Chapter 5

P o p u l at i o n
dy n a m i c s

By the end of this chapter you will have covered the following material.

Science Understanding
●●
Ecosystems have carrying capacities can be used to predict the impact of change
that limit the number of organisms (within and are based on interpretation of and
[Link]/Fiona Ayerst

populations) they support, and can be extrapolation from sample data (for example,
impacted by changes to abiotic and biotic data derived from ecosystem surveying
factors, including climatic events (ACSBL025) techniques); the reliability of the model is
●●
Models of ecosystem interactions (for determined by the representativeness of
example, food webs, successional models) the sampling (ACSBL029)
 In 1981, grey-headed f lying foxes (Pteropus poliocephalus) established
a permanent colony at Melbourne’s Royal Botanic Gardens. Up until
that time, the population had been seasonal with very few individuals
present during the cooler months. The population then exploded
over the next 20 years, reaching a total of 30 000 individuals in the
summer of 2001. Though the population size continued to vary
seasonally, a very large population was in permanent residence at
the site. The size of any such colony is dependent on available food
and roosting sites. The f lying foxes’ diet of nectar, pollen and fruit,
specif ically from eucalypts, banksias and melaleucas, also included
occasional rainforest fruit and f lowers. All these were readily available
within or near the Botanic Gardens. This established population grew
until it could not be sustained within the conf ines of the Botanic
Gardens. Why did these individuals immigrate to the Melbourne
site? Why do populations change? How can we measure and control
populations if we want to manage them?

What is a
population?
Corbis/Paul Hobson/Design Pics

Populations are def ined as members of a species in one place

at one time. Knowing the f igures helps scientists and ecologists
understand the habits and needs of organisms. This enables
humans to sustain and ensure that vulnerable species persist and
contribute to the planet’s biodiversity. Determining the size of
various populations addresses many needs, whether it is to help
understand how a vulnerable species such as Leadbeater’s possum
Figure 5.1   is able to survive any sort of logging activity in its already highly
The grey-headed
f lying fox, Pteropus reduced habitat, or to determine how many minke whales Iceland may hunt in one season
poliocephalus and still sustain a viable population. What determines whether a population is thriving,
surviving or on the brink of extinction? What is the critical population size and what needs
to be considered when working to ensure that Earth’s biodiversity is maintained? The factors
that would require consideration vary greatly between species. For example, a minke whale
population in any area may be as small as 6 animals or as large as 50–100 animals where
food is plentiful. Even the 6 are enough to maintain the population consisting of 2 mature
females, 1 mature adult male and 2–3 immature animals. For krill (the food of many
baleen whales, such as the minke), a population size of less than one million individuals is
considered at risk.

Populations in unstable
environments
In unstable, unpredictable ecosystems, such as after a f ire or land-clearing, opportunistic
species move in and colonise as quickly as they are able. In these environmental conditions,
population explosions of these colonisers follows. This pattern of rapid increase then decline
(or crash) is called r-selection, where the maximum reproductive potential of the species
is reached. In order to survive, these so-called r-selected species must colonise new
environments quickly, and be able to reproduce rapidly and in relatively large numbers. As a
result, they are characterised by smaller size, short life cycles and a lack of parental care for
young (in animals). Examples of r-selected species include mice, rats, frogs, toads, weeds and
oysters.
Unfortunately, as the environmental resources are diminished, the numbers will drop of f
just as rapidly as they began and these species are replaced with competitors. Locusts and other
swarming insects are an example of r-selected species.

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Populations in stable environments
In stable ecosystems, slow and steady life strategies are more successful. Larger, longer-lived
species like elephants, whales, gorillas, oak trees or eucalypts outcompete the smaller, faster
growing species over time. They have a more controlled population growth pattern. They can
exist close to the carrying capacity of their environment. The carrying capacity describes
the maximum population size of a species that can be supported in a given environment. For
example, the female red kangaroo is able to manage the number of young that are born at any
one time. At times when water and food are plentiful, the female may have up to three young at
various stages of development: a joey that has mostly left the pouch and is no longer reliant on
the mother for nourishment, a young that is f irmly attached to a nipple in the pouch while it
completes development, and a third embryo whose development and birth have been suspended
till there is room in the pouch. If food or other requirements for life become scarce at any stage,
the female is able to abandon any one of the three. Without her protection they most certainly
perish. A harsh reality; however, the maintenance of a sustainable population size is assured.
This is def ined as K-selection, and over the long term of fers stability to the ecosystem and
equilibrium to the populations that exist within it. K-selected species live longer, breed later
in life, have fewer of fspring and devote their lives to ensuring the survival of the of fspring to
reproductive maturity.
Sturt’s desert pea (Swainsona formosa ) is the f loral emblem of South Australia, and it
has a relatively short f lowering season. Its natural habitat includes open desert areas and dry
woodlands. It is often described as an opportunistic ephemeral plant because it is short-lived,
particularly after heavy rains when conditions become temporarily suitable for its growth and
reproduction. Most of its life is spent as a seed with a tough, water-resistant coat. Only after
drenching rains will the seeds germinate, f lower and then set seed all within a matter of days.
In its specif ic habitat, this ensures survival of the species. However, when conditions become
less suitable, the initial population explosion is quickly followed by a crash when resources
(such as available water) are used or other abiotic conditions alter. This limits the numbers of
the plant that can be sustained. Their use of existing resources is highly ef f icient and ensures
their ongoing survival in an environment to which they are best suited. Is this an example of
r-selection or K-selection?

