Computer Networking

How computers communicate with each other - A course (The bits

and bytes of computer networking - coursera) note

TCP/IP Five-Layer Network Model

• Physical layer
– represent the physical devices that interconnect computers
– specifications for cable, sending signals
• Data Link
– defining a common way of interpreting these signals so network de-
vices can communicate
– protocol: Ethernet - getting data to node on the same network or
link
• Network
– allow different devices to communicate with each other through de-
vices known as routers
– get data across networks, links
– IP
• Transport
– sorts out which client or server to send or receive data
– TCP - reliable, UDP - not reliable
• Application
– application specific protocols

The Basics of Networking Devices

Cables
• copper
– electrical voltages - 0/1
– Cat5, Cat5e, Cat6 - how twisted pairs are arranged inside them can
affect how quickly data can be sent and how resistant these signals
are to outside interference.
– Crosstalk - when an electrical pulse on one wire is accidentally de-
tected on another wire.
– cat5e, cat6 - more strict specifications to reduce crosstalk
– cat6 - more reliable and faster, but shorter distance

• fiber
– pulses of light - 0/1
– resistant to electronmagnetic interference, faster, but fragile

Hubs and Switches

• single network - LAN

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 • hub - a physical layer device that allows for connections from many
computers at once
– broadcast
– collision domain - a network segment where only one device can com-
municate at a time because electrical pulses will interfere with each
other
• switch - a data link layer device that allows for connections from
many computers at once
– only send data to intended system

Routers
• a device that forward data between independent networks
• a network layer device
• home/office LAN - ISP (core router) - internet
• BGP(Border Gateway Protocol) - routers share data with each other via
this protocol, which lets them learn about most optimal paths to forward
traffic

Servers and Clients

• nodes - devices that can communicate with each other
• server - provide data (a node or an applicaiton inside a node)
• client - receive data
• a node can be a server or a client or both, eg. email server is a server but
also a client to DNS server

The Physical Layer

Moving Bits Across the Wire
• sending 0/1 bits
• modulation / line coding - a way of varying the voltage of this charge
moving across the cable

Twisted Pair Cabling and Duplexing

• pairs of twisted copper wires
• cat 6 - standard 4 twisted pair per jacket
• duplex communication - information can flow in both directions across the
cable
– reserving some pairs for one direction and some pairs for another
– full-duplex - simultanneous bidirectional communicaiton
– half-duplex - take turns
• simplex - unidirectinoal

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Network Ports and Patch Panels
• most common - RJ-45 (Registered jack 45)
• Network ports - are generally directly attached to the devices that make
up a computer network
• Patch Panel - a device that only has many network ports

The Data Link Layer

Abstract away the need for any other layers to care about the phys-
ical layer and what hardware is in use

Ethernet and MAC Address

• CSMA/CD - used to determine when the communications channels are
clear, and when a device is free to transmit data
– a node can send data if it detects no devices are sending data
– wait random intervals if more than one devices are sending data,
which resulted in a collision
• MAC (media access control) address
– global unique identifier attached to an individual network interface
– 48-bit number - 6 groupings of 2 hex
– two sections - OUI + Vendor Assigned,
– Ethernet uses MAC to specify sender and receiver

Unicast, Multicast, and BroadCast

• a unicast transmission is alwasy meant for just one receiving address
– if th least significant bit in the first octet of a destination address
is set to zero, it means that ethernet frame is intended for only the
destination address
– e.g. 00:01:44:55:66:77 -> 00 which is 0000 0000, the rightmost bit is
0
• multicast - send to all devices BUT will be accpeted or discarded by
each device depending on criteria from their own MAC address, eg. net-
works interfaces can be configured to accept a list of configured multicast
addresses
– if th least significant bit in the first octet of a destination address
is set to one, it means that ethernet frame is intended for only the
destination address
– e.g. 01:00:CC:CC:DD:DD -> 01 is the first octet, convert it to binary
0000 0001 the rightmost bit is 1
• broadcast - send to every single device on a LAN
– ip broadcast address (reverse mask = ~subnet mask)
– broadcast mac address: FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF

