A Comprehensive Guide

to Language and
Structural Features
Written Texts
Language Features
Feature Definition and Example General Effects Sample Analysis of Feature in Action

Alliteration, Repetition of consonant sounds at the Adds emphasis, draws attention to The author makes the setting hum and sing with the
Assonance and beginning of words (alliteration) e.g. certain parts of a text. Can be more repetition of consonant sounds e.g. “boundaries blur
consonance “The fair breeze blew, the white foam memorable, thus effective in speeches as tapioca fences take root and bloom” and “slanting
flew” or at any point in the words where audience has to process info silver ropes slammed into loose earth”. These sound
(consonance) e.g. “He struck a streak quickly. Pleasant to the ear, adding effects, in conjunction with the imagery, emphasise the
of bad luck.” lyricism and poetry to a piece. wild, untamed beauty of the place.
Depending on whether the repeated
Repetition of vowel sounds (assonance) sound is hard or soft – can create a
e.g. “From the molten-golden notes.” sense of beauty, peace and harmony or
jarring noise and heavy rhythm.

Analogy Comparison of something complex or Purpose of explanation or clarification. The ‘ecology’ analogy communicates the perspective
unfamiliar to something simpler or more Makes difficult concepts or scenarios that success is shaped as much by external
familiar e.g. “The structure of an atom is more accessible. contingencies as by internal characteristics and
like a solar system. The nucleus is the capability. A forest ecosystem is compared to and
sun, and electrons are the planets offered as a stand in for our social and economic
revolving around their sun.” system - people are like seeds; success like growth;
and the number of social and cultural factors out there
to trip us up are humorously like rabbits and
lumberjacks. It is a neat and tidy comparison, which
reduces the daunting complexities of meritocracy to
the seemingly simple functioning of a forest.

Aphorism (or Maxim) A pithy expression of a general Appeals to the ordinary or everyday Text 1 uses the familiar aphoristic saying, “Pride goeth
principle, rule or truth. A saying, truism person through use of lay or common before the fall” to indict Trump for his rank arrogance
or adage e.g. “actions speak louder sense. These sayings are universally and imply that his inflated sense of his own abilities
than words” or “a friend in need is a accepted, it is hard to argue with an may in fact lead to errors and trouble for the nation.
friend indeed.” adage used over many, many years.
Gives an ‘earthy’ or simple wisdom to
an argument or perspective.

Assertion A confident and forceful statement of Implies strength, certainty and passion. The speaker uses assertion to project assurance of his
fact or belief e.g. “The government must The lack of hedging or qualification in perspective. His statement, “Shutting down schools is
apologise to Indigenous Australians such statements may inspire the best course of action” presents the need for school
because it has done them wrong, and confidence in the presented information closures as a fact rather than a matter of opinion.
because the nation must be healed.” or perspective.
Allusion (Historical, Indirect or passing references to the Connotations/associations of the thing In his speech, Stan Grant makes a number of
Literary, Biblical, historical record, highly regarded texts being alluded to are transferred to the references to Australian history, including recounts of
Cultural) or shared recent experiences e.g. “Why people, events, issues being discussed traumas suffered by his own Wiradjuri ancestors –
are you always such a Scrooge?” or or addressed. Requires a basic appropriation of land, extermination of whole peoples,
“His lies slowly unraveled like understanding of the events, people, division of families. This inspires horror at and
Watergate.” literature being referred to e.g. sympathy for the things his people have had to endure.
references to Pandora’s Box describe The harsh reminder about the ugly reality of race
unexpected consequences of impulsive relations in Australia may also rouse some guilt for
action; David and Goliath references White listeners.
signal a battle between the powerful
and an underdog; Nazi Germany is
often used to imply certain ideologies or
systems may be dangerous.
Concession Acknowledging that some alternate Implies balanced thought and judgment. The concession towards the end of the opinion column
views or positions are correct e.g. “I In making a concession, the writer or suggests a lack of bias and the author’s consideration
know that any time we send troops into speaker demonstrates that they have of all sides. In accepting that there are costs to
harm’s way, it is a risk that some won’t considered the other side of the increased cyber-security measures, such as loss of
come back. However, innocent women argument and they understand it. privacy, the author appeals to reader’s fears, but
and children are being killed and we Wards off criticism of bias. trumps them by reminding us that fighting terrorism is
cannot stand idly by.” of greater concern.

Connotative Phrases or lexical choices with positive Subtle shaping of responses to the Text 1 uses connotative language to shape our
Language or negative implications. Includes things being described through inspiring responses to the perpetrator. Weinstein is labelled ‘a
pejorative phrases, ‘loaded language’ particular emotional and evaluative predator’, ‘a criminal’ and ‘a monster’. There is no
that evokes an idea or feeling e.g. “He responses. hiding behind legalities like, ‘the accused’ or ‘the
was cheap, a real miser with his defendant’, his guilt is presumed and reflected in the
money” versus “She was sensibly loaded language used.
frugal.”

Denigration Expression of disapproval, a belittling or Inspires negative emotions such as Text 1 denigrates George Bush and his staff, calling
abusive comment e.g. “He was a total anger, fear, disgust or contempt. the administration “a shameful disaster” and implying
buffoon.” that their response to 9/11 was incompetent and
destructive.
Diction/Lexical Purposeful selection of nouns, Formal language may evoke a sense of Badami’s struggle with a hybrid identity is represented
Choice adjectives, adverbs etc with particular refinement, technicality and in the varied lexical choices of the text. Badami’s voice
denotations and connotations. Some officiousness. Informality Consider the is a contrastive mix of Australianisms and Indianisms.
are concrete, others abstract. Some are differences between “let us commence” The combination of Aussie slang such as “bad sport”,
specific, others ambiguous. Some are versus “let’s start” “dead-leg” and “loll about” and Indian words such as
formal, others colloquial e.g. “Later “masala”, “puri atta”, and “Venkateshwara bhajjans”
guys, don’t forget to check out next represents the two sides of his identity.
week’s post!”
Direct Address When the speaker or writer Can operate two ways depending of The text directly addresses Scott Morrison and
communicates a message directly to tone of address. May be inclusive, demands an explanation from him. The questioning of
another individual or group- identified bringing the addressed into the fold and his motives and empathy is clear in the questions,
by name, nickname, the pronoun ‘you’, inviting them into an ‘in-group’ of sorts. “Where are you Scomo? How can you be safe on a
or an expression that’s either friendly or May be accusatory or reproving, laying beach in Maui while I sit here on a shore sheltering
unfriendly e.g. “You can make a change blame at someone’s door. from ash and flame?”
today, dear Reader.”