q u e s t i o n s e t 5 .1
Remembering
1 Define ‘population’.
2 Explain why r-selected species are often described as opportunists.

Understanding
3 K-selected species are described as competitor species. Explain why.
4 Biodiversity is a measure of an ecosystem’s health. How is this so?

Measuring populations
Platypus numbers in the eastern states of Australia have f luctuated over recent times. The
most recent method of determining their numbers included enlisting the help of the public
in reporting any sightings to a national database. The information gathered has been used to
determine the health and sustainability issues for existing populations. The biggest impact
on numbers in water bodies between northern New South Wales and Apollo Bay in western
Victoria is the activities of humans, specif ically dumping of rubbish anywhere that ultimately
f inds its way into the waterways and freshwater habitats of the platypus. Relationships between

9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7 U n i t 1 C h a p t e r 5: P o p u l at i o n dy n a m i c s 10 3
 organisms can change. At the same time that humans are assisting in the data collection, their
activities are impacting directly on the numbers. Studying populations can help us predict such
changes to their numbers and the far-reaching consequences to the ecosystem they inhabit.
Ecologists describe the total number of a particular species in a particular place at a
particular time as the population – for example, the number of manna gums (Eucalyptus
viminalis) in a heathland community, the number of straw-necked ibises (Threskiornis
spinicollis) in a wetland in a particular month, or even the number of possums in an urban
area. Populations in an ecosystem are dynamic. Maybe you have noticed changes in the
number and kind of plants or insects in your neighbourhood from one season to another or
from year to year.

Growth of populations
The black swan (Cygnus atratus) is a nomadic species of waterbird native to the waterways of
Australia, including fresh water, brackish (briny) water and seawater. In times of plentiful rain,
adult swans will migrate to areas that have received the heaviest rain and will reproduce here.
These areas often have a small resident population, which will quickly increase in number due
to the migration. When the environmental conditions return to their previous levels, the swans
will emigrate leading to a decrease in the local population size. This is an example of an open
ecosystem, where migration between populations of animals (and occasionally plants) can occur.
This migration will af fect overall numbers in the ecosystems involved, their distribution, and,
in the longer term, birth and death rates.
In the Queensland rainforests, located between Townsville and Cooktown, a small number
of bird species exist that are not found in any other areas. All of their survival and reproductive
needs must be met within this rainforest habitat. The Victoria’s rif lebird (Ptiloris victoriae) is one
such species. The population is in decline as its growth rate depends only on birth and death
Figure 5.2   rates. There is no migration as other members of the species will not move into an area where
The house sparrow at a their species is under threat. The decline is also a ref lection of habitat loss and hunting pressures.
bird feeder However, the species is abundant throughout its range. This is an
example of a closed ecosystem, where migration does not impact at all
on population size. A population is therefore increasing if the birth rate
and/or immigration rate exceeds the death rate and/or emigration rate.
Rate refers to the number of individuals per hundred, per thousand or
whatever unit is appropriate.
Conversely, a population decreases when the death and emigration
rates exceed birth and immigration rates. The decline in the numbers
of the common sparrow in Indian urban settings is one such example.
As the wetland habitat of these birds is reduced due to increased
urbanisation, emigration may occur in the first instance, but the carrying
capacity is reached at their destination and therefore the birds just die.
The reduction in abiotic and biotic factors in its habitat impacts on
many aspects of the sparrow’s needs including availability of nesting
sites, food, water and shelter, which together lead to a reduced birth
rate. Interestingly, the sparrow is also an indicator of urban ecosystem
health. Urban ecosystems are defined as ecosystems of towns and
cities – essentially those constructed by humans. They can impact on
the surrounding ecosystems of the natural world both positively and
[Link]/Jgade

negatively. After initial establishment issues, wildlife, in particular, have

been able to adapt and thrive in these environments. How well they
integrate into the setting helps determine the general health and growth
of this human-made ecosystem. Therefore, the decrease in sparrow
numbers does not bode well for the future of this specific ecosystem.