Dissecting an Ethernet Frame

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 • data packet : an all-encompassing term that represents any single set of
binary data being sent across a network link
• ethernet frames - data packet at ethernet level
–
– Preamble
∗ first 7 bytes - act as a buffer between frames and can also be
used to synchronize the internal clock the network interfaces use
∗ last byte - SFD - start frame delimiter - signal to a reveving
device that the preamble is over and actual frame contents will
now follow
– Destination MAC address
– Source MAC address
– EtherType field
∗ VLAN (Virtual LAN) Tag
· a technique that lets you have multiple logical LANs operat-
ing on the same physical equipment
· indicate that the frame itself is a VLAN frame
· will only be delivered out of a switch that configured to relay
that specific tag
∗ Ether-type - 16 bits long and used to describe the protocol of the
contents of the frame
– Payload
∗ actual data - 46 to 1500 bytes long
∗ all data from upper layers
– Frame Check Sequence - a 4 byte number that represents a checksum
value for the entire frame
∗ CRC(Cyclical Redundancy Check)

The Network Layer

Allow data to cross many networks facilitating communications over
great distances

IP Adress
• 32 bit - 4 octet
• belong to networks not attached to devices
• DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol - aumatically assign ip
address

IP Datagrams and Encapsulation

• IP header datagram
• Version - what version of internet protocol, e.g. IPv4
• Header Length - lenght of the header
– almost always 20 bytes for IPv4
– 20 bytes is the min length for a ip header

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 • Service Type - details about quality of service, Qos
• Total Length - total length the IP datagram
• Identification - group message together
– max size of a single datagram is 2^16 - 1 = 65535 bytes
– large amount of data will be divided into smaller packets to fit in the
max size
– packets with the same identification will be identified by the receiver
as a part of the same transmission
• Flags
– to indicate if the datagram is fragmented or not
– Fragmentation - talking a single IP datagram and splitting it up into
several smaller datagrams
• Fragment offset - help to put all fragments back together
• TTL - time to live - how many router hops a datagram can traverse before
it’s thrown away
• Protocol - transport layer protocol
• Header Checksum
• Source IP Address
• Dest IP - Address
• Options - set special characteristics for datagrams primarily used for test-
ing purposes
• Padding - a series of zeros

IP Address Classes class c ends with 223 not 224

• Class A
– first octet is the network ID, and last three are used for host ID
– starts with 0
• Class B
– first two octet are network ID
– starts with 10
• Class C
– first 2 octet are network ID
– starts with 110
• Class D
– starts with 1110
– used for multicasting
• Class E
– unassigned
– testing

Address Resolution Protocol - ARP

• discover the hardware address of a node with a certain IP address
• look at the local ARP table
• if not found, send broadcast ARP message

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 • receive the ARP response containing the MAC address

Subnetting
Subnetting
• A gateway router - entry / exit of a network
• split a large network into smaller ones

Subnet Masks
• subnet ID - part of host ID
• 32 bits
• [Link] - 0000 1001 0110 0100 0110 0100 0110 0100 - IP address
• [Link] - 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 0000 0000 - subnet mask -
a subnet of 256 ip addresses, but normally 254 (1-254) hosts, as 0 is not
used, and 255 is reserved for broadcast
• another notation, [Link]/24 - 24 means all first 24 bits are used as
a ‘network ID (Class A network ID + sub network ID)’ - which indicates
that the submask should have all first 24 bits of 1s and left are 0s
• a subnet mask: all 1s tells use what part we can ignore to compute a host
ID, follows all 0stell us what to keep
• (class network + sub network) network ID = (IP) & (Subnet mask)

CIDR - Classes Inter-Domain Routing

• Demarcation point - to describe where one network or system ends and
another one begins
• CIDR notation: [Link]/24
• more flexiable network sizes

