C h a p t er 3

B i o d i v erse
ec o s y s t e m s

By the end of this chapter you will have covered the following material.

Science Understanding
●●
Ecosystems are diverse, composed of niches; the competitive exclusion principle
varied habitats and can be described in postulates that no two species can occupy
terms of their component species, species the same niche in the same environment for
interactions and the abiotic factors that an extended period of time (ACSBL023)
make up the environment (ACSBL019) ●●
Keystone species play a critical role in
●●
Relationships and interactions between maintaining the structure of the community;
species in ecosystems include predation, the impact of a reduction in numbers or
[Link]/Sergey Timofeev

competition, symbiosis and disease (ACSBL020) the disappearance of keystone species

●●
In addition to biotic factors, abiotic factors on an ecosystem is greater than would be
including climate and substrate can be used expected based on their relative abundance
to describe and classify environments (ACSBL021) or total biomass (ACSBL024)
●●
Species or populations, including those
of microorganisms, fill specific ecological
 Corbis/Thomas Marent/Minden Pictures
Figure 3.1  
Lemurs like these
Coquerel’s sifakas
are only found in
Madagascar.

Madagascar is classified as one of the biological hotspots of the world. It is home to a large
proportion of unique wildlife. In fact, 98% of its terrestrial mammals, 92% of its reptiles,
68% of its plants and 4% of its birds are found only in Madagascar. Biological hotspots
are considered extremely important to conserve due to the number of endemic species
found in the area. There are 34 international hotspots worldwide, each with its own unique
local species. Hotspots are reservoirs of the most diverse, yet most threatened, sites of
B i o lo g i ca l
biodiversity on the planet.
h ot s p ot s
What factors influence the range and distribution of diverse organisms from one
Discover more country to the next or even one region to another? Why are some species more sensitive
information about to change than others? What are the reasons behind why particular species are only found
the 34 biological
in the harsh arid conditions of the Australian desert? This chapter will help to explain
hotspots around
the world. why Earth has such extensive biodiversity and how scientists use characteristics to classify
ecosystems.

A world of biomes
In order to understand how an ecosystem is classified, we must first comprehend how
Earth is comprised of ecosystems. The sum of all ecosystems across the world is called the
biosphere.
Enhanced views of Earth and its biosphere present patterns of browns and blues that identify
the large terrestrial and aquatic biomes. Biomes are main categories of ecosystems across large
geographical areas. The world’s terrestrial biomes, for example, roughly correspond to major
variations in vegetation types, climate, topography (the arrangement of physical features, both
natural and artificial, of an area), and soil type. Tropical rainforests, deserts, grasslands and
tundras are some examples of the world’s major terrestrial biomes. Figure 3.2 shows the world’s
major biomes and their distribution.
Each biome, whether it is the savannah grassland in Australia or the savannah grassland
found in Africa (Figure 3.3), has similar features. All savannah grasslands across the world are

40 N els o n B i o l o g y U N I T S 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a li a n C urriculu m 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7

   Figure 3.2
Distribution of the world’s
major terrestrial biomes
80°N

60°N

40°N

Tropic of Cancer

Equator

Tropic of Capricorn

40°S

Tundra
Chaparral and/or
Taiga (coniferous forest) evergreen hardwood (Mediterranean) Savanna grassland
Temperate forest Desert Other biomes (ice,
Temperate grassland Tropical rainforest mountains, semi-arid)

  Figure 3.3
A savannah grassland

[Link]/Oleg Znamenskiy

characterised by grassland with very few trees, a dry season that can be very hot or cool and a Terrestrial
wet season that is warm. Typically, savannah grasslands receive less than 490 mm of rainfall biomes
annually.
Use the website
Lakes, oceans and rocky shores are examples of aquatic biomes, which form the largest
to gain more
section of the biosphere. Several factors influence the kinds of organisms that inhabit an aquatic information on the
biome and the relationships between these organisms. These include how permanent the body of world’s terrestrial
water is, its salinity, its depth and nutrient availability. biomes.

9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7 U n i t 1 C h a p t e r 3 : bi o d i v erse ec o s y s t e m s  4 1
 Ecosystems, environments
and habitats
The next explicit classification of an area is known as an ecosystem. A biome can accommodate
a number of different ecosystems. An ecosystem is classified as the interactions between
the environment and its community. Specifically, the community is the sum of all the
living organisms in a habitat and the environment is the abiotic and biotic components of
the ecosystem. This includes temperature, water availability, nutrient availability and other
organisms that make up a part of another individual’s environment. The other organisms
may compete for food against the individual or prey upon it. They may even change the
Chapter 4 explains chemical or physical environment. Ecosystems are relatively self-contained and are able to
how energy and support themselves by cycling or exchanging materials. For example, in a forest, leaves fall
nutrients are
and decompose, and their nutrients are returned to the soil. In turn, the plants remove these
cycled through an
nutrients from the soil and use them in growth. Note that this is a very simple explanation of
ecosystem.
how an ecosystem operates.
The world’s ecosystems are diverse. They contain species that are directly linked to the
abiotic and biotic factors within the ecosystem. To delve further into classifying areas, an
ecosystem can contain many different habitats. A habitat is an area or environment within an
ecosystem where an individual of a species lives, feeds and reproduces. Habitats are therefore
specific for each population. A population is a group of individuals belonging to the same
species, living in the same habitat at the same time. For example, a rainforest ecosystem has
several habitats. The ground level is home to the cassowary, a flightless bird, whereas the canopy
level is home to the striped possum. The habitat for the cassowary is different to that of the
striped possum despite living in the same ecosystem.

Ecosystem 5 the interaction between the environment 1 its community

Community 5 the different species inhabiting an area at one particular time

Environment 5 abiotic 1 biotic components of an area

q u e s t i o n s e t 3 .1
Remembering
1 Identify the two major biomes in the biosphere.
2 Explain ‘biological hotspot’.
3 Define the following terms.
a Biodiversity
b Endemic
c Topography

Understanding
4 Distinguish between:
a population and community.
b environment and habitat.
c biotic and abiotic.
5 Draw a concept map to show the relationship between the following: biosphere, habitat, ecosystem,
community, biome, environment, biotic factors, abiotic factors and population.

42 N els o n B i o l o g y U N I T S 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a li a n C urriculu m 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7

Classification of
ecosystems and
environments
Ecologists study the relationships between living things and their surroundings. This study
is called ecology, a term first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1869. In the early days, ecology was
largely descriptive, providing qualitative data based on observational studies. Over time, ecology
has become a more exact science by utilising quantitative data measurements and through the
development of models and theories that help us better understand relationships. Today, ecologists
use both qualitative and quantitative data to classify ecosystems and environments based on their
abiotic and biotic components.

Classifying environments
Environments can be classified based on their biotic and/or abiotic factors.
Abiotic factors are physical and chemical factors such as temperature, light
intensity, texture and pH of the soil, concentration of significant gases in
water or air, and the availability of water. Every organism is restricted to a
particular area due to limiting factors. A limiting factor is an element of the
environment that restricts the survival of an organism to a region. The tropical
carnivorous pitcher plant Nepenthes rajah is native to Malaysia. Specifically it
occurs on Mt Kinabalu and the adjacent mountain Mt Tambuyukon in Sabah
on Borneo Island.
N. rajah only grows at certain altitudes with a tolerance range of
1500–2600 m above sea level. These plants need humid, well-drained, grassy areas
that have high levels of magnesium and iron, and low levels of silica in the soil.
They are renowned for their remarkable ability to hold around 1 litre of fluid to
capture and digest lizards, frogs and invertebrates.