Emotive Language Choosing connotative words to appeal Rouses emotions such as empathy, The writer plays on the audience’s fears through
to the audience’s emotions. Emotive anger, fear, sadness, pity, disgust, emotive language that focuses on danger and chaos,
language requires that the specific hope, relief, love, optimism, sympathy. for example, “nightmare”, “horror”, “massacre”, “toxic”
connotations of the vocabulary be Emotive language is often involved in and “shattered”. In this instance, the audience is
emotionally evocative. Content or fearmongering and sensationalist positioned to feel upmost fear and terror about the
subject matter can be emotive, but this journalism and often relies on alarmist events that could potentially unfold and develop
alone is not enough to qualify as discourse. concern for their own safety.
emotive language. Consider the
difference between these two
descriptions, “the baby cried” and “the
baby sobbed in desperation.”

Epithet A characterizing word or phrase Most often to defame or abuse (e.g. Badami runs through a list of racial epithets he has
accompanying or occurring in place of racial epithets). Can be used ironically endured including but not limited to “coon, boong,
the name of a person or thing e.g. or satirically to mock. darkie, nig-nog”. We respond with horror that a child
“Peter the Great” or “Mr Philanthropy.” would be called such names consistently.

Erotesis (or A question asked in such a way that Asked in order to create a dramatic The editorial uses a string of rhetorical questions to pin
Rhetorical Question) implies an answer (because everyone effect or to make a point rather than to the (predominantly non-Aboriginal) audience under the
knows it) but does not actually give one get an answer. Rhetorical questions weight of several indirect accusations about our
or lead us to expect one e.g. “Why inspire reflection in the audience which ignorance on contemporary Indigenous issues. The
me?” or “Are we a nation that accepts may get them to think anew about a obvious answers to her questions discomfort the
the cruelty of ripping children from their topic or accept some culpability in an typical reader who may be ‘politically correct’ whilst
parents’ arms? Or are we a nation that issue or problem. Can be used to snap ignoring those battles that would actually have some
values families, and works to keep them us out of complacency. practical impact on quality of life for Aboriginal
together?” Australians.

Exhortation Emphatically urging someone to do Implies a sense of urgency. Also uses The speech represents an alarmist perspective on
something e.g. “You MUST take action direct address to identify those who climate change, presenting the issue as a dire
now. Before it is too late.” have responsibility and ability to take emergency threatening all human life and demanding
action on an issue or problem. wide-scale and official intervention. DiCaprio uses
exhortation to demand those present at the UN summit
to make changes in their respective countries, “Please,
it’s not too late.”
 Euphemism A mild or indirect word or expression Avoids discomfort for the audience. The company spokesman used the euphemism of
Figurative Language
substituted for one considered to be too May be used to disguise or obfuscate ‘downsizing’ for wide-scale firings in an attempt to limit
harsh or blunt when referring to difficult or worrying news. Can be used employees fears and soften the blow.
something unpleasant or embarrassing in a humorous manner such as with
e.g. “passed away“, “ethnic cleansing” sexual innuendo.
or “his daughter was in the family way.”
Hyperbole Exaggeration e.g. “We’re all being Implies something is better or worse, In describing the protagonist as “elephantine”, Text 1
brainwashed by TV” or “The city is more important or less important. May employs hyperbole to emphasise his weight and
overrun by criminals!” be used for humour or for straight physical grotesqueness. The reader reacts negatively,
emphasis. viewing him as a giant, lumbering, slow-witted animal.
Idiom An expression where meaning is not Like maxim, appeals to commonsense The text uses the maxim, “a stitch in time, saves nine”
predictable from the usual meanings of and works as an unquestionable truism. to compel early action on the virus outbreak. The
its constituent elements e.g. “Kick the Creates emphasis and is memorable. common-sense phrase expresses the benefits of being
bucket” or “At the drop of a hat” prepared and acting immediately.
Irony The expression of one's meaning by Often used to humorous effect, we The setting of Paradise Parade, where our Aboriginal
using language that normally signifies laugh at the incongruity of opposites in characters live, is ironically named. Built symbolically
the opposite, typically for humorous or the expression. May also be used more over an old abattoir and described as “two long rows of
emphatic effect e.g. “he enjoyed his job seriously to highlight inequities or housing commission flats, unregistered cars, busted
about as much as a root canal.” hypocrisy etc. prams and echoes of broken dreams, all crammed into
(There are many types of irony, such as our own special section of Woonona Beach”, the place
dramatic irony, we are focusing here on is obviously not suited to its idyllic title. We wince at
ironic language use) this attempt to paper over the marginalisation of
Indigenous Australians.
Metaphor A figure of speech that describes an Comparison to highlight certain qualities The writer uses a war metaphor to describe the US
object or action in a way that is not of the thing being described. May be a situation with regards to gun control. He identifies a
literally true but helps explain an idea or singular comparison or a series of “battle we must now win”; a “war at home” against an
make a comparison. States that one comparisons (extended metaphor). You increasingly violent and desensitised culture with too
thing IS another thing e.g. “the black need to understand the connotations of easily available combat weapons. He identifies a
sheep of the family” or “the witch the thing used in the metaphor e.g. a number of frontlines when he warns, “We have already
cackled at the clueless students as she witch is an evil woman, ugly with given up too much ground across America. We have
wrote the correct answer on the malintent who may delight in torturing already ceded too many schoolyards, shopping malls,
whiteboard.” children. movie theatres, and college campuses.” This highlights
the devastating violence experienced in past mass
shootings as well as the potential for greater losses.
Metonymy Metonymy is a figure of speech that Gives a vibrancy or concreteness to a The text refers to Lady Justice as a metonym for the
replaces the name of a thing with the label or description. Relatable and wider judicial system. This allows the writer to
name of something else with which it is easily remembered. personify justice and the character expresses how they
closely associated e.g. “The Crown” or feel betrayed by the system when he states, “So you
“The Whitehouse”. stand revealed at last, no longer my Justice. You are
his justice now, you have bedded another”.
 Oxymoron (or A seemingly absurd or contradictory Creates interest and emphasis through Zusak uses paradoxical imagery when describing
Paradox) statement or proposition which when defamiliarization and unsettling of Rosa’s face as “decorated with constant fury” in order
investigated may prove to be well expectations or preconceived notions. to emphasise the coexistence of light and dark within
founded or true e.g. “a wise fool” or “I humans. He turns a character flaw into something
am nobody.” beautiful and striking – a decoration.
Personification A figure of speech in which a thing – an Highlights animation – can be used to The liveliness of the setting is echoed in the
idea, an object or an animal – is given evoke a sense of beauty and liveliness personification of several of its natural elements.
human attributes e.g. “the sky wept” or but can also imply menace such as Bluebottle flies “hum vacuously”; bullfrogs are
“the fire attacked.” when an inanimate object is uncannily “hopeful”; the little house pulls its roof over its ears;
given motivations and desires. and small animals “whisper” in the garden. Nature here
is alive and powerful, pulsating with energy and at
times potential threat.
Simile A figure of speech that makes Operates the same way as metaphor. The text uses a simile when describing the man as
a comparison, showing similarities “cunning like a fox.” This comparison highlights his
between two different things. Unlike sneakiness and ability to weasel out of difficult
a metaphor, draws resemblance with situations and avoid being caught or blamed.
the help of words “like” or “as.” Thus, it
is a direct comparison e.g. “she was like
the wind” or “as strong as an ox.”
Symbolism Where a concrete object (a tangible Used for impact as audiences can A gun is used as a symbol for violence in the short
thing that may be held or seen) is used imagine and visualize concrete objects. story. It has a real presence and threat because the
to represent an abstract (an idea or We can only think theoretically, reader is reminded of its destructive potential as the
emotion) e.g. a dove representing academically or philosophically about character moves it nervously from one hand to
peace or a birdcage representing ‘ideas.’ another.
captivity.
Understatement A statement that describes something Downplays. May be used humorously The text employs understatement to disguise the
in a way that makes it seem less or to disguise the impact or seriousness social impact of the budget cuts. By describing welfare
important, serious, bad etc than it really of something. Similar to euphemism in reductions as a ‘capping’ of payments suggests both
is e.g. “losing her job was an its effects. that benefits were too high before and that the new
‘inconvenience’.” amounts will not unduly affect pensioners.
Generalisation Broad statements inferred from specific Implies totality and ignores exceptions The speaker uses a sweeping generalisation about the
cases e.g. “It is clear from the evidence to the rule. Implies a black and predatory nature of men. It wrongly ignores the many
that all girls benefit from single-sex whiteness and certainty which aids the males that do not objectify women or treat them as
classes.” argument or perspective presented. sexual objects in order to suggest the ever-present
threat of harassment to women.
Idiomatic (or Use of idioms, colloquialisms and slang. Appeals to the ordinary citizen or The colloquial language of 10-year-old Bobby in the
Colloquial) Informality in language choices e.g. ‘everyman’. Can make speaker, writer short story emphasises his youth. This is particularly
Language “Tax increases are a hot potato” or character more relatable or imply important at the beginning of the story where a
something of age or status. Creates an coming-of-age protagonist begins to move from a state
air or informality and friendliness. of immaturity towards adulthood.
Imagery Vivid descriptions that appeal to the Provides vibrancy and colour to The imagery used to describe the Tyger revolves
senses (olfactory, auditory, visual, descriptions and offers an immersive around fire and intense light. The first lines of the
kinesthetic, gustatory) e.g. “the air smelt experience for readers where they poem create a strong visual of a glowing animal
of brine and the cresting waves broke imagine themselves in a place, time or radiating sinewy, dangerous life. Such imagery gives
on the sandy shore with a roar.” event. Connotation can be key here too. both a menacing quality to the Tyger as well as
reinforcing its astonishing appearance.