Routing
Basic Routing Concepts
• router - a device with two network interfaces (because it connects with
two networks) that forward traffic depending on the destination address
•
•
• A node network A [Link] sends packet to node B [Link]
1. source MAC: MAC A , destination MAC: MAC of router, send packet
to router
2. router look at the routing table, decrement the TTL
3. soruce MAC: MAC of router, destination MAC: MAC B, send packet
to B

Routing Tables

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 • destination network - CIDR or IP with subnet masks
• Next hop - next router ip or state no additional hops needed
• Total hops - shortest path
• Interface - which interface to go out

Interior Gateway Protocols

• routers share information within a single autonomous system
– autonomous system: a collection of networks that all fall under the
control of a single network operator
• distance-vector protocol
– a router sends its routing table to every neighbouring router
– ∗ at the beginning, a path for A to X is 1-2-3-4
∗ B shares its routing table to A
∗ A finds out from B to X is 2 hops away, it’s still shorter adding
the path from A to B
∗ A adjust its path to X, A -> B -> 1-> 2
∗ cons: react slowly to the changes of networks far away itself
– link state routing protocol
∗
∗ each router shares its info of each of its interface
∗ information about each router is propagated to every other router
in the autonomous system
∗ each router runs complicated algorithms to determine the best
path

Exterior Gateway Protocols

• IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority): A non-profit organi-
zation that helps manage things like IP address allocation
– also response for ASN (Autonomous System Number) allocation
∗ ASN: 32 bits - IBM: AS19604 - [Link]/8
∗ core routers(ISP) update ASN to find Autonomous system

Non-Routable Address Space

• RFC (Request for Comments)
• Exterior Gateway Protocols will not route those addresses, but Interior
Gateway Protocols can route those address so they can be used within an
autonomous system
• [Link]/8
• [Link]/12
• [Link]/16

The Transport Layer

Allow traffic to be directed to specific network applications

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Transport Layer
• multiplexing - nodes on the network have the ability to direct traffic toward
many different receiving services.
• demultiplexing - take traffic that’s all aimed at the same node and deliv-
ering it to the proper receiving service.
• port - 16-bit number that used to direct traffic to specific services running
on a netwroked computer
– socket address/socket number - ip:port e.g. [Link]:80

Dissection of a TCP Segment

• TCP segment = TCP header + data section(payload from appication
layer)
•
• Source Port - a high numbered port chosen from a special section of ports
known as ephemeral ports
• Destination Port
• Sequence number - used to keep track of where in a sequence of TCP
segments this one is expected to be
• Acknowledgement number - the number of next expected segment
• Header length - length of this tcp header so the receiving ends knows
where the payloads start
– measured in 32-bit multiples
– e.g. the value is 7(0111), the length of header is 7 * 32 / 8 = 28 bytes
• Control flags
• Window - specifies the range of sequence numbers that might be sent
before an acknowledgement is required
• Checksum
• Urgent - used in conjunction with one of the tcp control flags to point out
particular segments that might be more important than others
• Options - sometimes used for more complicated protocols
• Padding

TCP Control Flags and the Three-way Handshake

• URG(urgent) - A value of 1 here indicates that the segment is considered
urgent and the urgent pointer field more has data about this
• ACK(acknowledgement) - A value of 1 in this field means that the ac-
knowledgement number field should be examined
• PSH(push) - The transmitting device want s the receiving device to push
currently-buffered data to the application on the receiving end as soon as
possible
• RST(reset) - one of the sides in a tcp connection hasn’t been able to
properly recover from a series of missing or malformed segment