©Nick Garbutt/[Link]
On the edge of these parameters, at altitudes lower than 1500 m, N. rajah
is limited in its distribution. These areas of the habitat are known as zones of
physiological stress. The plant can grow but the conditions are not ideal for
survival. Outside of the zone of physiological stress is the zone of intolerance
where the plant cannot survive.
Biotic factors include the presence or absence of other living organisms that
affect an organism, such as other members of their own species, competitors, collaborators,   Figure 3.4
Nepenthes rajah can
predators, disease-causing organisms, parasites and the availability of mates.
tolerate altitudes up to
2600 m.
Terrestrial environments
The distribution of terrestrial environments such as tundras, deserts, open forests and
Unit 4 Biology
temperate grasslands is based mainly on climatic variation. Temperature, water, light and wind
discusses tolerance
are the four main elements of climate. Both water and temperature significantly impact on the range, and the zones
geographic range of organisms that can live in an environment. For example, the climate of the of physiological stress
desert differs considerably to that of a tropical rainforest. Deserts are generally found 30° north and intolerance.
or south of the equator where the climatic conditions are drier. Temperatures range widely from
below 0°C overnight to above 40°C during the peak of the day. Rain is generally unpredictable
and is less than 250 mm annually. Substrate concentration also aids the classification of the
environment. Substrate concentration, such as phosphorous and nitrogen, are limiting factors in
arid environments. They are considerably lower than the substrate concentrations found in other
environments.
Limited numbers of species are found in an Australian desert. These include small mammals
such as the spinifex hopping mouse (Notomys alexis) and the numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus),
invertebrate herbivores such as grasshoppers and crickets, and mulga trees (Acacia aneura). The
biodiversity of the desert is low due to the abiotic conditions acting on the region.

9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7 U n i t 1 C h a p t e r 3 : bi o d i v erse ec o s y s t e m s  4 3
 In contrast to the arid desert, tropical rainforests are generally found in between the Tropic
of Cancer (23.5°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S), but can extend slightly outside these
boundaries. They are extremely dense and home to around 50% of all animal and plant life.
They also accommodate numerous species of fungi and bacteria.
Temperatures range between 20°C at night to 35°C during the day all year round. Rainfall
and humidity are high. Commonly tropical rainforests have between 1500 and 2500 mm of
precipitation annually. However, they are also characterised by poor soil due to high levels
of nutrient leaching caused by the increased rainfall. Rainforest organisms are supplied with
nutrients from the continual decomposition of plant and animal debris, known as humus. The
rate of this decomposition is a limiting factor to forest growth: the slower the humus is formed,
the slower the nutrients are made available to the rainforest organisms, thus reducing the rate at
which the organisms can grow. Many gardening enthusiasts will create humus by decomposing
food scraps in a compost bin. This additional nutrient-rich material promotes their garden plants
to grow and thrive.
When classifying environments it is important to identify the physical and chemical
Figure 3.5   features of the soil. Understanding the features of the soil helps determine which plants
a) Low rainfall in deserts
limits biodiversity;
will grow best in a particular region. Soil type is determined based on a number of different
b) High rainfall in properties. These include location, depth, texture, colour, porosity, pH, water-carrying capacity
tropical forests promotes and nutrient status.
greater biodiversity.

a b

[Link]/Stephane Bidouze
[Link]/mark higgins

E x p e r i m e n t 3 .1
S o il a n a ly sis
Aim
To classify the soil from a local area by identifying its physical and chemical features
Materials
●●
ruler ●●
two 10 mL measuring cylinders
●●
soil texture key (Figure 3.6) ●●
a tablespoon measure
●●
gloves ●●
40 g topsoil sample
●●
label ●●
40 g subsoil sample
●●
funnel ●●
100 mL beaker
●●
filter paper ●●
pipette
●●
100 mL measuring cylinder ●●
balance
●●
stopwatch ●●
universal indicator and chart
●●
80 mL distilled water

44 N els o n B i o l o g y U N I T S 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a li a n C urriculu m 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7

 What are the risks in doing this experiment? How can you manage these risks to stay safe?

Soil sample may have biting or stinging Gloves to be worn throughout the experiment
invertebrates, or disease-causing microbes and hands washed thoroughly after the
present. experiment has concluded. A simple face mask is
recommended.

Universal indicator causes irritation to eyes Wear safety goggles throughout he experiment and
including stinging, redness, tearing and blurred wash eyes immediately if contact has been made.
vision.

Procedure
Part A: Soil texture and colour
1 Your teacher will provide you with topsoil and subsoil samples.
2 Use the soil texture key in Figure 3.6 to determine the texture of the two soil samples and their classification.
3 Collect 1 tablespoon of soil. Add a few drops of water at a time until it forms a moist putty.

  Figure 3.6
Soil texture key When the soil is squeezed,
does it remain in a ball?

Yes No SAND

Place the ball between your thumb and forefinger and

push your thumb up to form a ribbon of soil with consistent
thickness. Allow it to extend over your forefinger until it
breaks under its own weight. Does it form a ribbon?

LOAMY SAND No Yes

Does it make a ribbon greater

Does it make a ribbon less than Does it make a ribbon greater
than 2.5 cm but less than 5 cm
2.5 cm in length? Yes? than 5 cm in length? Yes?
in length? Yes?

Does the soil feel very gritty? Does the soil feel very gritty? Does the soil feel very gritty?

Yes No Yes No Yes No

LOAM or SANDY CLAY CLAY LOAM or

SANDY LOAM SANDY CLAY CLAY
SILTY LOAM LOAM SILTY CLAY LOAM

Part B: Determining the soil pH

1 Using the balance, measure 20 g of topsoil and place it in the beaker.
2 Add 40 mL of distilled water. Stir and allow the soil to settle on the bottom.
3 Once settled, add a few drops of universal indicator.

9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7 U n i t 1 C h a p t e r 3 : bi o d i v erse ec o s y s t e m s  4 5
4 Determine the pH by correlating the colour of the water in the beaker to the corresponding colour in the
universal indicator chart.
5 Repeat steps 1–4 for the subsoil.
Part C: Determining the soil porosity
1 Using the balance, measure 20 g of topsoil.
2 Place a piece of folded filter paper into the top of the funnel.
3 Add the soil on top of the filter paper. Place the funnel in a 10 mL measuring cylinder.
4 Measure 20 mL of distilled water in a 100 mL measuring cylinder and pour it on top of the soil.
5 Allow the water to drain for 10 minutes.
6 Record how many millilitres passed through after 10 minutes.
7 Repeat steps 1–6 with the subsoil sample.
Results
1 Create a table to summarise your findings.
2 Describe the features of the topsoil and subsoil. What is their texture classification?
3 Did the pH of the topsoil differ to that of the subsoil? Draw a pH scale, including the usual range for soil
(pH 6 to pH 7.5) and the danger zone (below pH 5.5 and above pH 8). Indicate where each sample sits on
the pH scale.
4 Define ‘porosity’ and summarise how porous the soil samples are.
Discussion
1 Did the physical and chemical features differ between the topsoil and subsoil? Account for any differences
recorded.
2 Explain how the type of vegetation and its density can affect the composition of the topsoil.
3 Waterlogged soils are generally associated with low levels of oxygen. Justify why this is the case.
4 Using the soil texture key, explain why clay soils are more easily waterlogged than other types of soils.
5 Relate the soil type to the vegetation types found in the same location. Predict whether each soil
characteristic (soil texture, colour, pH, porosity) could have an effect on the type of vegetation that can
grow there.
6 Suggest how the decomposition rate of plant debris may differ between a rainforest and a desert.
WOW

Arid Australia
The arid areas of Australia have ancient soils that are very infertile. Their phosphorous
and nitrogen levels are on average less than 50% lower than other arid areas of the world!
Antarctica is the only place drier than Australia. Furthermore, out of all the mammals that
have become extinct in the last 200 years, 50% of them are Australian such as the desert
rat-kangaroo and the desert bandicoot.