Inclusive Language Use of inclusive personal pronouns Positions us to feel as though the writer Obama employs the plural pronoun of ‘we’ to great
such as ‘we’, ‘ours’ and ‘us’ e.g. “This is is one of us, on our side, and gives us a effect in his speech and most notably in his refrain,
our problem to solve and we can do it if sense that they are someone we can ‘yes we can’. This language works to include listening
we work together as a society.” relate to. Often encourages a sense of audience members not only in an exciting swell of
accountability and responsibility – current political feeling and action but also in a long
audience comes to view themselves as history of American patriotism and exceptionalism. By
part of something (a movement, a repeating the short inclusive phrase with increasing
problem, a society). frequency, Obama builds to a dramatic climax and
offers the audience an easy chant through which they
may identify themselves as part of the nation’s great
tradition of freedom fighting and democratic reform.

Jargon Specific words and terminology used by Used to heighten perceived ‘expertise’ The jargonistic expression in Text 1establishes the
specific groups and fields such as and knowledgeability of speaker or credibility of the writer to speak on the issue of climate
medical or scientific jargon e.g. writer. When in academic or change. The piece is littered with scientific lingo such
“Estimates of breast cancer professional publications it is used for as “acidification”, “feedback loop” and “glacial
overdiagnosis after adjusting for specificity. In more widely disseminated advance”; all of which give us a clear sense of their
increased cancer incidence in women texts it may be included simply to knowledge of the subject inspiring trust in their
under 40 years of age ranged between ‘impress’. perspective.
16% and 28% when including ductal
carcinomas in situ.”

Anaphora Repetition of a word or phrase at the Emphasis through repetition. Creates a The use of anaphora in the speech emphasises the
Syntax

beginning of successive clauses e.g. “I sense of symmetry and musicality different ways in which ‘We can…’ be involved in
came, I saw, I conquered” or “Every (particularly useful in speeches and bettering the nation. The repetition also highlights
day, every night, in every way. I am poetry). Can be used to create rhythm. Obama’s skills as an orator and allows the audience to
getting better and better.” follow on with ease.

Antithesis Parallel structures of contrastive Draws attention to difference. By Neil Armstrong famously said when walking on the
phrases or clauses e.g. “Give every drawing contrasts together it makes moon, “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap
man thy ear, but few thy voice” or “To their differences more vivid and for mankind.” The use of contrasting ideas, “a small
err is human; to forgive divine” emphatic. Aids in formulating step” and “a giant leap” emphasizes the significance of
judgements on the situations and one of the biggest landmarks of human history.
issues described.
Declarative Statement e.g. “There are five million Operates the same way as assertion. Text 1 ends with a sharp declarative statement, “The
sentence people at risk” or “I am no wine age of the predatory male is over”, which forcefully
connoisseur, but I know what I like” sums up the successes of the #metoo era. It allows no
room for doubt and also serves as a warning for the
harassers of the past – your time is up.

Exclamatory Exclamation, a sudden cry or remark Emphasis. Expresses strong emotions The short exclamation at the start of the chapter, “Look
sentence accompanied by an exclamation mark such as surprise, joy, or horror. May be out!”, jolts the reader into paying attention and evokes
e.g. “We’re all going to die!” used in conjunction with hyperbole. a sense of shock and surprise, connecting us to the
character experiencing the action.

Fragmented A group of words that resembles a Creates a sense of incompleteness. The use of fragmented sentences in this part of the
sentence sentence, starting with a capital letter Could be used to imply broken, story establishes the narrator’s disordered state-of-
and ending with terminal punctuation; interrupted or disordered thought mind after his enormous discovery and brings the
however, it is neither an independent processes such as in stream-of- reader into a seemingly whispered or rushed revelation
clause nor a complete idea. Bits of the consciousness writing. When used of a terrible secret (a ‘quick, before someone hears’
sentence are missing e.g. “Small repeatedly may convey a sense of feel).
sounds. A far sheep, faint barking.” urgency.