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 • SYN - it’s used when first establishing a tcp connection and makes sure
the receiving end knows to examine the sequence number field
• FIN(finish) - 1means transmitting computer doesn’t have any more data
to send and the connection can be closed.
• establish conection: Three-Way Handshake
– A sends SYN (seq = x)
– B receives SYN (seq = x) and responses ACK and SYN (seq = y, ack
= x + 1)
– A receives and sends ACK(ack=y+1)
•

close connection: Four-Way Handshake

TCP Socket States
• a socket is the instaniation of an endpoint in a potential TCP connection
• LISTEN - a TCP socket is ready and listening for incoming connections
(server side)
• SYN-SENT - a synchronized request has been sent, but the connection
hasn’t been established yet (client side)
• SYN-RECEIVED - a socket previously in a LISTEN state has received a
synchronization request and sent a SYN/ACK back (server side)
• ESTABLISHED - The TCP connection is in working order and both side
are free to send each other data (both sides)
• FIN_WAIT - a FIN has been sent, but the corresponding ACK from the
other end hasn’t been received yet (both sides)
• CLOSE_WAIT - the connection has been closed at the TCP layer, but
that the application that opened the socket hasn’t released its hold on the
socket yet
• CLOSED - connecton fully terminated
• socket state definitions can vary from system to system

Connection-oriented and Connectionless Protocols

• connection-oriented
– tcp
– reliable, but having overhead of establishment, ackownledgement of
data segments and tire down of the connection
• connectionless
– UDP
– streaming videos
– doesn’t resent lost data, doesn’t ensure sequence

Firewalls

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 • most commonly used at Transportation Layer, could be used at other
layers
• blocking or allowing traffic through certain ports

The Application Layer

Allows applications to communicate in a way they understand

The Application Layer and the OSI Model

•
• Session Layer - facilitating the communication between actual applications
and the transport layer
• Presentation Layer - responsible for making sure that the unencapsulated
applicaiton layer data is able to be understood by the application in ques-
tion

All the Layer Working in Union

• computer 1 find out the destination is not in its network, it tries to reach
the gateway router A, which it has been configured with(it knows the ip
of the gateway), but faild to find the mac (needed to contruct the ethernet
frame) on local ARP table, so it broadcasts a ARP request
• the router recognizes the ip as its own, and responses with its MAC address
• Computer 1 open an ephemeral port for browser
• construct tcp segment
• contruct ip datagram
• contruct ethernet frame
• sends out as modulaiton of 0/1 to physical link, the switches will ensure
it gets sent out of the interface that the router A connectd to

Name Resolution
Why do we need DNS?
• Domain Name System(DNS) - a gloabl and highly distributed network
service that resolves strings of letters into IP addresses for you
• Domain Name - something that can be resolved by DNS
– [Link]
– the actual ip could change - distributed servers

The Many Steps of Name Resolution

• Five primary types of DNS servers
1. Caching name servers - store domain name lookups for a certain
amount of time (TTL)
2. Recursive name servers - store domain name lookups for a certain
amout of time, full recursive DNS lookup then could cache it.

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 1. contact a root named server, there are 13 total root name servers
which are responsible for directing queries toward the appropri-
ate TLD name server.
1. root name servers are distributed globe via anycast
2. Anycast: a technique that’s used to route traffic to different
destination depending on factors like location, congestion, or
link health
2. a root name server will response with a TLD name server
3. TLD server with a redirect
4. lookup autoritative name servers
3. Root name servers
4. TLD (top level domain, such as .com) name servers
5. Authoritative name servers

DNS and UDP

• DNS is great example of an application layer service that uses UDP for
the tranport layer intead of TCP
• assuming using tcp 44 packets need to be sent.
– 11 = establishment(3 way handshake) + request + ack of request +
response + ack of response + tiredown (4)
• using UDP
– in case of error recovery, the dns resolver will ask again if it didn’t
get any response
– if a response is too large to fit in a UDP datagram, a tcp connection
will be established.

Name Resolution in Practice

Resource Record Types
• A record - used to point a certain domain name at a certain IPv4 IP
address
– DNS round robin - blance traffic across multiple IPs (implemented
with multiple A record) bound with a domain name
– e.g. 4 A record for [Link] : [Link] [Link] [Link]
[Link]
∗ first computer that performs a lookup will receive all four IPs
(in case a connection fails) in order of 1, 2, 3, 4
∗ next computer that … will all receive 4 IPs but in order of 2, 3,
4, 1
• AAAA record - IPv6 address
• CNAME - redirect traffic from one domain to another
• MX - mail exchange
• SRV - service record
• TXT - text record