Population growth rate 5 (birth rate 1 immigration rate) 2 (death rate 1 emigration rate)

5 (br 1 ir) 2 (dr 1 er)

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 W o r k e d e x a mp l e 5 .1
Calculate the growth rate of a population of 1000 individuals where, every year, 100 individuals are born,
65 individuals immigrate into the population, 37 individuals die and 25 individuals emigrate to another
population. (4 marks)

Answer Logic
growth rate 5 (br 1 ir) 2 (dr 1 er) Devise formula 1 mark
growth rate 5 (100 per 1000 1 65 per 1000) 2 (37 per 1000 1 25 per 1000) Substitute 2 marks
5 103 Calculate answer 1 mark
Therefore, the population has grown by 103 individuals per 1000. Growth rates
can also be expressed as a percentage: 110.3% if there is an increase or
210.3% if there is a decrease.
Try these yourself
1 Calculate the growth rate of a population if, for every 1000 individuals, there are 59 born, (4 marks)
105 immigrants, 86 deaths and 40 emigrants.
2 Calculate the growth rate of a population if, for every 1000 individuals, there are 150 born, (4 marks)
59 immigrants, 29 deaths and 30 emigrants.

Determining growth
Information that is provided by population studies is useful for monitoring ecosystems.
Knowing the age structure of a population is signif icant in predicting future growth trends. A
population with individuals predominantly below reproductive age will limit the ability of that
species to reproduce and maintain its numbers in challenging situations, as well as in favourable
conditions. Similarly, populations with individuals too old to reproduce will impact on the rate
of replacement following death or emigration. A useful method of representing collected data
is the construction of population pyramids. Figure 5.3 shows population pyramids for two
dif ferent human populations. You can see that the pyramid for population A is wider at the
bottom, indicating a healthy future reproduction rate because the number of children is quite
high. Population A has a greater proportion of children than does population B. What is the
signif icance of this?

90   Figure 5.3
Population pyramids
80

70

60
Age (years)

50

40

30

20 Males Females Males Females

10

50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Population A (millions) Population B (millions)

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 Scientif ic data about age distribution and sex ratios can assist in the management of
populations. Each year, federal, state and local governments collect and collate information on
the state of wild f ish stocks. This information is used to determine the level of both recreational
and commercial sustainable f ishing. Sustainability ensures that overf ishing does not drain the
stocks, and that young (smaller) f ish are able to contribute to the populations in the future.
This information can be used to plan how to ensure suf f icient numbers of young live to reach
reproductive age, how to develop strategies for protecting endangered species and maintaining
ecosystems, and how to restore degraded ones.

Measuring distribution
Understanding how populations operate takes more than knowing what kinds of species
are a part of the system or how they relate to each other. It is also important to know their
distribution: exactly where in the physical space members of the dif ferent species are found.
Members of a population are seldom spread evenly throughout the entire ecosystem. There
are patterns in the way populations are distributed.
●●
Random distribution: organisms are spaced irregularly; the location of an organism does
not af fect the location of another (more common for plants than for animals).
●●
Uniform (continuous) distribution: organisms are evenly spaced; the presence of one
organism determines how close or distant another will be. It is common in relatively
high-density populations of some animals that set up breeding territories.
●●
Clumped (grouped) distribution: a number of individuals are grouped together and the
groups make up the population as a whole. This is sometimes to do with social behaviour
as in schools of f ish, or clumping of vegetation in mini-habitats where biotic and/or abiotic
factors are favourable.
Knowing the distribution and abundance (how many) of a species can help keep track
of populations of signif icance. Knowledge of particular plant species can give clues about the
distribution and abundance of animals that depend on them. The forestry industry needs to
know about the distribution and abundance of valuable tree species, and the f ishing industry
needs to know about f ish stocks. Keeping track of pest and plague species, such as mice and
Figure 5.4  
Distribution patterns:
locusts, gives forewarning of potential outbreaks that would require management.
clumped, uniform and
random

Clumped distribution Uniform distribution Random distribution

(e.g. schools of fish) (e.g. penguin colony) (e.g. specific tree species in a forest)

Lonely Planet/Richard I’Anson

Getty Images/OSF/Mike Hill

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 Techniques used to determine distribution and abundance depend upon the species or
community under investigation. Essentially plants are stationary, so methods are used to
determine location, numbers and distribution. Animals are mobile and so dif ferent techniques
are used. The method that gathers the most pertinent data for management of populations
within ecosystems should always be selected. For example, a small population of a rare orchid
species may be able to be counted individually, whereas counting a colony of penguins or
oceanic tuna will require dif ferent methodology.