Aquatic environments
Aquatic environments include both marine (saltwater) and freshwater environments. They
make up the largest part of the biosphere. The oceans alone cover 71% of Earth’s surface.
Examples of aquatic environments include moving waters of oceans, bays, estuaries, creeks,
streams and rivers, and still waters of lakes, ponds and swamps.
The major substrate that defines whether a body of water is marine or fresh is the
concentration of sodium chloride (salt). Marine environments are characterised by having a
salt concentration of approximately 3%. On the other hand, freshwater environments have a
salt concentration of less than 1%. Estuaries have fluctuating salt concentrations. During a high
tide, the salt concentration increases to almost equal to that of the ocean and decreases as the
point of low tide approaches. As you move up the estuary, the salt concentration almost equals
that of fresh water.

46 N els o n B i o l o g y U N I T S 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a li a n C urriculu m 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7

 Ocean environments are classified according to depth, distance from the shoreline and
the way they are formed. The first 200 m of ocean depth is known as the photic zone. This
is the only part of the water that light can penetrate and accommodate photosynthesising
organisms. Approximately 90% of marine life lives in the photic zone. The temperature
ranges from approximately 34°C to 10°C. As the depth increases, water temperature
decreases. Water between the depths of 200 and 1000 m is known as the mesopelagic
zone. Some light penetrates this region, although it is not sufficient for the survival of
photosynthetic organisms. Temperatures range between 20°C in warmer areas and 4°C closer
to 1000 m. Figure 3.7 shows a summary of the other oceanic zones and the temperature
ranges.
As ocean depth increases, organisms also feel the effects of increased pressure. This is
another limiting factor of the distribution of marine organisms.

  Figure 3.7
As ocean depth
increases, water
temperature and
Photic zone available light decrease.
200 m
Mesopelagic zone These factors limit
1000 m the distribution of
organisms. Barely 10% of
2000 m marine organisms can
Bathypalegic zone Temperature hovers survive below the photic
around 48C zone.
3000 m

4000 m

Temperature range
5000 m Abyssopelagic zone
2–38C
6000 m

7000 m

8000 m
Temperature range
1–2.58C
9000 m

10 000 m
Hadalpelagic zone (the trenches)
11 000 m

Freshwater environments have two subgroups: standing (still) bodies of water and moving
bodies of water. Deep lakes are also characterised by depth and can be broken down into
photic and aphotic zones. Freshwater environments are also classified according to the
production of organic matter. For example, large, deep rivers tend to be nutrient-poor whereas
shallow lakes have a tendency to be nutrient-rich but lend themselves to eutrophication .
Eutrophication is the increased concentration of nutrients, phosphates and nitrates in a
waterway that promotes algal bloom. The resulting algal bloom can lead to reduced light
penetration and oxygen concentration, causing negative effects on local species living in
shallow lakes.
The nutrient composition of rivers, creeks and streams are dependent on the terrain
through which they flow. Fallen leaves and the weathering of rocks through fast-moving water
substantially increase the concentration of organic and inorganic nutrients.

The distribution of all organisms is restricted by the limiting factors in their

environments.

9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7 U n i t 1 C h a p t e r 3 : bi o d i v erse ec o s y s t e m s  4 7
 Case study
Marine reserves: detecting the effects of fishing using the
Namena Reserve, Fiji
Jordan Goetze, a PhD student at the University
of Western Australia, is researching the benefits
of Namena Marine Reserve in Fiji.
Goetze said that the Namena Reserve was
classified as a ‘no-take’ marine reserve due to
the ‘reef’s position in relation to currents that
promote its biodiversity’. The decision was aided
by the ‘overwhelming wealth of evidence that
Marine Reserves can benefit marine biodiversity
throughout the world’. Goetze explained that
tourism is one of the main reasons Namena
Reserve has good compliance to protect its fish
stocks. Allowing destructive activities, such as
dynamite fishing, cyanide fishing and careless
anchoring, limits local biodiversity and makes
the area less attractive.
The Namena Reserve is part of a Locally
Managed Marine Area Initiative, whereby
the local people are responsible for the
management of the reserve. This area is
a no-take region, which means no fishing
or disturbance is allowed but people are
encouraged to visit. As Goetze explained,
‘the adjacent Namena resort and local
communities are vigilant in enforcing the
protection [of the reserve] and chasing off
poachers’.
Goetze’s studies show that the size of reef
sharks within the Namena Reserve is larger
than those found outside the reserve. They
used a non-invasive sampling technique,
baited remote underwater video sampling,
over a period of three weeks. They noted that
the abundance of reef sharks was also higher
in the marine reserve compared to adjacent
areas, likely due to fishing reducing shark
Jordan Goetze
numbers outside the reserve.
As part of Goetze’s PhD studies he will also
research the effects of artisanal fishing on Fijian
Tabu areas. A Tabu area refers to a temporary
closure of fishing grounds. Traditionally
Figure 3.8  
these areas were closed after the death of
Jordan Goetze’s map showing the location of the
a prominent community member, however, Namena Marine Reserve, Fiji
conservation and management organisations
are looking at expanding this idea. Goetze
and his team will collect quantitative field data through baited remote underwater video stations. They
will gather data while the Tabu area is closed and again once it re-opens and is fished. This process will
be repeated a year later. The information collected will aid the development of a computer model that
will help to answer questions regarding the effects of occasional fishing periods. The simulation aims to
predict the prolonged effects of intense fishing on the biodiversity and fish stock levels after reopening the
Tabu areas.

48 N els o n B i o l o g y U N I T S 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a li a n C urriculu m 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7

 Questions
1 Many marine reserves are established with
no baseline data on fish stocks. Suggest
the implications of this on determining
whether a marine reserve is successful.
2 a Explain what a Tabu area is.
b Justify whether you believe these
areas should be converted into marine
reserves.
3 Suggest some concerns surrounding
artisanal fishing for the people and the fish
species.
4 Suggest the benefits of using baited
remote video stations to collect data.
5 The graph in Figure 3.9 represents Goetze’s
findings. Use this information and your

Jordan Goetze
own research to write a persuasive
argument to the government supporting
the introduction of more marine reserves
to help conserve Australia’s marine
biodiversity.   Figure 3.9
Jordan Goetze’s graphs showing relative abundance and
biomass within and outside the Namena Reserve

Classifying ecosystems
Environments and ecosystems are not only classified by their abiotic features as discussed
previously, they are also largely classified by their component species and species interactions.
Ecosystems are usually named after the most dominant species in the community along
with its overall distribution. For example, an aquatic environment such as a swamp can also be
classified by the dominant species being the mangrove, thus it is known as a mangrove swamp.
Other examples of individual ecosystems include mountain ash forest, spinifex grassland and
coral reefs.
The distribution of ecosystems depends on factors such as soil type and climate,
remembering that the ecosystem is the interaction between the species and these factors.
Figure 3.10(a) shows the key climatic groups, which can be compared to Figure 3.10(b) that
shows how the major vegetation patterns correspond to differing climates.
Generally speaking, the component species of an ecosystem will be some variety of plant.
Vegetation is classified according to:
●●
the percentage of ground shaded or covered by the tallest layer of vegetation
●●
the form (tree, shrub or grass) of the tallest layer.
For example, open forests have between 30 and 70% of the ground shaded by trees between
10 and 30 m tall. If the trees are taller, the forest is classified as a tall open forest. If the
percentage cover is between 10 and 30%, it is classed as woodland. Table 3.1 shows the ground
cover features of the major Australian ecosystems.

Environments can be classified based on their biotic and abiotic features.

Ecosystems can also be classified by their biotic or abiotic components, but are
often named after their dominant species.