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Anatomy of a Domain Name
• [Link]
• Top Level Domain(TLD) - .com - ICANN ( the Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and Numbers)
• Domains - google - used to demarcate where control moves from a TLD
name server to an authoritative
– it costs money to register a domain
• subdomain - www - sub domain can be freely chosen or assigned by the one
who controls a registered domain
• Fully qualified domain name (FQDN) = TLD + domain + subdomain
– each section can only be up to 63 character, and FQDN is limited
to255characters
• DNS can technically support up to 127 levels of domain in total for a
single fully qualified domain name
– [Link]

DNS Zones
• an authoritative name server is actually responsible for a specific DNS
zone
• allow for easy control over multiple levels of domain
– eg. root servers covering the root zone, a TLD server convers its
specific TLD zone
– zones don’t overlap
• zone file - simple configuration files that declare all resource records for a
particular zone
– Start of authority(SOA) records - declares the zone and the name of
the name server that is authoritative for it
– NS records - indicate other name servers that might also be respon-
sible for this zone
– Reverse lookup zone files - let DNS resolvers ask for an IP AND GET
THE FQDN associated with it returned

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

Overview of DHCP
• every computer on a TCP/IP based network needs
– IP address + subnet mask + primary Gateway + Name server
• An application layer protocol that automates the configuration process of
hosts on a network
– while it’s important to have a static IP for some devices like the
gateway router in your network, it doesn’t matter which ip your
client devices have as long as they have a unique one
• Dynamic allocation - A range of IP address is set aside for client devices
and one oof these IPs is issued to these devices when they request one

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 – the DHCP server will try to keep track of which ip is assigned to
which device in order to assign the same ip to the same device each
time if possible
– Automatic allocation - a range of IP addresses is set aside for assign-
ment purposes
• Fixed allocation - requires a manually specified list of MAC address and
their corresponding IPs
– for security - only devices have bee configured on the DHCP server
with a ip address will have access to the network
• Network time protocol (NTP) servers - used to keep all computers on a
network synchronized in time

DHCP in Action
• DHCP discovery - the process by which a client configured to use DHCP
attempts to get network configuration information
– DHCP client broadcast (from UDP port 68) a DHCP discovery mes-
sage to the network - DHCP server listens on UDP port 67.
– DHCPOFFER - the DHCP server will exam its configuration and
decide which ip address to return , and broadcast a offer message
– the intended client will recognized this message because the
DHCPOFFER message will specify the MAC address of the client
– the DHCP client selects one server and broadcasts a request message
– DHCP server responses with an ack message
– the client can now use the configuration information(ip, subnet mask,
gateway ip, dns server, lease time) presented by the server to config-
ure its network layer
• addtional reference

Network Address Translation

Basics of NAT
• a technology that allows a gateway, usually a router or firewall, to rewrite
the source IP of an outgoing IP datagram while retaining the original IP
in order to rewrite it into the response
•

NAT and the Transport Layer

• Port preservation - a technique where the source port chosen by a client
is the same port used by the router
• if two devices on the network chose the same port, the rotuer normally
chooses a random unused port
• Port forwarding - a technique where specific destination ports can be con-
figured to always be delivered to specific nodes

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NAT, Non-Routable Address Space and the Limits of IPv4
• five regional internet registers (RIPs)
– AFRINIC - Africa
– ARIN - Unite States, Canada, parts of the Caribbean
– APNIC - Asia, Austrillia, New Zealand and Pacific Island nations
– LACNIC - central and south America and remaining part of
Caribbean
– RIPE - Europe, Russia, middle east and portions of middle Asia
• workaround of IPv4 exhaustion

VPNs and Proxies

Virtual Private Networks
• a technology that allows for the extension of a private or local network to
hosts that might not be on that local network
• – a VPN tunnel is established with a VPN client to the intended net-
work
– the client will be seen as a virtual interface with a IP that match the
address space of the intended network
– most VPN use the payload of tranport layer to carray the entire set
of encrypted packets