Measuring abundance
It is not always possible to determine the population size of a species. Birds and insects are
constantly on the move, and some animals move too fast to count, however, there are still
techniques that can be used to make estimates. It may be dif f icult to work out what actually
makes up an individual organism. How do you count individual plants of grass?

Direct observation
Making direct observations and recording sightings at particular intervals might be possible
but it is time-consuming, and in the case of male fur seals in the breeding season on windswept
shores, quite dangerous. Satellite images have been used to determine percentage vegetation
cover in relatively inaccessible regions. In aquatic ecosystems, plankton nets are used to ‘sweep’
or sample the organisms, and aircraft traverse areas to count kangaroos and other large
mammals like musk ox in the Arctic and antelope on African savannahs.
Even when it is possible, it may not be necessary to count all members of a given population.
Various sampling techniques can provide estimates of a population. A sample is a small group of
organisms selected from the total population in a given area or volume. This sample represents
the whole population.
When determining population numbers of nocturnal species, slight variations need to be
employed. In New Zealand, scientists have been using spotlights with a red f ilter to determine
the number of f ish in a measured and netted area of a river. The f ilter reduces the impact on the
f ish and counting can be carried out reliably.
Choosing a particular site because it is easy to get to or is more interesting, or selecting only
two sample specimens, reduces the reliability of the data obtained. It does not give a true picture
of the whole population. To represent the population as a whole reliably, the samples must be
collected in an unbiased way.

Quadrat and transect

For organisms that are f ixed or do not move very much, the quadrat method of sampling
can be used to estimate distribution and abundance. A quadrat is a square, the size of which is
determined according to the organism being studied, measured at ground level. It is most often
used when measuring plant density because they are stationary. It is also a relevant method
along shorelines when recording sedentary marine species that may be exposed as the tide varies.
It can also be used to calculate density of a population.
CSIRO Division of Plant Industry

  Figure 5.5
Quadrat sampling is
often used to estimate
plant population size.

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 If suf f icient quadrats are chosen, and they are representative of the area under study, results
can be used to estimate total population size. For each quadrat:
●●
the number of individuals of each species is counted and recorded, or
●●
the relative numbers of each species is estimated using a scale from abundant (3) to absent (0), or
●●
percentage cover is estimated, and
●●
the totals of the quadrats are averaged.
A simple mathematical calculation can give the total number or percentage cover for each
species in the whole area. The density can also be calculated.

Estimating total population size of area under study

average density of members of species (estimated)

5 total number of individuals counted 4 area of each quadrat 3 number of quadrats

A transect (‘trans’ = across, ‘sect’ = section) is a line drawn through a community and the
information gathered is used to determine the distribution of species within that community.
Again, this is a useful method when species are f ixed in place, such as plants and fungi. In order
to improve the data collected, quadrats may also be placed at intervals along the transect line
and thus data on density in specif ic locations may also be recorded.

Figure 5.6   3.0

Transect prof ile 2.8 Rocky ledge
of a marine
2.6 Supralittoral
rock platform
2.4 zone
2.2
Vertical height (m)

2.0
Intermittent splashing
1.8
Splash zone Periwinkles
1.6
Highest tide Algae visible in winter
1.4 level
1.2 Periodic wetting and
1.0 drying out
Usual tidal Algae (leafy green)
0.8
range Sea anemone, starfish, octopus, Periwinkles, limpets,
0.6
brown algae with floats chitons, rock crabs
0.4
0.2 Lowest tide range Rock pools Wave pounding
Kelps (brown algae)
Sublittoral zone
with holdfast,
barnacles, sea squirts

W o r k e d e x a mp l e 5 . 2
If 35 individuals have been counted in 10 3 1 m2 quadrats, what is the average density of that species?
(3 marks)

Answer Logic
35 4 1 m2 3 10 Formula as above. Enter values 2 marks
5 3.5 individuals per m 2 Calculate answer 1 mark
Try these yourself
1 Complete the following to determine the average density.
a 65 individuals in 24 3 2 m2 quadrats (3 marks)
b 110 individuals in 12 3 5 m quadrats 2 (3 marks)