Imperative Command e.g. “Do it”, “Think about it” Call to action. Forceful address of the The advertisement ends with a clear imperative, “Buy
sentence or “Take some action, now.” audience. Implies strength and now!” This creates a sense of urgency and works to
purpose. May be used to instruct or spur potential buyers into quick consumer action.
advise.

Interrogative Questions e.g. “Why don’t we listen to Operates the same way as erotesis. The spattering of interrogatives throughout the
sentence science?” character’s dialogue as he confronts his cheating
partner expresses his confusion and disbelief at her
betrayal. He clearly depended upon her loyalty and
struggles to process his miscalculation.

Parallelism Repetition of the same grammatical Like anaphora, creates emphasis Martin Luther King uses parallelism to create rhythm
(Parallel construction in a sentence or sentences through repetition as well as a sense of and flow and to emphasise his conviction that America
construction) e.g. “Every time you smile at someone, symmetry, rhythm and musicality. will see a brighter future. Through the repeated parallel
it is an action of love, a gift to that structure of “I have a dream that one day…’ he
person, a beautiful thing.” communicates his vision for America, where black and
white children join hands and where all men are truly
created equal. These key phrases mark the speech as
hopeful, optimistic and inspiring. King’s dream for the
future is the important focus of the speech, not his
criticisms of the past or the present. The repetition also
encourages the audience to share in the dream,
perhaps saying the very words along with him.
 Periodic A sentence is a form of complex Builds suspense or anticipation in the During the climax of the narrative, the author uses a
Syntax
sentence sentence, beginning with a dependent reader's mind by delaying the reveal of string of periodic sentences to build tension and delay
clause(s) and ending with an the subject until the conclusion of the its final release. The periodic sentences force us to
independent clause e.g. “His sentence. Can help to establish pace focus on the bodily sensations of the sniper and his
confidence broken, his limbs shaking, and rhythm. sense of unease more than the actions he takes.
his collar wet with perspiration, he
doubted whether he could ever again
appear before an audience.”

Simple A sentence consisting of only one Simple, direct, concise communication. The simple sentences of the young narrator convey his
sentence clause (subject, verb, object) May be used to imply the simplicity or immaturity and childish perspective. He views and
youth of a character’s voice and describes the world in terms of black and white
thought. Influences the rhythm of a text, concretes and struggles to comprehend its complexity
operating as a short, sharp and unpredictability. His world, as he sees it, is
‘punctuation’ or pause when in a run of predictable and safe.
complex sentences. Impact and
emphasis.
Triadic Three parallel words, phrases or Has rhetorical weight, creates a sense Text 1 gives us a list of three benefits to keep cups.
Sentence clauses e.g. “I require three things in a of symmetry and completeness. It is the This tricolon serves as an effective building of
(Tricolon) man. He must be handsome, ruthless, briefest way to demonstrate a pattern evidence in support of the writer’s point of view and
and stupid” or “You are talking to a man (two being mere coincidence). emphasises to the reader what they have to personally
who has laughed in the face of death, Emphatic and memorable. Often used gain with this small-scale environmental measure.
sneered at doom, and chuckled at in humour – set up expectation with 1
catastrophe” and 2, disrupt with the third.

Structural Features
Feature Description Sample Analysis of Feature in Action
Building to a climax Typical of narrative texts where a complication is introduced and The narrative builds to a climax in a typically linear way. Our protagonist
characters work towards its resolution. The sense that a text is makes a number of failed attempts to overcome his social anxiety and
moving towards a climax can create a sense of tension and shyness, each time coming closer and closer to talking to the ‘girl-next-
drama and engage the reader. The main point or central idea is door of his dreams’. With each increasingly forward or courageous act,
usually encapsulated towards the end of the text. the reader becomes more emotionally invested and begins to hope more
and more for his eventual success.

Call to Action Persuasive texts often conclude with the writer/speaker asking After detailing the insidious nature of alcoholism in our society through
for action or change. Final step structurally – texts first motivate facts, statistics and anecdotes, Text 1 moves finally to its ‘call to action’.
the audience through a number of points that demonstrate the Readers are asked to start tabulating their weekly drinks and setting
existence, breadth and impact of a problem before mobilising weekend limits to curb binge episodes. These final suggestions give
the audience into taking steps to resolve it. rattled readers a direction and purpose for rectifying any issues they may
have identified.
Cause and Effect A text, or part of a text, can be built around a movement from a Text 1 adopts a cause and effect structure implying that the causality
cause to an effect e.g. “The composition of the workforce is between increased emissions and increasing weather events is
rapidly becoming more diverse. Business models are having to unquestionable fact. Each paragraph sets up a connection between
adapt this change.” irresponsible human activity and climate changes – the end result is a
clear chain leading us to cataclysmic conditions such as fire and floods.
Circular Structure An idea, image or example in the opening of a text may be The feature article returns to our focaliser, Sally Hamm, in the
returned to at the end. Gives a sense of completeness, a tying conclusion. Once again we find her in her kitchen, as we did in the lead,
up of loose ends. but this time she is less distressed and looking forward to the future. This
gives us a sense of hope that the issue of domestic violence is slowly
being addressed.
Comparison and Structure that systematically explores similarities and differences Text 1 is organized around the contrast between China’s collectivist and
Contrast between two ideas, environments, characters, approaches etc. America’s individualistic values. Differences between the families from
Contrast between two things can be developed over a whole text New York and Beijing are constantly highlighted from simple daily rituals
as a binary opposition where each thing is defined in contrast to to interpersonal dynamics and social rules. Ultimately, there is some
the other e.g. masculine versus feminine or natural versus privileging of the respect and sense of duty at the heart of China’s
artificial. Many texts may also include a character or situation ideological approach.
that ultimately breaks down such binary structures (the grey in
an otherwise black and white world).
In Media Res Beginning a narrative in the very middle of its action from some The short story begins in the thick of the action, with a punch about to
vital point. The author then freely moves backward and forward, land on the protagonist’s jaw. Not only does this nonlinear narrative
connecting the dots of the story. All the explanations regarding structure grab our attention and evoke shock and concern immediately,
the significance of setting, plot, characters and the minutiae of but it sets the tone for the background about to be revealed,
the story are gradually revealed in the form of a character’s foregrounding the destructive power of rumours and gossip.
dialogues or thoughts, or flashbacks. Grabs the reader’s
attention and inspires questions in their mind, creating suspense
and tension. Readers have a strong desire to know the
preceding as well as the succeeding events from the very
beginning.
Introductions and Ideas included at the start and the end are always significant. Text 1 uses direct address of the reader in both its lead and closing
Conclusions The use of a lead paragraph may capture attention, a conclusion paragraphs. While the body of the text explores the environmental
should be used to give the reader ‘food for thought’. Based on impacts of landfill and benefits of recycling broadly, the introduction and
the primacy and recency effects – we are more likely to conclusion work to compel the reader to reflect upon their own role in this
remember things at the start and end of a piece. growing problem and hopefully take action in their own homes.