Proxy Services
• a server that acts on behalf of a client in order to access another service
– e.g. gateway
• – the web proxy server could get the web from web server and cache it
to increase performance
• – this proxy can filter the request
• Reverse proxy - a service that might appear to be a single server to external
clients, but actually represents many servers living behind it

POTS and Dial-up

• POTS - Plain old telephone services
• Dial-up.
– modem - modulator / demodulator
– Baud rate - A measurement of how many bits can be passed across
a phone line in a second

Broadband Connections
What is broadband?
• any connectivity technology that isn’t dial-up internet

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 • T-carrier - originally invented by AT&T in order to transmit multiple
phone calls over a single link

T-Carrier Technologies
• T1
– up to 24 simultaneous phone calls per twisted pairs of copper wire
– each phone call channel was capable of transmitting data at 64 kb
per second => each line 1.544 mb per second
• T3
– multiplexing 28 T1 line to achieve a throughtput of 44.736 mbps

Digital Subscriber Line

• point to point
• DSL
– operating at a frequency range that didn’t interfere with normal
phone calls
– allowed for normal phone calls and data transfer to occur at the same
time on the same line
• ADSL - asymmetric digital subsriber line - different speed for outbound
and inbound data
• SDSL - symmetric - same upload and download speed - up cap 1.544mbps
(T1)
• HDSL - high bit-rate DSL - above 1.544mbps

Cable Broadband
• starts with cable television
• shared bandwith technology
• Cable modem termination system(CMTS) - connections lots of different
cable connections to an ISPs core network

Fiber Connections
• FTTX - Fiber to the X
– FTTN - Fiber to the neighbour
– FTTB - Fiber to the building / business / basement
– FTTH - Fiber to the Home
∗ Optical Network Terminator (ONT) - converts data from proto-
cols the fiber network can understand to those that more tradi-
tional, twisted-pair copper networks can understand

WANs
Wide Area Network Technologies
• Acts like a single network, but spans across multiple physical locations

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 •
• use multiple data link layer protocols

Point-to-Point VPNs
• – the VPN tuneling logic is handle by network devices at either side so
the users don’t all have to establish their own connections.

Wireless Networking
Introduction
• IEEE802.11 family - WiFi
• Frequency band - a certain section of the radio spectrum that’s been agreed
upon to be used for certain communications
• both physical and data link layer
– different versions operate bacially the same at data link layer but
varies at physical layer, such as different modulation, different trans-
mission bit rates, different frequency bands
• Wireless access point - a device that bridges the wireless and wired portions
of a network
• A 802.11 frame
–
– Frame Control - 16 bits, contains a number of sub-fields that describe
frame itself, e.g. the version of 802.11
– Duration / ID - how long the frame is
– Address 1 - normal source address - MAC address of sending device
- 48 bits
– Address 2 - intended destination on the network
– Address 3 - receiver address - MAC address of the access point that
should receive the frame
– Sequence Control - 16 bits - sequence number used to keep track of
ordering the frames
– Address 4 - transmitter address - MAC address of whatever has just
transmitted the frame
– Data payload
– FCS

Wireless Network Configuration

• Ad-hoc network - all node speak directly to each other
– no network supporting infrastructure
– all nodes help pass along messages
– use case, warehouse, disaster situation
• WLANS (Wireless LANs) - bridge wireless and wired network
–

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 • Mesh networks - hybrid of above two
–

Wireless Channels
• individual, smaller section of the overall frequency band used by a wireless
network
• 2.4 G
• normally access points perform congestion analysis, and dynamically
change their channels
• overlapping channels - collision domains

Wireless Security
• Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) - An encryption technology that pro-
vides a very low level of privacy
– use 40 bits key to encrypt the data
• WPA - WiFi protected access
– 128 bits key
• WPA2
– 256 bits key
• MAC filtering - you configure your access points to only allow for con-
nections from a specific set of MAC addresses belonging to devices you
trust

Cellular Networking
• longer distance
• each cell is assigned a specific frequency band for use and neighboring cells
are set up to use bands that don’t overlap