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 When an area has been selected for study and the data needed has been nominated, the
transect line is measured out. It may be 10 m long with regular segments (every metre) where
information regarding changes in distribution is recorded as one moves along a tidal zone
towards land. It may also provide information on vertical features such as the canopy of
the forest, as well as the species present. It may need to be a kilometre in length if studying
changes in the distribution of organisms because abiotic factors change with altitude along a
mountainside.
The line transect method is best to use if environmental factors such as soil type, pH and
salinity change along the distance to be sampled. Gradual changes like this are referred to as
environmental gradients. Distribution of species can be correlated with changes in these
abiotic factors. Vertical transects can show vertical distribution of species. Dif ferent
conditions at dif ferent levels result in stratif ication; for example, in forests. Environmental
factors change across a tidal mudf lat or a marine rock platform. In these cases a prof ile can be
drawn.
In order to gain a full picture of population distribution and specif ic abundance patterns
in environments, a combination of methodologies is best. Data gathered using transects of fers
fairly accurate information regarding distribution of individuals and/or species, whereas
quadrats of fer a comprehensive picture of species abundance, but not distribution.

EX P ERI M ENT 5 .1

D i s t r i b u t i o n a n d a b u n d a n ce :
How many pl ants?
Determining plant numbers and species is a lot easier than determining animal numbers and species present.
Plants don’t move! There are two sampling strategies that work well. One is used to determine the density and
total number of plants in a given area. Another method allows you to determine the distribution of a range of
species within a def ined space. You will be using both in this experiment.
Aim
To investigate the distribution and abundance of local plants
Materials
●●
10 m tape measure
●●
three 1-m rulers
●●
pencil and eraser
●●
note pad

What are the risks in doing this experiment How can you manage these risks to stay safe?
Insects or spiders living in the natural environment Wear gloves when touching plants or soil.
may bite.

Procedure
1 Select two sites to investigate: one will be a school oval, the other a forested area at least 10 m in length.
2 a On the oval: collect data about the number of plants on the total oval surface using a 1 m2 quadrat.
b In forested area: collect data about the type and distribution of plants along a 10 m transect.
Results
1 Using your collected data, determine species type and number.
2 Research to determine the needs of each species.
3 Record your results in a table.
Conclusion
Make sure your conclusion includes quantitative data that relates directly to the measureable quantities you
mentioned in your aim. If possible, make an estimate of the uncertainty in your results.

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 Capture–mark–recapture
The capture–mark–recapture method is commonly used to sample
mobile species. A random sample of individuals of a species is taken and
an overall estimation of the abundance of the species is made.
Step 1 Capture: animals are caught randomly and in such a way
that they are unhurt. Small animals are trapped in cages or pitfalls in
the ground, birds are trapped in f ine nets and some animals are caught
easily when they ‘freeze’ in spotlights. Flying insects are attracted to
light traps.
Step 2 Mark and release: each captured animal is marked so that the
mark is not obvious to predators or harmful to the organism. Insects are
usually marked with a blob of paint, whereas birds are tagged on the leg
or wing. The animals are returned to their habitat and left to mix with
the unmarked individuals.
Step 3 Recapture: later, a random sample is taken and the number
of marked individuals counted. The timing of recapture needs to be
appropriate to again capture a random mixture of individuals, but
without leaving it so long that many of the original marked individuals
have died. From this information the total population can be estimated.
The procedure has to be planned carefully so that the chances of each
Corbis/Jonathan Blair

individual being caught are equal. Sometimes ‘trap happy’ individuals

will be sampled over and over.

Figure 5.7  
Playing tag:
tagging a turtle Step 1 Capture
Population Sample 1:
N5? 26 captured

Step 2 Mark
All marked All captured individuals are
individuals are marked. M 5 26
returned to the
population.

Step 3 Recapture
Sample 2:
21 captured (n)
3 marked (m)

M 5 26 Marked individuals have spread

N5? throughout the population.