Linear narrative Narrative starts at the beginning (exposition), introduces a The linear narrative structure of the text implies that life is predictable
conflict for the protagonist and then builds tension to a climax and orderly. The character’s evolution flows easily from start to finish and
through a series of actions designed to overcome said conflict. chronology remains intact with no flashbacks etc. This gives us a sense
Followed by a denouement or resolution where loose ends are that the world around us is structured and measurable.
tied up or the audience is left with a sense of the character’s
future. May include a ‘twist-in-the-tail’ ending.
Paragraphing Ideas may be developed per paragraph or extended over more Cowan’s ‘School’ uses paragraphing to create a tripartite structure. Each
than one. Paragraph breaks create pauses. Short paragraphs paragraph represents a shift in setting and mood. We move from a short
are often used for emphasis, surprise or tension. Longer harsh paragraph about a classroom that oppresses our protagonist to a
paragraphs can slow the rhythm of a text down and even create long lovingly-detailed paragraph about his rural home and back again.
a sense of monotony or languidity. Microfiction may use The implication is that his life is full and meaningful when on the farm but
paragraphs to shift moods, settings, or points of views. alienating when at school.
Problem-Solution Many texts begin by setting up a problem, often in the form of a The problem-solution structure of Text 1 helps to highlight the possibility
question, and then showing the reader the solution to the of and need for social action on the issue of casual racism, something
problem. Implies that action can and should be taken. which has often been considered intractable or ‘unsolvable’ because it
cannot be policed or legislated against.
Recursion, Returning to an earlier point to re-emphasise something, Text 1 continually returns to the words of its focaliser, Mary Williams.
repetition illustrate it in a different manner or show how it is true in different Facts about the breadth and social cost of gambling are interspersed
ways. Used for emphasis or continuity. with her quotes to remind us that this issue has a real impact on real
people.
Subheadings Breaking a text into section through formatting and headings e.g. The short story uses the names of each character as a subheading to
question/answer formats of leaflets and brochures. Establishes a introduce the part in the narrative told from their point of view. This works
clear sense of order. Used for clarity. to remind us that ‘truth’ is subjective and that perspectives often differ.

Generic Features of Narrative Texts

Feature Definition General Effects Sample Analysis of Feature in Action
Antagonist The force within a narrative (most often Antagonists will represent certain In contrast to Batman, who stands for justice and
a character), which opposes the values, ideas, and groups. Often control, the Joker represents a certain unhinged
protagonist thus providing conflict. May represented negatively to highlight the egotism. Where Batman makes decisions in order to
be a villain, but is sometimes far more protagonist’s aspirational qualities serve Gotham and the greater good; the Joker acts
complex. through contrast. impulsively and for his own pleasure and gain.
Binary Oppositions A system of black and white contrasts Binary oppositions are often built up to The novel initially establishes a clear contrast
built structurally throughout a narrative be torn down. These contrasts may be between the soft, emotional femininity of Elisabeth
(usually an extended narrative). These deconstructed over the course of the and the hard, logical masculinity of John. However,
oppositions are often naturalized and narrative and some ‘grey’ areas when we leave our characters this opposition has
unquestioned in our society e.g. the introduced in order to question our shifted somewhat. Elisabeth now reacts to John’s
contrast between masculine and societal understandings of ideas, issues sadness with a cold disdain. This encourages the
feminine, reason and emotion, natural and values (e.g. are masculinity and reader to question whether the relationship between
and artificial. femininity naturally distinct or are these women and emotion is as natural and universal as
merely social constructs?) society tells us.
Characterisation The construction of a character’s Characters represent certain values, Our hero’s strength is emphasised by the imposing
personality, history and manner through ideas and worldviews. The way in which sword he carries with him wherever he goes. The
action, appearance, dialogue, narrative they are characterised (sympathetically blade represents his (and our own) ability to take
commentary, symbolic objects, setting or negatively) alters the reader’s control and defend ourselves with ferocity and agency
and other character’s reactions. response to those values etc. whenever it is required.
Conflict The challenge the protagonists must Symbolic – representing real issues, Sam’s conflict with the bullies of her school represents
overcome in order to achieve their conflicts and clashes within society. the way in which we all struggle to find a voice and to
goals. Conflict can be external or Engages the reader. Resolution of the feel free enough to embrace our differences. Sam’s
internal with characters finding conflict creates closure or fulfillment and eventual confrontation with her nemesis, Jane,
themselves in conflict with other will work to privilege certain approaches reminds us that we all have the power to stand up for
characters, with their environment or and suggest things about the nature of ourselves and that sometimes it is easier than we
within themselves. our world and people within it. think.

Dialogue Conversation between two or more Reveals character and relationships, Donald’s dialogue is measured, monotonous and
people as a feature of a narrative. moves plot along, provides ‘exposition’ – entirely reflective of the language used by The
backstory, setting and contextual details. Institution, which governs with an iron fist. Reader’s
Formality, syntax and vocabulary can all ‘hear’ the power and reach of The Institution and
be crucial in defining a character and Donald’s desperate attempts to conform.
shaping our response to them.

Foreshadowing Advance hints of what is to come in a Creates suspense and helps the reader A sense of lurking doom is established through
narrative, often at the beginning (e.g. develop expectations about the coming constant references to the gun mounted on the
foreshadowing a major earthquake events of the story. May also be used to father’s wall. The reader’s attention is drawn to the
through characters dismissing minor imply something about the idea of weapon time and time again, giving a clear sense that
disruptions or tremors). inevitability or the human tendencies it will be used to tragically end all the chaos.
toward denial or inaction.

Point of view The perspective from which a story is Point of view ultimately shapes the The use of first person narration connects us with the
told. May be first person (‘I’); second relationship between the reader and the protagonist and encourages us to feel his fears as the
person (‘you’); or third person (‘he/she’). characters and narrative events. First world around him becomes confusing and unsettled.
Third person may also be objective person point of view will encourage Through his narration we feel his discomfort and are
(giving no insight into the internal lives intimacy and connection between the reminded of what it is like to suddenly find ourselves
of characters), limited (providing insight reader and the narrator (Third person alone in a strange situation with none of the usual
into the internal workings of one limited has a similar effect). Second supports we take for granted.
character), or omniscient (giving insight person makes the reader feel involved
into the internal workings of more than as a character. Third person objective
one character). establishes distance between the reader
and what is described. Third person
omniscient may be used link the reader
with a number of characters.