9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7 U n i t 1 C h a p t e r 3 : bi o d i v erse ec o s y s t e m s  4 9
 Figure 3.10  
a) Key climate groups in a
Australia; b) Vegetation
patterns in Australia,
reflecting the climate
groups

Climate classes
Equatorial Desert Temperate
Rainforest Hot No dry season
(monsoonal) (persistently dry) (hot summer)
Hot Moderately dry
Savanna
(summer drought) winter (hot summer)
Tropical Hot Distinctly dry
Rainforest (winter drought) (and hot) summer
(persistently wet) Warm No dry season
Rainforest (persistently dry) (warm summer)
(monsoonal) Grassland Moderately dry winter
Hot (warm summer)
Savanna
(persistently dry) Distinctly dry

Australian Bureau of Meteorology

Subtropical Hot (and warm) summer
(summer drought) No dry season
No dry season Hot (mild summer)
Distinctly (winter drought) Distinctly dry
dry summer Warm (and mild) summer
Distinctly (persistently dry) No dry season
dry winter Warm (cool summer)
Moderately (summer drought)
dry winter

Rainforest Heath

Wet sclerophyll
Shrubland
forest
Dry sclerophyll
Grassland
forest

Woodland

50 N els o n B i o l o g y U N I T S 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a li a n C urriculu m 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7

Table 3.1 The ground cover features of major Australian ecosystems

Ecosystem Ground cover

Deserts In patches, widely
spaced

Grasslands In arid regions; typically

hummocks and tussocks
with a very low cover of
<30%

Scrublands Foliage cover of 30–70%

Woodlands Widely spaced canopy

cover of 10–30%; well-
developed shrubs and
grasses

Alpine Low, fairly continuous

cover

Open (sclerophyll) forests Fairly open canopy

cover of 30–70%; good
understorey and ground
cover

Closed (rainforest) forests Dense canopy cover of

70–100%; distinct layers or
storeys within forest

Reefs and marshes Dense growth

9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7 U n i t 1 C h a p t e r 3 : bi o d i v erse ec o s y s t e m s  5 1
 If you travel from one ecosystem to the next, it may be hard to notice where one ecosystem
ends and another begins. In neighbouring ecosystems, physical conditions such as soil type
and temperature gradually change or merge and the ecosystems overlap. Ecosystems are seldom
closed. Some of the animals, such as birds, will be part of multiple communities as they move
from one area to another. These ecosystems are open.

question set 3.2

Remembering
1 Identify the different factors used to classify an ecosystem.
2 Define ‘eutrophication’.

Understanding
3 Distinguish between an open and a closed ecosystem.
4 Using an example, explain the difference between qualitative and quantitative data.
5 Outline each limiting factor that inhibits the widespread growth of Nepenthes rajah.

Ecological niches
Ecosystems across the world are unique and diverse in their own ways. The organisms that inhabit
a particular ecosystem are able to survive because of the particular set of biotic and abiotic factors
present. The way in which species function within their environment, for example, the time they
feed, what they feed on, where they live and when they reproduce, is known as an ecological
niche. To place this concept into context, Eugene Odum (1913–2002) an American biologist at
the University of Georgia, made the analogy that if the species habitat was its home address, then
its ecological niche was its habitat along with its profession.

The way a species functions within its environment is known as its ecological
niche.

To think of it in another way, the niche of an organism is how it ‘fits into’ the ecosystem.
The niche of the saddle-back tamarin monkey of the Amazonian rainforest, Saguinus fuscicollis,
includes being diurnal, arboreal, and feeding on a diet of fruits and insects from the
trunks of trees up to a height of 10 m above ground level. They live in groups of two to twelve
individuals, in which there is generally only one primary female who will copulate to produce
offspring. After a gestation period of around 155 days she gives birth, usually to twins, when
food resources are abundant. The emperor tamarin, Saguinus imperator, fills a niche whereby
they are also diurnal and arboreal. However, they feed not only on fruits and insects, but also
green leafy plants, eggs and tree sap between a tree height of 10 and 30 m above ground level.
They live in a troop of around two to eight family members and breed between the months of
April and July when the dominant female gives birth around 140 days later, generally to twins.
It is seen that despite living in the same range, they exhibit a different way of life.

The fundamental versus

the realised
An American zoologist, G. E. Hutchinson, distinguished between the fundamental niche
and the realised niche. The fundamental niche (potential niche) is the ideal niche a species
would occupy if there were no competitors, predators or parasites. The realised niche (actual
niche) is narrower. It results from an organism’s inability to exploit the resources of its habitat
because of restrictions caused by other organisms. Therefore, a species may not be distributed
evenly throughout its potential geographic range.

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 Abiotic factors suitable for the laughing kookaburra Dacelo novaeguineae extend virtually all
the way down the eastern coast of Australia, from Cape York Peninsula in far north Queensland
to the eastern Eyre Peninsula in South Australia, including Tasmania. However, the species Niches
is not distributed evenly throughout this geographical range because successful competitors
Watch a video
occupy the kookaburra’s niche in certain areas. illustrating the
difference
Resource partitioning between an
organism’s
Organisms within an ecosystem cannot feed on the same food sources at the same time. Instead fundamental
they generally differ in the food source they prefer, their use of space and even the timing niche versus their
of their activities. Different forest birds feed at varying heights above the ground, and some realised niche.
animals feed at night while others feed during the day. Species of shorebirds have different leg
lengths and varying beak shapes. This allows them to exploit particular parts of the mud flats
and reduce competition. This method of using resources is called resource partitioning.

  Figure 3.11
Resource partitioning:
Spine-tailed swift feeding height diversity
of birds in an eastern
Australian eucalypt
forest

Canopy
Striated
thornbill

Leaden
flycatcher

White-throated
treecreeper

Secondary tree layer

Brown
thornbill
Rufous
fantail

Understorey

Ground
Yellow-throated thrush
scrubwren

Ground

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 Competitive exclusion principle
A Russian ecologist, G. F. Gause, completed an experiment in 1934 between Paramecium
aurelia and Paramecium caudatum, two closely related species of protists. Gause found that
when he grew each species as two separate cultures, with a constant source of food, the
population numbers increased exponentially until they reached what is known as a carrying
capacity of the culture. However, he found that when the two species were grown in the same
culture, P. aurelia had a competitive advantage. P. aurelia was able to obtain the food more
effectively than P. caudatum and drove it to extinction. Based on the interpretation of the data
collected, Gause concluded that two species so similar, competing for the same resource, cannot
coexist in the same community. One will be able to obtain and use the resource more effectively
and in turn reproduce more quickly than the other. Further models and experimentation have
supported Gause’s idea, now known as the competitive exclusion principle. However, it
is to be noted that two ecologically similar species are able to coexist in the same community if
they have one or more considerable differences in their niche.
Figure 3.12  
Data from Gause’s

Population densities
Population densities

experiment
with P. aurelia and
P. caudatum
Getty Images/Michael Abbey

Getty Images/Grave Eric

Time (days) Time (days)
P. aurelia grown separately P. caudatum grown separately
Population densities

When grown together,

P. aurelia out-competes
P. caudatum.

Time (days)
Both species grown together

The competitive exclusion principle states that two similar species that compete for
a resource cannot coexist.

a c t i v i t y 3 .1
C o m p e t i t i v e e x clusi o n p rinci p le e x p eri m en t:
sec o n d - h a n d d ata a n a ly sis
The competitive exclusion principle postulates that no two species can occupy the same niche in the
same environment for an extended period of time. Experiments can be used to test this principle and
produce models of this interaction. Models can then be used to make predictions about biodiversity
when changes occur within an ecosystem.
A team of scientists investigated Gause’s competitive exclusion principle by conducting a field
experiment. They studied two sessile (fixed or non-moving) species, A and B, introduced onto an
intertidal rock face. Over a period of 18 months, population density data was collected within the test
quadrats. Table 3.2 is a summary of the data.

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Table 3.2 Population density of two species

Time (months) Population density of species A Population density of species B

0 5 5

1 12 8

2 17 14

3 36 24

4 55 60

5 50 67

6 43 62

7 45 104

8 50 100

9 38 104

10 25 115

11 30 119

12 16 125

13 18 133

14 21 139

15 14 158

16 8 141

17 0 158

18 0 164

What did you discover?