Verifying Connectivity
Ping: Internet Control Message Protocol
• ICMP - internet control message protocol - mainly used by router or re-
mote hosts to communicate while transmission has failed back to the origin
of the transmission.
– network layer
–
– Type - 8 bits - type of delivered message, e.g. destination unreachable
or time exceeded
– Code - 8 bits - more specific reason - e.g. destionation network un-
reachable or destination prot unreachable
– Checksum
– Rest of the header - 32 bits - used by some of th specific types/codes
to send more data

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 – Data section - contains entire IP header and first eight bytes of the
data payload section of th eoffending packet.
• Ping - send a special type of ICMP message called an Echo Request
– if the destination is up and running and able to communication on
the network, it’ll send back an ICMP Echo Reply message type

Traceroute
• a utility that lets you discover the path between two nodes, and gives you
information about each hop along the way
– traceroute sends packets with different ttl(start with 1 and increment
it until reach the destination)
• mtr / pathping

Testing Port Connectivity

• netcat (nc) - mac/linux, Test-NetConnection (“) - windows

Digging into DNS

Name Resolution Tools
• nslookup

Public DNS Servers

• public Level 3 DNS servers - [Link] to [Link]
• google - [Link], [Link]

DNS Registration and Expiration

•

Hosts Files
• the orginal way that numbered network addresses were corelated with
words was through hosts files
• a flat file that contains, on each line, a network address followed by the
host name it can be referred to as
• loopback address - a way of sending network traffic to itself
– [Link]
– hostfile example [Link] localhost
– IPv6 - ::1

The Cloud
What is The Cloud?

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 • cloud computing - a technological approach where computing resources
are provisioned in a shareable way, so that lots of users get what they
need, when they need it
• Virtualization - a single physical machine, called a host, could run many
individual virtual instances, called guests
• hypervisor - a piece of software that run and manages virtual machines,
while also offering these guests a virtual operating platform that’s indis-
tinguishable from actual hardware

Everything as a Service
• X as a service
– IaaS - Infrastructure as a service - provide hardware, network for
customers
– PssS - Platform as a Service - a subset of cloud computing where
a platform(like a web server) is provided for customers to run their
services
– SaaS - Software as a Service - licensing the use of software to others
while keeping that software centrally hosted and managed

Cloud Storage
• provide customers with storage to probably along with services, such as
security, accessibility, flexibility

IPv6
IPv6 Addressing and Subnetting
• 128 bits - 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:ff00:0012:3456
• shortening rules
– you can remove any leading zeros from a group - 2001:0db8:0:0:0:ff00:0012:345
– any number of consecutive groups composed of just zeros can be
replaces with two colons - 2001:0db8::ff00:0012:345
• some reserved ranges
– ::1 - loopback address (localhost)
– 2001:0db8 - documentation/education
– FF00:: - multicast - addressing groups of hosts all at once
– FF80:: - link-local unicast - allow for local network segment commu-
nicaitons and are configured based upon a host’s MAC address.
• similar subneeting technique of IPv6

IPv6 Headers
• – version - 4 bits - version of ip
– class - 8 bits - traffic class - type of traffic contained within the IP
datagram and allows for different classes of traffic to receive different
priorities.

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 – flow label - 20 bits - used in conjunction with traffic class for routers
to decide the
– playload length - 16 bits - length of data payload
– next header - 8 bits - what kinds of header is immediately after
current one
– hop limit - 8 bits - TTL

IPv6 and IPv4 Harmony

• IPv4 mapped address space
– 0:0:0:0:0:fffff: - e.g. [Link] = ::fffff:d1ad:35a7
• IPv6 tunnels - Servers take incoming IPv6 traffic and encapsulate it within
traditional IPv4 datagram
– used for IPv6 datagram to be delivered across IPv4 internet space -
encapsulation / decapsulation
• IPV6 tunnel broker - companies that provide IPv6 tunneling endpoints for
you so you don’t have to introduce additional equipment to your network

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