Protagonist The main character of a narrative who Forms the lens through which we As the protagonist, Tess demands our sympathies.
drives the story forward by pursuing a experience and view the narrative world. We see the cruel world of Wessex through her eyes
goal. Comes from the Greek word for Will represent certain values, ideas, and and we feel the pain of her tragic ruin. Given we have
the principal actor in a drama. groups, which will be privileged because travelled with her throughout the narrative, we want to
the character is presented positively/ protect her and the girlish naivete she represents.
sympathetically.
Setting The time (temporal setting) and place May be used spatially, symbolically or The Outsiders uses setting to quite literally play out
(physical setting) in which a story takes atmospherically. Setting is key to the idiom of ‘the other side of the tracks’. The upper-
place. May be real or fictional. shaping the mood of a narrative and can class Socs and the disadvantaged Greasers live in
reflect the states and traits of a very different parts of the town which are clearly
character located within it. When a demarcated by the railway line. The greasers side
setting is based on a real time and being much less desirable of course. The two groups
place, it will encourage the reader to usually stick to their side of the tracks, and
think and feel particular ways about it. trespassing into rival territory can have very serious
Settings can be used to imply divisions and tragic consequences.
in society and to physically represent a
character’s journey or evolution.

Generic Features of Interpretive/Persuasive Texts

Feature Definition and Example General Effects Sample Analysis of Feature in Action
Anecdote Short little stories that involve the writer Used as illustration which makes the The opinion column begins with an effective anecdote
or somebody he/she knows e.g. “The topic more personal and relatable to the which colourful demonstrates how people can be
other day, I witnessed a shocking audience. Evidence to support a casually racist without facing censure or ostracism.
interchange on my morning bus ride…” perspective or argument. The joke made at the author’s dinner party is shocking
in its expression of clear prejudice, but the situation
described sadly also has the air of familiarity for many.

Case Studies Examples of people who the issue Similar in effect to anecdotes. Add The case study of Selma Blair is used to paint a vivid
being discussed has affected e.g. “Anne weight to an argument, colourful and picture of what it is like to experience a sexual assault.
Ball, 37, has been the victim of relatable demonstration of the issue in The details of her story highlight the ways in which
discrimination ever since she can action. victims feel vulnerable long after the initial attack and
remember…” unable to speak up for fear of retribution from a man
with more power than themselves. Additionally, the
graphic and violent nature of Toback’s reported threat
demonstrates the callous and predatory nature of
Toback and other offenders like him.
Expert Testimony Quotes and paraphrases from Reinforces central argument of the text Text 1 uses the expertise of Dean Yibarbuk to bolster
authorities and experts on a particular through adding credibility to the piece. its argument about the positives of natural burn-off
subject (i.e. professionals, famous People are more likely to believe and practices. As both an Aboriginal elder and a ranger
people) e.g. “Harvard professor, Dr trust those with qualifications in relevant who has been successfully managing a conservation
Smyth, suggests that fear is a powerful fields. site for years, Yibarbuk is clearly a credible source on
motivator in such scenarios…” this issue. Yibarbuk’s expertise and, by extension, the
text’s view are perhaps amplified by the audience’s
likely preconceptions about Aboriginal spirituality,
connection to land and simple wisdom.
Facts, Figures and Use of inarguable/demonstrable facts, Manipulates the connotations of and our The text utilises a number of statistics to demonstrate
Statistics numbers, probabilities, percentages, society’s trust in empiricism and science. the disturbing prevalence of domestic violence
graphs of infographics e.g. “1 in 5 We appreciate rationality and research. towards women and children. The fact that one
Australians will suffer from depression Statistics are used to demonstrate the woman is killed per week in Australia is particularly
or anxiety at some point in their magnitude (or the lack there of) of an alarming and conveys a sense of a developing social
lifetime.” issue, effect or result. Where anecdotes crisis. The way the text frames the statistic on women
and case studied demonstrate the being abused by their partners is particularly clever –
personal and individual, statistics ‘one in six’. Expressed as a percentage this number
demonstrate breadth and scope. may be underwhelming (17%), but worded as it is, the
statistic encourages a rather intimate and personally
reflective response – one in every six women I know
has been harmed by a partner? Who then, among my
friends or colleagues, may be a silent victim?

Humour Ridicule, lampooning, sarcasm, irony, Humour can be used to contribute to a The text playfully pokes fun at politicians who ‘spin’
satire, puns etc. particular tone, voice or persona. It may difficult situations to their advantages through carefully
also be used as relief during curated language calling them “linguistic gymnasts”
consideration of more serious matters. who avoid blame with the speed and skill of the
Humour can also be used satirically to Olympian, Nadia Comenici.
comment on society or criticise people
or approaches.

Interviews/Quotes Testimony from ordinary people, usually Makes issues relatable and personal. Interviews with victims of the ‘Black Saturday’
with some involvement or stake in the Demonstrates the ‘on-the-ground’ Bushfires put a human face on an event and issue
issue/event being explored. impact of social issues and makes us that may be quite distant for many of us living in urban
aware of what it is to live through centres. Through their testimony we are given a first-
particular incidents and difficulties. hand glimpse into what they have lost as well as their
stoic resilience. Their terrifying experiences
encourage us to view them positively as ‘Aussie
Battlers.’

Narrative Incursion When descriptions of people, events, or Quite common in the opening of The narrative incursion in the opening of the article
incidents are rendered using narrative nonfiction texts as the writer ‘sets the introduces us to the focaliser, Dr John Lassiter.
techniques, including characterization, scene’ or ‘paints a picture’. It is often Readers are drawn into his world of medical
setting, conflict and tension e.g. “Liza used to engage and grab attention. emergencies and urgent decision making through the
Campbell enters the office like a cat Brings colour to nonfiction and immerses descriptions of Royal Perth Hospital. Similarly, we
stalking her prey. She glances at the the reader. come to see his calm and quick mind when he is
stock market indicators on the screen described as “a man with alert eyes and steady
above her desk as she assumes her hands.” All of this begins to give us a clear impression
place, ready to attach the day…” of how the medical system is dependent on people
like him.
 Pathos Appeals to the heart e.g. “we have Encourages action or a change of mind The text manipulates our emotions to inspire pity for
Rhetorical Appeals
always been a warmly welcoming and through important emotional reactions those caught in offshore detention centres like manus
diverse nation” or “we are on a tipping such as fear, guilt, responsibility, loyalty, Island. The conditions are described in miserable
point and if we don’t take action now we pride, tribalism, self-interest, detail with a focus on the pained facial expressions of
will never recover.” compassion, financial concerns, detainees and their innocent children.
modernity, fashion etc. Based on the
human desire to limit negative emotional
experiences.
Logos Use of facts, statistics, authorities and Appeals to our sense of rationality. Plays Text 1 works hard to capitalise on the audience’s well-
experts e.g. “The Australian Bureau of on our trust in institutions and established belief and trust in science and research.
Statistics tells us that 76% of voters empiricism. Makes arguments or His use of academic theory (such as Merton’s Self-
have already made up their mind.” perspectives seem well reasoned, well fulfilling Prophecy) and his reliance on data (often
researched and well evidenced. presented en masse in table form) demonstrate his
understanding of the high status of rationality and
empiricism in our world.