1 Draw a graph of the tabled data.
2 Which species had the competitive advantage in the first three months?
3 For what period of time can the two species coexist in the same area?
4 Which species had the overall competitive advantage over the 18 months?
5 a Outline what has occurred to species A throughout the 18-month period.
b Predict the consequences of this scenario on the biodiversity of an ecosystem.
6 If a disease were to affect the reproductive success of species B at 10 months, predict what would
happen to the relative abundance of species A and B.
7 a An introduced species, species C, was introduced to the intertidal rock face. It competes for the
same resources as species A and B, but has a shorter gestation period than both species. Predict
the impact this would have on the relative abundance of all three species.
b Discuss the impact this scenario would have on the diversity of the ecosystem.
8 Assess the validity of Gause’s competitive exclusion principle when applied to this experiment.
9 Design an experiment to measure the impact of species C on the ecosystem.

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 question set 3.3
Remembering Cape May warbler
1 Define ‘ecological niche’ and provide an example.
2 Explain resource partitioning.
Blackburnian warbler
Understanding
3 Compare and contrast the fundamental and realised Bay-breasted warbler
niches of an organism.
4 Summarise how Gause developed his idea of the Black-throated
green warbler
competitive exclusion principle.

Applying
Myrtle warbler
5 Five different types of warbler species live in a spruce
tree: the Cape May warbler, Bay-breasted warbler,
Myrtle warbler, Blackburnian warbler and Black-
throated green warbler. Explain how the five species Figure 3.13  
How can five different species of birds inhabit this
can inhabit the same spruce tree and coexist. spruce tree?

Relationships and
interactions between
living things
Ecosystems and habitats have many different relationships and interactions occurring within
them. These relationships impact upon the biodiversity of a region. Some of these interactions
can be harmful and others may be beneficial. For example, imagine what a necklace of parasites
could do to a carpet python. Or what would happen to a karri forest if the fungus it depends
on for survival died? The living world is full of interesting and bizarre examples of relationships
between different species.
Every living thing, as well as their environment, is profoundly affected by the presence
or absence of other living or non-living things. Organisms of a soil community, for example,
are affected by the texture, mineral content and water content of the medium in which they
live. However, the properties of the soil itself are affected by the activities of burrowing worms
and decomposers. The burrows of the worms allow air and water to reach into the soil and the
decomposers increase the fertility of the soils by recycling organic material. A wallaby does not
exist on its own. It not only interacts with other wallabies but also with the vegetation it eats,
the ticks, mites, flies and other parasites that pester it, and the wedge-tailed eagle or dingo that
may attack its young.
Understanding the relationships between organisms and their interactions with each other
can help us understand how an ecosystem works. Some interactions can be straightforward
but others are extremely complex. It is only by experimentation and painstaking studies of
behaviour that scientists can come close to unravelling these relationships.

Competitor or collaborator?
Communities consist of the complex interactions of different populations and the individuals
within them. Many are in competition with each other because they require the same resources
to fulfil their needs for survival. Competition within and between species is a common feature
of all communities. For example, seemingly harmless sea anemones compete for the same food
source with others of their species. They can detect slight genetic variations in intruders of the
same species. Both rivals discharge a battery of stinging cells, normally used to paralyse and
catch prey. In the end, one will admit defeat, close up and creep away.

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 Getty Images/OSF/Rodger Jackman
  Figure 3.14
Different sea anemone
Members of some species solve the problem of catching their prey by collaborating with each species compete for
other as wolves do in hunting for their prey or dolphins when herding schools of fish. These are food sources. This is
an example of an
examples of intraspecific interactions: relationships between members of the same species. interspecific relationship.
On the other hand, the association that wolves or dolphins have with their respective prey is
interspecific: a relationship between members of different species.
The way in which one organism competes against or works with another organism to obtain
their food helps shape the biodiversity of an ecosystem. Chapter 4 explains
food chains and

Predator and prey food webs, and

the movement of
An obvious interaction within every ecosystem is a predator–prey relationship (Figure 3.15). energy through an
ecosystem.
In this relationship one organism, the predator, kills another organism, the prey, or consumes
part of it for its food. Although there is usually a preferred prey species, it is unusual for a
predator to depend on only one species. It is an advantage for a predator to be a member of a
Chapter 5 discusses
network of food chains. If one prey species becomes in short supply, the predator can turn to
more about
others. predator–prey
The dynamic relationship that exists between predator and prey is usually balanced, but population cycles.
sometimes conditions can change and upset this balance. Under favourable conditions, with
increasing availability of prey, the number of predators can increase, although it usually still
remains less than that of the prey. During a period of adverse conditions, the prey population
can decrease. When this occurs, there is increased intraspecific competition in the predator
population. Predators turn to alternative prey species and the effect on them can be severe,
though it does allow the original prey population to grow again.
Predation of any sort affects the prey
population in an ecosystem. Predation   Figure 3.15
The predator–prey
includes animals preying on plants, plants relationship
preying on animals, such as the Venus
flytrap or pitcher plants, or simply animals
preying on other animals. For example, seed
predators have a large effect on the plant
Prey
population and their distribution throughout
an ecosystem. These animals only feed on
Size of population

the seeds of plants, causing the seeds to

become unviable or damaged as they pass
through the digestive system of the predator.
Another example of the effect of predation
on the biodiversity of an ecosystem is the
release of nutrients into the soil caused by
decomposing animal carcasses left behind by
predators, which allows for micro-organisms Predator
to survive in the ecosystem.
Time

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 The issue with disease
aba lo n e The interaction between a disease-causing organism and the host is another interaction that
u n d e r t h r e at can affect the biodiversity of an ecosystem. For example, the myxomatosis virus causes a disease
Watch how that affects rabbits. In Australia, this virus is deliberately used to reduce the rabbit population to
the Victorian allow for native animal populations to increase. In this case, the disease allows the biodiversity
Department of of the Australian ecosystem to be higher because without the virus the rabbits become
Environment and overpopulated and outcompete the native animals for resources. On the other hand, disease
Primary Industries can also decrease the biodiversity of an ecosystem. Chlamydia is a disease impacting upon the
is using biosecurity populations of koalas across Australia. It affects the reproductive tract of the koala resulting
measures to in the failure to produce offspring. This in turn leads to the loss of koala numbers and genetic
control the herpes- diversity from particular ecosystems.
like viral infection
of abalone.

question set 3.4

Remembering
1 Using an example, explain ‘collaboration’.
2 Explain how disease affects the biodiversity of a region.

Understanding
3 Using examples, compare interspecific and intraspecific relationships.
4 Identify and explain the distinctive feature of a predator–prey relationship.

Applying
5 Using an example, explain how the predator–prey relationship shapes the biodiversity of an ecosystem.

Symbiotic relationships
Sy m b i o s i s Symbiosis is the general term used to describe the relationship in which individuals of two or
Refresh your more different species live together and in which at least one of the species benefits. There are
understanding three main types:
of symbiosis by 1 parasitism: one species benefits at the expense of the other
watching the
video. 2 mutualism: both species in the relationship benefit and neither is harmed
3 commensalism: one species benefits and the other neither benefits nor is harmed.
These relationships help shape the biodiversity of a region.

Parasitism
Most species, including humans, harbour parasites in every conceivable part of their body. A
parasite is an organism (such as a bacterium, virus, fungi, worm or arthropod) that lives on or
in another organism, known as the host. The parasites are extraordinarily well-adapted, with
regards to their life cycle, structure and physiology, to find their host and survive the hazards
of being dependent on them. The hosts themselves have coevolved strategies for surviving the
effects of their unwelcome invaders.
Their presence or absence in an ecosystem is yet another factor that shapes the unique
diversity of the region. The way in which the parasite interacts with the host organism
determines whether either one survives. For example, native mistletoe is a parasitic plant that
uses eucalypt trees as hosts. The mistletoe plant is transferred from one tree to another by the
mistletoe bird, spreading it throughout the eucalypt ecosystem. The presence of this parasitic
plant in turn can reduce the diversity of the ecosystem by killing numerous varieties of
eucalypts.

