunlight - as opposed to root cells that
chloroplasts. do not receive light.

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Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

Property Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Size Small Cells ( < 5µm) Larger cells ( > 10 µm)

Cell type Always unicellular Often multicellular

Nucleus No clear membrane bound nucleus present Clean membrane bound nucleus present

Organelles No membrane bound organelles Membrane bound organelles presents such as ER,
present like ER, Golgi complex, mitochondria Golgi bodies, mitochondria etc.
etc.

DNA DNA is circular, without proteins DNA is linear and associated with proteins to form
chromatin

Ribosomes Ribosomes are small ( 70S type) Ribosomes are large ( 80S type)

Cytoskeleton No Cytoskeleton Always has a cytoskeleton

Motility Motility by rigid rotating flagellum Motility by flexible waving cilia or flagella
(made up of flagillin) (made up of tubulin )

Cell division Cell division is by binary fission Cell division by mitotic or meiosis

Reproduction Reproduction is always asexual Reproduction is sexual or asexual

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