Ethos Construction of the speaker/writer as Inspires trust through demonstration of The post begins with an explanation of the blogger’s
credible e.g. “I have years of experience qualification as well as values and ethics experiences as a worker for the RSPCA
in constitutional law behind me and I’m shared by the audience. demonstrating their credentials and authority to speak
sure you can join me in celebrating our on the issue of animal cruelty.
victories as a democratic nation.”

Visual Texts
Language Features
Feature Description Sample Analysis of Feature in Action
Facial Combination of facial features to imply certain emotional, mental The figure in the centre of the frame has eyes widened and mouth agape
Body Language

Expression and physical states – e.g. smiles imply happiness, clenched as if in mid-scream, clearly indicating her shock and fear. Humour is
eyes and jaw imply pain, downturned mouth signals generated when this is compared to the amused facial expression of the
disappointment, bitten lip signals anxiety or uncertainty etc. prankster behind the door, his responsibility signalled by his smirk and
winking eye.
Gaze The direction in which figures within the frame are looking. Gaze The juxtaposition of their gazes reinforces the disproportionate power
may be intradiegetic (figures looking at others within the frame) relationship between the two figures – the woman’s gaze is confrontingly
or extradiegetic (figures looking outside of the frame, as if at the extradiegetic, boldly and unashamedly staring at the viewer, whilst the
viewer). Gaze implies relationship, status and power. The gaze man’s eyes are downcast, often a sign of defeat or despair. She clearly
of figures can influence the way we view them and determine has the upper hand in this scenario.
our imaginary relationship with them, e.g. if a figure is looking
directly at the camera, they turn the gaze around and challenge
the assumed right of the viewer to judge.
 Gesture Implied movement of arms, hands, legs, head etc. Gestures The movie poster depicts a coach with his hand reassuringly on the
may be self-directed, such as grooming gestures or those used football players back. The gesture appears as a pushing of the star
to show emotion, or may be directed at other participants in an player into the limelight to accept the applause of the crowd in the
act of control, attraction or defiance. Meaning is culturally background, implying that the coach is the ‘behind the scenes’ strength
determined. Chiefly signals emotions, reactions and compelling him on to this victory. This familiar picture of the champion
relationships. and his coach tells us that success requires the support of others.
Posture The ways in which depicted persons hold themselves. Posture The male figure’s posture conveys confidence and self-assurance. He
can signify power and social status and can denote ideas such stands tall with shoulders square, arms relaxed and legs casually and
as strength, dominance, defiance, independence, submission, gently bent. This is a man comfortable within his surroundings and the
thoughtfulness, invitation, passivity and dependence. It can presumably stressful situation depicted.
inform viewers about the status of individuals or the relationship
between subjects.
Camera Angle The angle at which the camera is placed in relationship to the In Text 1, the camera is positioned below the group of young rappers,
key subjects or focal points of an image. Camera angle reflects facing upwards as though the audience was looking up to them. This low
the way we associate power or importance with looking up or angle shot creates a sense of dominance around the young men, as
down. A high or ‘bird’s eye’ angle might encourage us to view a though they were surrounding a person on the street. At this angle the
subject as inferior, submissive, disempowered, weak or bodies of the men are nearly covering the entire frame, and with large
frightened. When we look up at someone from a camera buildings in the surroundings, it suggests that there is no chance of
positioned close to the ground, we often associate superiority, escaping.
dominance, power, importance or aggression with them. If we
view someone at eye level, it promotes feelings of equality, and
makes it easy for a viewer to relate with the figure.

Long Shot Distance shot in which a setting, and not a character, is the The close up shot of the girls face emotionally manipulates the viewer.
Camera Distance

emphasis to show us a wider area and give a sense of expanse. From this distance we are confronted by both her innocent youth and
every small marker of her pain and distress – watering eyes, small
Mid Shot Focuses our attention on a particular subject. With a mid-shot furrowing of her eyebrows and the tension in the mouth. Coupled with
the camera is close enough to pick up detail, though still far the detailed bruising at her jaw and temple, the image acts a powerful
enough away to show body language and setting etc. indictment of domestic abuse.
Close Up Shot of an object or person, with the focus on a particular detail.
Close up shots are most frequently used to show emotion and
reaction and force the viewer into a more intimate relationship
with the subject.

Clothing Clothing and makeup worn by subjects often act symbolically. The figure-hugging black latex bodysuit works to draw attention to
Different costumes worn in a culture denote different degrees of Madonna’s feminine shape, emphasising that she is not afraid of
power, wealth and social status. They can also symbolise the showing her sexuality. The latex has symbolic associations of sexually
interests, ideologies, values and belief systems of particular ‘transgressive’ behaviours and thus discomforts a conservative audience
groups of people in society e.g. a suit and tie may imply who are clearly not the target audience of this video clip. Together it all
professionalism and affluence while a school uniform may imply implies that Madonna is a sexually liberated woman unafraid of prudish
youth and naivete. disapproval.
Composition The way elements are arranged within a frame. Can affect the Text 1’s composition emphasises the vast, looming and overwhelming
viewer’s reading of, and response to, an image. Often, elements threat of the tornado. With the tornado taking up the majority of the
in the middle of a frame or at other points of interest seem picture, consuming the background in this long shot, and the man almost
important, while those that are near the edges are marginalised insignificant in the lower part of the frame, it works to highlight the scale
and of little importance. However, this concept can be played of this natural phenomenon and create a sense of the intimidating power
with for special effect. Positioning elements in relation to each of nature.
other implies relationships.

Colour Colour can have an emotional impact on viewers. Colours that Moore focuses on using a dark and melancholy colour palette. The city
are dominant in an image can be used to indicate the mood or features are full of black, greys, greens and blues that accompany the
atmosphere. Colours can be used symbolically e.g. red vast shadows that seem to engulf V and the buildings around him. The
representing danger or passion. Colour may also be used city’s shady atmosphere helps convey to the reader that society here is
strategically to draw attention and establish harmony or sick and oppressive.
contrast.