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 Alamy/BotanyFocus
© NHPA/Photoshot
David M. Watson

Mutualism
  Figure 3.16
The mistletoe plant is
spread by mistletoe
Not all relationships cause harm to a species. There are differing levels of mutualism, from birds that eat the berries
and defecate the sticky
a rather loose association in which the partners seem to gain little from each other, to seeds onto branches.
associations that are so intimate that the two partners can be regarded as a single organism.
These organisms work together and share the same ecosystem and even the same habitat.
The relationship between the pistol shrimp and the goby fish is an example of a mutualistic
relationship. The shrimp is able to dig a burrow to live in but it is relatively blind and cannot P i s to l s h r i m p
detect approaching predators. The goby fish uses the burrow for protection from predators and, a n d g o by
in return, it acts as the ‘eyes’ for the shrimp. During the day the shrimp maintains continual fish
contact with the goby’s tail, which the goby will flick several times if a predator approaches Visit the weblink to
and the two must retreat into the burrow. During the night they rest and share the burrow as see how the pistol
partners. shrimp and goby
Pollinators are essential for many flowering plants to reproduce. Like grasses, some plants fish work together.
can be pollinated by wind. Flowering plants, however, generally rely on insects, birds, small
mammals and even reptiles to transfer pollen from one plant to another. This is another example
of mutualism; the pollinator benefits from feeding on the nectar while the plant benefits by
being pollinated.
Generalist pollinators pollinate a range of different plant species, whereas specialists will
only pollinate the kind of plant with which they have coevolved. In these partnerships, both
members depend on each other so much that if one disappears, the other would not survive. The
plants would be sterile without a pollinator and the pollinator would starve without the plant as
Alamy/Dave Watts

its food source.

WOW

The Canberra spider orchid   Figure 3.17

These pygmy possums,
The critically endangered Canberra spider while collecting nectar
orchid, Caladenia actensis, is on the brink of from eucalypt blossom,
extinction. Population numbers are extremely low are also acting as
and the plant only exists in two locations, Mount pollinators.
Ainslie (30 plants) and Mount Majura (220 plants)
in the Australian Capital Territory. The orchid
relies on the thynnid wasp species to pollinate it.
The orchid has coevolved to resemble the wasp,
fooling it into attempting to mate with it and
Friends of Mt Majura, Waltraud Pix

pollinating the orchid in the process of doing so.

  Figure 3.18  
The rare spider orchid, Caladenia actensis

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 Seed dispersers are also intrinsic to ecosystem biodiversity. These organisms include
mammals and birds that eat fruits and seeds for nutrition. When the animal defecates, it
deposits the seeds in a new location where it can germinate and grow. Seed dispersers are
distinct from seed predators in that the seeds do not get damaged in the animal’s digestive
system and therefore remain viable for germination. The symbiotic relationship between the
seed disperser and the plant is another example of mutualism because both organisms benefit
from the interaction. The cassowary, Casuarius unappendiculatus, is a seed disperser who plays
a critical role in the Queensland rainforest ecosystem. They feed on fruits and berries, and can
disperse seeds up to a kilometre away from where they were consumed. Studies have shown
that the rare rainforest tree, Ryparosa kurrangii, found in the Daintree forest, had a better
germination rate after it had been passed through the gut of the cassowary. The cassowary is
one of the only frugivores (fruit-eating animal) that can consume the R. kurrangii’s large
fruit and seed. Without this intrinsic relationship, the R. kurrangii may struggle to germinate
and become even rarer.
In the absence of these pivotal relationships, many species would become threatened or
extinct because they cannot survive by themselves. Plants would not reproduce without the
pollinators and in turn the pollinators would not have a food source. Without seed dispersers,
some plants would not germinate and could become extinct. Diverse ecosystems would not
be built.

Intimate relationships
The utmost intimate association is achieved when one of the organisms lives inside the cells of
the other. Many coral polyps, jellyfish, clams and sea slugs have algae living in their tissues. The
algae need nitrates and phosphates for their metabolism. These are made available in the waste
material of their animal partner. The animal partner is careful to ensure that its algae are always
adequately exposed to light, because they benefit from the organic compounds produced by
algal photosynthesis.
Some sea slugs from the Great Barrier Reef actually stimulate the colonies of algae to
reproduce. The sea slugs grow out tentacles along their sides and the algae become squatters. The
sea slugs come to rely entirely on the food produced by the algal colonies. However, this does
not explain how the algae entered the sea slugs in the first place. The algae were present in the
coral the slugs fed on, and they passed from the slug’s gut into their tentacles.

Commensalism
Figure 3.19  
The commensal
Commensalism is a one-sided interaction between species. Only one of the two organisms
relationship between the involved, the commensal, benefits from the interaction. The other organism in this case
cattle egret and a zebra does not benefit, but it is not harmed. Some relationships are
easy to identify as commensal, such as the relationship between
the remora fish and the shark. The remora gets a free ride, and
possibly free leftovers, by attaching the suction pad it has on the
back of its head to the shark. The shark is otherwise unaffected.
Another example of a commensal relationship occurs
between the cattle egret and livestock. This migratory bird
is particularly widespread across the world, originating from
Africa, Europe and Asia. The cattle egret is generally found
foraging for food next to large livestock. The livestock disturb
insects in the grass that the egret then feeds upon. It has been
known that the egret will sit on the back of the beast to have
a better vantage point to spot insects. Also noted is that the
Alamy/Gallo Images

egret has a much higher foraging success rate when feeding near
livestock. In this relationship, the bird is the commensal and
the livestock are undisturbed and unharmed by the bird feeding
near it.

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 Epiphytes are climbing plants, such as lianas, which use trees to support them as they
reach for light. Their seeds germinate on the forest floor and the rapidly growing shoots spread
out. If they reach a vertical surface, they take hold of it. Other seeds, such as those of orchids,
are wafted high up to the branches and take hold there. In both of these instances, the tree
offers support without apparently gaining anything in return and without being harmed in
any way.
WOW

Life support
Some of the most common epiphytes in
forests are the bromeliads. They germinate
high up in the tree canopy and anchor
themselves tightly by wrapping their roots
around a branch. The leaves grow in such
a way that they channel rain water and
form a miniature pond, which becomes a
habitat to an assortment of small animals.
Dragonflies and mosquitoes lay their eggs
here, tiny frogs pass through their life cycles
here, and slugs, worms, beetles and small
reptiles also form part of the community.
Even birds come to visit and drink from
the ‘pond’, leaving their droppings for the
insect larvae to feed upon and grow.
The bromeliad benefits from

Auscape/Rob Williams
this arrangement by being able to
extract nutrients from the decaying
organic matter in the ‘pond’, which
would otherwise not be available. This
relationship between the bromeliad and
the organisms in the pond is therefore
mutualistic, but what of the relationship   Figure 3.20
between the bromeliad and the tree? A frog in a bromeliad pond

question set 3.5

Remembering
1 Define the following terms.
a Symbiosis
b Predation
c Parasitism
d Mutualism
e Commensalism

Understanding
2 Using an example, outline why it is essential to have pollinators and seed dispersers in an ecosystem.
3 Using the symbols 1 (beneficial), 2 (harmful) and 0 (unaffected), create a table that summarises the three
symbiotic interactions.
4 Using an example for each symbiotic relationship, explain how each one shapes biodiversity.

Applying
5 Compare the interaction between seed predators and plants with the interaction between seed dispersers
and plants.