Figure 5.8  
The capture–mark–recapture
technique

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 W o r k e d e x a mp l e 5 . 3
In the f irst sample, 20 individuals were marked. In the second sample, 50 individuals were recaptured and of
these recaptured animals 10 were marked. What is the total population? (3 marks)
Total population (N ) 5 no. marked in f irst sample (M ) 3 total number of animals recaptured (n ) 4
no. of recaptured animals that are marked (m )

M 3n
N5
m
Answer Logic
20 3 50
Total population 5 Substitute into the formula above 2 marks
10
1000
5
10
5 100 individuals in the total population Calculate the answer 1 mark
Try these yourself
1  In the f irst sample, 30 individuals were marked. In the second sample, 50 individuals were (3 marks)
recaptured and 10 of these were marked. What is the total population?
2  In the f irst sample, 100 individuals were marked. In the second sample, 200 individuals were (3 marks)
recaptured and 50 of these were marked. What is the total population?

EX P ERI M ENT 5 . 2

E s t i m at i o n o f p o p u l at i o n s i z e
When you are studying a population of organisms, whether it is a school of f ish or a population of wombats in
a certain area, it is not possible or even necessary to count all members of a given population. Estimates of
numbers within the population are therefore made on the basis of various sampling techniques. A sample is a
small group of organisms, selected from the total population, which is representative of the whole population.
But just how reliable are these methods of estimating population size?
Aim
To estimate the size of a non-living population using the ‘capture–mark–recapture’ method and to comment on
its reliability as a technique
Materials
Each student will require:
●
140 white or black buttons (beads or matches may be substituted)
●
plastic cup to mix or shake the buttons
Procedure
1 Using a texta, mark 20 of the buttons with an ‘X’. Alternatively, you could use buttons that are differently
coloured from the rest; for example, 20 yellow buttons among all the black/white ones.
2 Thoroughly mix the marked buttons with the rest of the population of buttons by shaking them in the cup.
3 Take out a sample size of 20 of the buttons and count the number of marked ones among the number of
unmarked.
4 We assume that if the sample taken is representative of the whole population, then the ratio of marked
objects will be the same in both the sample and in the whole population:

Total marked Number marked in sample

5
Total population (marked & unmarked) Number (marked & unmarked) in sample

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 Thus:
40 marked 5 marked
should produce
out of 160 total out of 20 in a sample

Number in sample
The formula for the total number 5 3 Total number marked
Number marked in sample
20
In this example, the total    5 3 40
5
   
5 160
5 Calculate your estimate of the population in your Results.
6 Repeat the procedure an additional nine times, each time returning the sample and mixing to get a
reasonable average. You should now have 10 populations estimates based on 10 samples.
7 Draw a table and record your results.
8 Finally, count all the objects in your population.
Results
1 Record your calculations: 10 estimates of population size.
2 Record your table of results.
3 Write your average estimated population size.
Discussion
1 Based on your calculations, explain how reliable this method is at estimating population size.
2 Can you suggest any ways of improving the accuracy of this method in this experiment? Explain.
3 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using the capture–mark–recapture method to estimate a
wild population of mice or blue whales.
Conclusion
Refer back to the aim of this experiment. Have you achieved this aim? Write a conclusion based on what you
have learned.

Telemetry (remote tracking)

The management and conservation of species, whether native, endemic
or pest species, is increasingly reliant on information gathered by the
means described in previous sections and other methods that employ
technology. The use of species distribution modelling to predict
future needs and resource management is a more recent technology
that has provided another means of achieving this aim. Increasingly,
the impact of climate change is an environmental issue that raises many
concerns for the wellbeing of many species, and this tool is vital in
providing all necessary data.
In order to collect data used in species distribution modelling,
individuals within a population need to be tracked. In Victoria,
Fairfax Syndication/The Age/Wayne Taylor

information regarding the foraging habits of little penguins throughout

Port Phillip Bay during the non-breeding winter period was gathered
when 21 little penguins were f itted with GPS (global positioning
system) transmitters in July 2008. The data gathered indicated that
the penguins went on short trips of 1–2 days around Phillip Island and
then on longer foraging trips from 10–50 days out into Port Phillip Bay.
The winter foraging trips appeared to be driven by the location of food
sources such as anchovy, which are known to spawn in Port Phillip Bay
during winter. This information was used to inform conservation groups
on what areas needed to be monitored for human aquatic activity such
Figure 5.9  
A little penguin f itted as shipping, f ishing and trawling, ensuring the survival of the penguins
with a transmitter during these months.