Contrast The relative difference between light and dark in print or The manmade setting of Text 1 consists of sharp linear lines and shapes
difference between colour, line and or shape in order to implying rigid order and monotony. This is in contrast to the organic lines
emphasise and intensify. Contrast may be used to single out or and shapes created by the dancing subjects in the centre of the frame
draw attention. emphasising their creativity and individuality.

Depth of Field The distance between the nearest and farthest objects in a The large depth of field in the wide shot gives viewers a feeling of
scene that appear acceptably sharp in an image. In some freshness, open expanse and freedom. We can see the detail of the far
cases, it may be desirable to have the entire image sharp – a off mountains as well as the vegetation in the immediate foreground.
large depth of field or deep focus. This gives us a sense of This highlights the beauty and richness of the natural world and inspires
expanse, may imply freedom. In other cases, a small depth of the viewer to seek adventure in such places.
field (or shallow focus) may be more effective, emphasizing the
subject while de-emphasizing the background. May give a
sense of intricacy, shallowness or claustrophobia.

Framing Deliberating cutting objects, subjects, and settings in or out of Text 1 is framed so as to cut into the two figures in the foreground on
an image. Choosing a camera angle and distance. Framing each side of the picture. This creates a kind of border around the small
directs our attention and helps to convey an implied narrative child in the centre, implying that she is being surrounded and trapped.
and can influence our reactions to objects and subjects. This effect is aided by the high camera angle looking down on her
startled face.

Juxtaposition The placement of two things side-by-side in order to reveal a Juxtaposition is used in the poster for Buffy the Vampire Slayer in order
contrast. Allows spotting of similarities and differences between to address the show’s theme of role fragmentation. In the image we see
object, subjects, settings etc. and encourages us to ‘look anew’ a typical high school cheerleader dispensing of a vampire with a 2B
at the familiar and process them differently e.g. a Lamborghini pencil. Buffy’s life is fraught with these types of incongruous clashes
might usually be read as a sign of luxury, craftmanship and between the mundane trivialities of high school and the epic, life and
quality; but juxtaposed with a setting of homelessness and death situations that come with being The Slayer. All of this suggests
poverty, that car will instead stand for greed and materialism. that juggling life can be very difficult for all of us.
Leading Lines (or Leading lines invite the viewer’s eye to move within and across The leading line of the wooden jetty, extending from the foreground all
Vectors) the frame in an intended direction. Can include things such as the way across the water to a focal point on the distant horizon, gives as
roads, fences, horizons, colours and shadow, and participants a sense of depth and freedom. It seems to stretch like an eternity into the
pointing, gazing at, or moving towards an element. Used to sky and sea.
create emphasis, focal points, relationships, connection.

Lighting Light can be used to highlight elements within an image to The central male subject in the image is backlit, the glow emitting from
indicate importance. In the same way, shadow can be used to behind him creating a halo effect. This presents him as a virtuous and
make elements seem less important. Lighting can also be used admirable hero, about to save the day. This works well in contrast to the
to influence the viewer’s response to participants. Figures criminal lying below in the foreground and looking up at the man who
engulfed in light can appear holy or special, while participants partially shadows his face giving us a hint at his malintent.
enshrouded in shadow can be read as evil or suspicious.
Overall lighting can influence mood – high key lighting (bright
and naturalistic) can create a joyful, free and airy mood. Low
key lighting (lots of contrast and shadow) can seem more
depressing, mysterious or ominous.
Positioning Placement of subjects and objects within the frame. If a The witch in the central foreground is clearly the focus of the image. Her
participant is positioned so their whole body is facing the viewer, positioning above the male character suggests the power she has over
it suggests greater intimacy and invites the viewer to identify or him, in a physical sense. His submissive posture and positioning at the
become involved with them. If a subject is angled away from the bottom of the frame signals his insignificance and weakness.
viewer, the subject is distanced from the viewer and remains
detached from the participant. Placement in the central
foreground often implies importance.
Proximity The distance between objects and subjects within a frame. The male and female subjects within the image are sitting on the two
Suggests relationships. Objects that are in close proximity within opposite sides of the couch, as far from each other as possible. In
a frame are seen as a unit, whereas we assume objects that are conjunction with their defensive body language, this distance suggests
far from each other are unrelated or in conflict. that their relationship has become dysfunctional and acrimonious.
Rule of Thirds If you break the frame down into thirds horizontally and vertically The image manipulates the rule of thirds in order to represent the
you have a grid. The rule of thirds dictates that points of interest awesome power of nature. The stormy ocean wave clearly dominates
should be placed where the lines intersect and that photos the whole frame, occupying two thirds, and appears about to swamp the
arranged around these thirds divisions are more balanced. seemingly tiny vessel in the bottom third of the image.
Objects that take up two thirds of the frame are often inferred to
be more dominant or significant.

Symbolic Object Where objects shown in an image can have meaning beyond In the image, the Lady Liberty statue is a symbol of our Western ideals of
their function. Culturally specific and altered by the context in law, balanced judgement and the meting out of justice for all. And yet,
which they are shown. Requires a working knowledge of the the statue looms rather menacingly over the character, whose dialogue
connotations and conventional meanings of certain objects e.g. reveals that, this lady has betrayed him. Justice is in this way painted as
a candle in the dark representing hope. unreliable and inconstant. What has more power in the image is
anarchism – symbolised in the heart- shaped bomb, which is ‘gifted’ to
the treacherous statue.
Visual Metaphor The representation of a person, place, thing, or idea by means The advertisement uses a visual metaphor to communicate to the
of a visual image that suggests a particular association or point audience that AIDS ‘strikes’ down a varied group of unexpected and
of similarity e.g. juxtaposing a picture of a particular sports car unsuspecting people. In the image, a grim reaper appears to have
with the image of a panther suggesting that the product has thrown a bowling pall down a misted alley towards a line-up of human
comparable qualities of speed, power and endurance. Common ‘ten pins’. These ‘human pins’ are not the stereotypical victims of AIDS,
practice in advertising and involves transference of connotations but a group representative of the diverse Australian population. Men,
and associations just as with written metaphor. women, children all ready to go down when the ball hits. The suggestion
is that the victims of AIDS are diverse and that audience members who
have thought themselves safe should be taking protective measures.
Written Code Accompanying words or captions. The words can anchor the The slogan for the advertisement clearly invites the reader to recognise
meaning of the visual texts by encouraging the viewer to the qualities of the promoted product, it is “fresh”, “zesty” and “light”. This
interpret them in particular ways rather than others. Consider: written code reinforces the effects of the cool and bright colour scheme.
the font and the size of the writing as well as the choice of words
with particular connotations.