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 Coexistence: the power
of a keystone species
An interesting aspect of predation is that in some cases it can affect the coexistence of a
number of other species. The purple sea star, Pisaster ochraceus, is a natural predator of mussels
in the intertidal zones of Pacific Ocean seashores. When researcher Robert Paine removed
purple sea stars from this environment, it resulted in the expansion of the population of resident
mussels. The mussels displaced the other sessile organisms, such as barnacles and limpets, as
they spread. The diversity of species in the area decreased from 15–20 invertebrates and algae
to below 5 over the period of 3 years. When the sea stars were returned, the mussels were again
preyed upon and the barnacles, limpets and other species were able to re-occupy the space. The
predator, P. ochraceus, allowed the coexistence of other species with the same requirements for
food and space.
The purple sea star species is known as a keystone species. These species are seen to have
a large influence over lower trophic levels. A keystone species prevents any one of the organisms
in the lower trophic levels from monopolising food resources and space. Instead, they allow for
richer biodiversity within a restricted area.
The idea of a keystone species was developed by Robert Paine based on his removal
experiments in the intertidal areas of western North America. Since this initial study, many
scientist have collected data to help support Paine’s theory. Many ecologists believe that
keystone species should be specific recipients of the efforts to amplify biodiversity. Over
time, policy recommendations have been made in the bid for biodiversity conservation.
Conservation of a single keystone species should be the central point for the management
strategies of an entire community. Scientists have also put forward arguments that keystone
species are essential in the re-establishment of ecological structure and sustainability.
However, it is the opinion of some that the definition of a keystone species is not yet refined
enough to form the basis of conservation efforts. They also speculate that this process could
be detrimental to species that are not considered key to species richness, yet are indicators of
habitat health.

A keystone species prevents organisms from lower trophic levels from

monopolising food resources and space.

Figure 3.21  
Pisaster ochraceus, the
purple sea star

Alamy/William Ragosta

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 Scientific literacy: Rainforest Rescue campaign
Following is a text extract from the Rainforest Rescue
‘Save the Cassowary’ campaign.

Rainforest Rescue Save the

We need your help NOW to save the

Cassowary campaign
Endangered Southern Cassowary
One of the most ancient of all creatures to inhabit the
Wet Tropics of Queensland is the Endangered Southern
Cassowary. As a ‘keystone species’ the Cassowary’s role
is pivotal in preserving the rainforest and its unique plants
and animals. Yet it’s estimated that fewer than 1000 birds remain.
The Southern Cassowary has been the Wet Tropics’ ‘rainforest gardener’ for virtually its entire
existence, and is the major seed disperser of around 150 plant species. Around 70 to 100 of these plants
depend entirely on the Cassowary to disperse their seeds, maintaining the rainforest’s rich biodiversity.
With so few birds left in the wild, we must act now to help save the Endangered Southern Cassowary.
If it becomes extinct, we stand to lose not just one of Australia’s most iconic animal species, but also the
Wet Tropics – including the magnificient Daintree Rainforest – as we know it.
Your donation will help to protect and restore critical Cassowary habitat, assist with conservation
efforts and help care for injured and orphaned Cassowaries.
The greatest threat to Cassowaries is us ... people. Rapid urban development in parts of the Wet Tropics
has either destroyed or fragmented much of their habitat. An adult Cassowary needs 250 hectares in
which to forage for food and breed. The disruption of their habitat forces them to travel further – exposing
them to threats like dog attacks and road fatalities.
Thanks to Rainforest Rescue supporters, we are taking positive action

Rainforest Rescue Save the Cassowary

to help save the Southern Cassowary. This includes the purchase and

campaign, photo © Jeff Larsen

protection of 22 properties classified as ‘essential’ Cassowary habitat,
and the planting of 43 756 trees in the Daintree Rainforest and at Mission
Beach to create Cassowary corridors, and provide extra food and shelter.
Your gift will enable us to continue this vital work to protect and restore
critical Cassowary habitat within Queensland’s Wet Tropics. Please donate now.
Mission Beach, south of Townsville, is home to Australia’s greatest
density of Southern Cassowaries. Yet, due to a combination of rapid
development and extreme weather events, like Cyclone Yasi, as few as 40
to 50 birds remain. Urban development has led
to increased mortality from
In 2011, thousands of hectares of prime Cassowary habitat was severely
car strikes with 147 recorded
damaged by Cyclone Yasi. In the first 12 months after the Cyclone 25 deaths since 1992.
Cassowaries were reported to have died – 13 of them hit by cars as they were
forced to leave their devastated habitat in search of food.
That’s why we are negotiating with the Queensland government to
co-manage the Garner’s Beach Cassowary Rehabilitation Centre near
Mission Beach. This is the only facility that rescues, rehabilitates and
releases injured and orphaned Cassowaries back into the wild.
Your support is vital to carrying out these types of long-term projects
that will help to ensure its survival:
●
$50 could provide food for one adult Cassowary for a week
●
$250 could help with the planting and maintenance of 25 native
rainforest trees to help restore or create Cassowary corridors
●
$750 could cover the care of an injured or orphaned Cassowary over
an 18-month period
●
$1000 could contribute to the protection of 200 square metres of
Cassowary habitat
© Liz Gallie

Questions
1 Identify the threats to Cassowary numbers according to this website extract.
Cassowary habitat destroyed by
2 List examples of persuasive language used in this extract. Describe the Cyclone Yasi in February 2011
general tone.
3 Assess whether or not you found this to be factual and credible. Discuss your views with examples.
4 Scientifically, using this information, propose the most effective way to manage the threats to the Cassowary
and help restore the population. Evaluate the distribution of money for long-term projects by this group.

9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7 U n i t 1 C h a p t e r 3 : bi o d i v erse ec o s y s t e m s  6 3
 question set 3.6
Remembering
1 Define ‘coexistence’ and ‘keystone species’.

Understanding
2 Explain why a keystone species increases an
ecosystem’s biodiversity.
3 Many ecosystems are classified by the
dominant species present in the system.
Compare and contrast the difference between
a keystone species and a dominant species.

Applying
4 The Yellowstone cutthroat trout is a keystone
species in Yellowstone National Park, US. Apply
your understanding of a keystone species
to explain Figure 3.22 and why it is essential
to conserve population numbers of the
Yellowstone cutthroat trout.

Figure 3.22  
Yellowstone cutthroat trout as a keystone species

C h a p t e r su m m a r y
●●
The biosphere can be broken up into major aquatic and terrestrial biomes.
●●
Each biome is comprised of numerous ecosystems, which are comprised of a number of habitats.
●●
An ecosystem is considered to be the interaction between the living organisms in the community and their
environment.
●●
The environment is the set of biotic and abiotic factors of a particular area.
●●
Each organism has a particular role within the ecosystem known as the organism’s ecological niche.
●●
An organism has a fundamental niche that it could potentially inhabit when no predators are involved, and
a realised niche that they do inhabit due to competition from other organisms.
●●
The competitive exclusion principle stipulates that no two species can occupy the same niche for an
extended period of time.
●●
Resource partitioning allows for multiple species to coexist in the one area without detriment to their relative
abundance.
●●
Predation, disease, and symbiotic relationships and interactions affect the biodiversity of an ecosystem.
●●
Symbiotic relationships and interactions include parasitism, mutualism and commensalism.
●●
A keystone species is a species of relatively low abundance in a higher trophic level that allows the
coexistence of a number of lower trophic level organisms in a particular area.
●●
Biodiversity can be affected in a negative way if the keystone species is removed.
●●
Biodiversity of an ecosystem is the result of the presence or absence of abiotic and biotic factors, and the
interactions and relationships between these factors.