11 2  Ne l s o n B i o l o g y UNITS 1 & 2 f o r t h e A u s t r a l i a n C u r r i c u l u m 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7

 Scientif ic literacy: Sea Shepherd campaigners leave to
save whales from slaughter in Japan
Sea Shepherd campaigners left for their tenth annual campaign to prevent Japan’s slaughter of whales
in the Southern Ocean today, with three vessels departing Australia for Antarctic waters.
The Bob Barker, which was once a Norwegian whaling ship, steamed out of Hobart on the mission
which aims to harass the Japanese f leet as they harpoon the giant animals and prevent them from
taking their full quota.
Captain Peter Hammarstedt said it was his ninth campaign protecting whales, which have at times
included high-seas clashes between the conservationists and the Japanese.
‘The Japanese whaling f leet intends to kill 1035 whales of which 50 are endangered fin whales and 50 are
endangered humpback whales, the very same whales that frequent the shores here off Australia,’ he said.
‘Our intention is to once again intercept the Japanese whaling f leet in the Southern Ocean whale
sanctuary and to do everything that we can.’ Sea Shepherd Australia said its two other boats the Steve
Irwin and Sam Simon left Melbourne on Wednesday for the annual campaign it took over from the
US-based Sea Shepherd Conservation Society in late 2012.
The Australian government, which strongly opposes Japanese whaling, is expected to announce later
this week that a Customs vessel will monitor the hunt. ‘The government’s commitment to monitoring in the
Southern Ocean remains undiminished,’ a spokesman for Environment Minister Greg Hunt said in an email.
Australia wants Japan’s annual whale hunt in the southern hemisphere summer to stop and has taken
the matter to the UN’s top court the International Court of Justice. A decision is expected in early 2014.
Japan says it conducts vital scientif ic research using a loophole in an international ban on whaling,
but makes no secret of the fact that the mammals ultimately end up as food.
[Link] (2013) ‘Sea Shepherd campaigners leave to save whales from slaughter in Japan’. 18 December.
Questions
1 Identify the main message of this news article.
2 The Australian government, Japanese government and the United Nations International Court of
Justice are all involved in the issue of whaling. In your opinion, who should have the f inal say? Justify
your response.
3 Suggest some of the diff iculties involved in monitoring and managing the remaining population sizes
of whale species.
4 All whale species have a K-selected life strategy. Identify their K-selected characteristics and outline
how each of these will affect the ability of their population to recover after unregulated numbers are
removed.

GPS tracking is also used to track the movements of migrating

animals such as birds and caribou, and is most ef f icient when tracking
water animals such as whales, sharks, sea turtles and many sea birds. The
signal is received by a satellite that ensures the animals are tracked when
not in sight.
Radio tracking is an older technology than the GPS tracking systems.
Corbis/Doug Perrine/Nature Picture Library

In this instance, the signal is transmitted from the unit attached to the
animal to a receiver, much like a home transistor radio. The animals are
physically followed by the scientists who will have the receiver in a car,
truck or aeroplane. The data collected determines the movements of the
animals and their destination. The information is then used to determine
the best management strategy to ensure the safe movement of the animals
involved.
In summary, the measuring tools used to determine the abundance
of organisms in a population are dependent on a number of factors
including the size of the population, the size of the organisms, whether   Figure 5.10
the location is easily accessible, the life cycle of the organisms, migratory patterns, activity Migrating lobsters being
tracked by GPS
times and previous population information including the likelihood of population explosions
or declines. They should also be relevant to the species being studied; for example, there is no
point in attaching a solar transmitter to a nocturnal animal that spends its daylight hours in
burrows deep beneath the Earth’s surface!

9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7 U n i t 1 C h a p t e r 5: P o p u l at i o n dy n a m i c s 11 3
 WOW
Animal GPS
Recent ref inements in the use of GPS trackers have reduced intrusions into the lives of
the animals being tracked. Some devices are now lighter and can be used on smaller
animals, or can be loaded with extra batteries that last longer on larger animals. Some
transmitters on elks can last up to eight years. But the most innovative is the use of solar
cells to power the transmitters used on birds, thus limiting the need for scientists to venture
into the f ield and disturbing the natural behaviour of the birds under study.