64 N els o n B i o l o g y U N I T S 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a li a n C urriculu m 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7

C h a p t e r g l o ssa r y
abiotic the non-living components of an ecosystem habitat an area or environment where an individual
arboreal living in trees or species lives within an ecosystem
association a relationship or interaction between host an organism that another organism lives on or in
two or more species humus the dark brown organic matter in soil, derived
aquatic environment a water environment, such as from decomposed plant and animal remains (detritus)
an ocean, lake, river, stream or swamp interspecific interactions or relationships between
biodiversity the full range of different living things members of different species
in a particular area or region; it can be described intraspecific interactions or relationships between
at various levels, including the range of different members of the same species
species, genetic diversity, or the diversity of keystone species a species of relatively low
ecosystems present in a larger area abundance that is seen to have a large influence
biome the main category of an ecosystem across a over lower trophic levels to allow the coexistence of
large geographical area these species in a particular area
biosphere the sum of all ecosystems across the world limiting factor an element of the environment that
biotic the living components of an ecosystem restricts the survival of an organism to a region
coevolve the evolution of adaptive features in two mutualism a symbiotic relationship whereby both
different species that have placed selective pressures species in the relationship benefit from each other
on each other parasite an organism, such as a bacterium, virus,
coexistence different species living together peacefully fungi, worm or arthropod, that lives on or in another
commensalism a symbiotic relationship whereby organism and causes death
one species benefits and the other is unaffected parasitism a symbiotic relationship whereby one
community the sum of the different species species benefits to the detriment of the other
inhabiting a particular habitat at one time photic zone a region of water that light can
competition the struggle between two or more penetrate to allow photosynthesis to occur
species for resources to fulfil their need for survival pollinator an organism that is able to transfer pollen
competitive exclusion principle the theory that from one flower to another
no two species can occupy the same niche for an population a group of individuals belonging to the
extended period of time same species living in a particular area at the same time
diurnal describes animals that are most active predator an organism that hunts another organism
during the daylight hours for its food
dominant species the most common or abundant prey an organism that is hunted by another
species in a particular ecosystem organism for food
ecological niche an organism’s habitat and the realised niche the actual niche a species inhabits
way an organism fulfils its role in the ecosystem resource partitioning the use of resources that allows
ecologist a scientist who studies the relationships a number of species to coexist in an ecosystem
between living things and their surroundings seed disperser an organism that feeds on fruits and
ecology a branch of biology that explores the seeds for nutrition and, when the animal defecates, it
relationships between living things and their deposits the seeds in a new location where they can
surroundings germinate and grow
ecosystem a self-sustaining unit consisting of seed predator an organism that feeds on seeds
the interactions between the community and the and generally acts as a seed disperser
environment sessile a fixed or non-moving species
endemic a species that is native to a particular symbiosis the relationship between individuals of
geographic region, and not introduced two or more species that interact together whereby at
environment abiotic and biotic factors of an area least one organisms benefits from the relationship
epiphyte a type of climbing plant, such as lianas, terrestrial environment a land environment such as
which uses trees as support as they reach for light tundra, desert or rainforest
estuary the transitional region where fresh water tolerance range a set of abiotic conditions in which
from a river meets with salt water from the ocean an organism, cell or enzyme functions at its optimal
eutrophication an increase in the concentration of topography the composition of the natural and
nutrients, phosphates and nitrates in a waterway that man-made features of an area
promotes algal bloom zone of intolerance a set of abiotic conditions in
frugivore a fruit-eating animal which an organism, cell or enzyme cannot function
fundamental niche the potential region an zone of physiological stress a set of abiotic
organism could inhabit if there were no competitors, conditions in which an organism, cell or enzyme finds
predators or parasites it difficult to function

9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7 U n i t 1 C h a p t e r 3 : bi o d i v erse ec o s y s t e m s  6 5
Chapter review questions
Remembering
1 Summarise how terrestrial and aquatic environments are classified.
2 Compare a terrestrial environment and an aquatic environment in terms of the following abiotic factors:
pressure, temperature and gas availability.
3 Explain the difference between a competitor and a collaborator.

Understanding
4 Compare the following terms.
a biosphere to biome
b environment to ecosystem
c ecosystem to habitat
d population to community
e habitat to environment
f ecological niche to ecosystem
5 Explain the role of a keystone species in an ecosystem.
6 Outline how symbiotic relationships increase the biodiversity of an ecosystem.

Applying
7 Copy and complete the table below, which summarises the relationships and interactions between
living species.
Relationship Description Example
or interaction
Different species living
together and sharing
the same resources
Commensalism

Rivalry between species

for particular resources
Mutualism

Transfers pollen between

flowers
An animal that kills for Figure 3.23  
food
Keystone
species
B
Seed disperser

8 a Using the information given in this chapter

and an atlas, predict the ecosystems that are
labelled A–D on Figure 3.23.
C
b Identify the rainfall and temperature ranges that
would be experienced in each area.
9 Suggest what would occur to the biodiversity of an
ecosystem if a new species was introduced.

A D

66 N els o n B i o l o g y U N I T S 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a li a n C urriculu m 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7

10 Copy and complete Table 3.3 to compare the abiotic features used to classify different terrestrial and
aquatic environments.
Table 3.3 Abiotic features of various environments

Abiotic feature Terrestrial Terrestrial Aquatic Aquatic

environment: environment: environment: environment:
desert rainforest marine lake

Pressure
variation

Temperature
variation

Nutrient
concentration

Salinity

Oxygen
availability

Water availability

Analysing
11 Use Figure 3.24 to answer the following questions.
a Identify the dominant species.
b Calculate the percentage coverage of the dominant species.
c Based on the information obtained from this plot, identify the classification of this environment.
d Explain the limitations of using only one sample plot.
e Suggest reasons for the difference in species distribution.

X
N

A D

B Scale 1 cm = 2 m
Species Height
C
Eucalypt species A 40 m

Eucalypt species B 26 m

A C Eucalypt species C 15 m

Species D Shrubs

  Figure 3.24
Surface map (aerial view) of sample plot

9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7 U n i t 1 C h a p t e r 3 : bi o d i v erse ec o s y s t e m s  6 7
12 Elephant dung contains a great deal of fibrous matter, including seeds. Some of their plant food species have
evolved to produce seeds that have a coating of rind to protect them from an elephant’s digestive juices.
Unless the seeds have passed through the elephant’s digestive system first, they are unable to germinate.
Analyse and explain the relationship described and use a visual medium for communicating your analysis.
13 a For each of the following organisms, make a table or draw a relational diagram (e.g. concept map)
of what you consider are the four most important abiotic factors and the four main biotic factors that
influence them.
  i A sea anemone in a rock pool 300 Boreal Temperate
  ii A tree in a paddock forest deciduous forest

precipitation (mm)
250

Average annual
iii An insect larva in the soil 200 Temperate
Desert rainforest
b Explain in what way each factor affects
150
each organism. Add your answers to Tropical
the table or annotate your relational Grassland rainforest
100
diagram.
50 Permanent
14 Use Figure 3.25 to answer the following ice Tundra
questions. 0
220210 0 10 20 30
a List the temperature range and Average annual
precipitation range for the ecosystems temperature (8C)
listed.
Figure 3.25  
b Which ecosystem has the largest Climograph for some major ecosystems of North America
temperature range?
c Which ecosystem has the largest precipitation range?
d Using the Internet, provide an example of each ecosystem.
15 Populations become separated and fragmented due to a number of factors, such as urbanisation and
deforestation. Explain how population fragmentation is detrimental to the genetic diversity of a species and
their existence.
16 a Explain, using an example, why a prey population is usually larger than a predator population.
b Suggest a reason that a prey population may be smaller than the predator population.
17 Explain ‘dynamic relationship’ with regards to predator and prey.

Evaluating
18 Evaluate this statement: ‘Ecosystems are diverse and composed of varied habitats’.
19 Joseph Connell conducted an experiment to determine the fundamental and realised niches of two
different species of barnacle, the Balanus balanoides and Chthamalus stellatus. The two barnacles
inhabited the same rock face but the C. stellatus was found on higher rocks and the B. balanoides were
found on the lower rocks. During his experiment, Connell discovered that the B. balanoides could only live
on the lower rocks as exposure to air during low tide would cause the barnacle to dry out and die (known
as desiccation). When the B. balanoides were removed from the rock, the C. stellatus could inhabit the
entire area.
a Draw a diagram that shows the realised and fundamental niches of B. balanoides and C. stellatus.
b Using the theory of competitive exclusion, explain why C. stellatus does not inhabit the entire rock.

Creating
20 Using the terms from the glossary, create a graphical organiser such as a concept map to summarise your
understanding of the chapter.
21 Summarise why the world has organisms living in a range of habitats from the tops of the mountains to the
troughs that lie several kilometres under the ocean.

Reflecting
22 Justify this statement: ‘The world is a more diverse place because of the relationships found within
ecosystems’.

68 N els o n B i o l o g y U N I T S 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a li a n C urriculu m 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7