Population density
Radio Studying the density of populations in an ecosystem is useful in certain situations. Density
t r ac k i n g refers to the number of individuals in a given area, such as the number of kangaroos per hectare.
i n N at i o n a l Sometimes it is dif f icult to distinguish individual plants, as with grass. In that case, density is
pa r ks the amount of biomass (dry) per unit area (for example, 0.6 kg of grass per m2). In the case of
Prepare a debate diatoms in a pond, density is the number per unit volume (for example, 300 per mL).
on the question:
‘Is radio tracking Carrying capacity
a worthwhile
exercise in national Populations rely on balanced relationships between their biotic and abiotic components. The abiotic
parks?’ aspects have been studied previously. The biotic aspects are the focus of this chapter and are based
primarily around communities and their component populations. So when studying a specific
ecosystem, its relative health may be measured by the populations that are supported. The size of a
population that an ecosystem can support is described as the carrying capacity of that ecosystem.
Knowing the density of populations can help assess an ecosystem’s ability to provide
suf f icient resources to support its populations. This is the carrying capacity of the ecosystem and
it can change from time to time as environmental conditions change.
For example, it has been estimated that 100 km2 of moist tall eucalypt forest is the minimum area
possible to support 10 000 sugar gliders as a viable population. Information such as this acts a guide
Chapter 3 also to the minimum size a park or any closed ecosystem needs to be to conserve animals. Critically, the
discusses the abiotic area needs to be sufficient for a significant number of top carnivores to survive. While this may be a
and biotic aspects of less important consideration for Australian ecosystems where there are few large carnivores, it is still a
ecosystems.
valid point when considering how much continuous land must remain undisturbed.

question set 5.2

Understanding
1 What characteristics of populations are usually studied when analysing ecosystems?
2 Describe three basic patterns of distribution of populations of organisms.
3 Using examples, explain the differences between abundance and geographic distribution, and density
and carrying capacity.

Analysing
4 Ecosystems can be open or closed to particular species. What effect does this have on growth of a
population?
5 A particular population of kangaroos has 1000 births during the year; 72 individuals also join the population
while 108 leave. There are 345 deaths. Work out the growth rate for this population of kangaroos for the year.

Evaluating
6 Copy and complete the table below summarising methods of estimating distribution and abundance of
populations of organisms.

Method Brief description Best used for

11 4  Ne l s o n B i o l o g y UNITS 1 & 2 f o r t h e A u s t r a l i a n C u r r i c u l u m 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7

 Population regulation WOW
When a few members of a species colonise a new and favourable habitat, its population increases Population
rapidly. However, this population growth cannot be sustained; resources are used and the
population begins to level of f. Despite minor f luctuations in populations, there tends to be
explosions
upper and lower limits. For a given species in a particular habitat, there is a certain equilibrium Population explosions
population that the ecosystem can support. are defined as
The population numbers of the Canada lynx and the snowshoe hare of northern Canada rapid increases
in populations,
depend on the population sizes of the other species. Every 8–10 years the number of hares quite often after a
increases exponentially. The cause for this explosion is still under investigation. The lynx hunts catastrophic event.
the hare and, because there are so many hares, the lynx population also increases. This then puts They are characterised
pressure on the hare population and a slump in numbers follows. The stress of waiting to be by accelerated
hunted impacts on the health of the hares and illness spreads through the hare population. This birthrate, decreasing
infant mortality
then impacts on the lynx population, even though the lynx is able to hunt and feed on other and extended life
small animals such as squirrels, grouse and white-tailed deer. For the lynx, hunting other prey expectancy. Human
takes its toll and its numbers decrease. populations are a
prime example such
as that seen at the
a b
end of World War II with
the rise of the Baby
Boomer generation.
[Link]/Dennis Donohue

[Link]/Howard Sandler

  Figure 5.11
a) A Canada lynx; b) A
snowshoe hare. Their
population increases
and decreases are
cyclic.

Factors in the environment, collectively referred to as environmental resistance, act on a

population. If the population rises above the equilibrium or set point, competition for resources
such as food and space begins to take effect. The increased ability of disease-causing organisms
and parasites to spread also increases deaths and possibly reduces breeding. This could be to such

Population Population Population Population more   Figure 5.12

The S-curve: generalised
growing slowly growing growth or less constant
graph of population
Number of individuals in the population

exponentially decelerating growth

Birth rate and death rate

balance each other, resulting
Thornes, 2000), © Micheal Roberts, Michael Reiss and Grace Monger 1993,
Roberts, M., Reiss, M. & Monger, G. (1993) Biology: Principles and Process-

in equilibrium.
es. Thomas Nelson. New edition released as Advanced Biology (Nelson

2000. Reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press.

Environmental resistance sets

in, increasing the death rate
and/or decreasing the birth
rate.

Time

During this phase, population growth This phase represents the maximum
increases as the population gets under growth rate under optimal
way. Often starts slowly because initially environmental conditions – no
there is a shortage of reproducing environmental resistance; birth rate
individuals, which may be widely exceeds death rate.
dispersed.

9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7 U n i t 1 C h a p t e r 5: P o p u l at i o n dy n a m i c s 11 5
 an extent that the population falls. If it falls below the set point, there is less competition and the
population begins to rise again. This kind of negative feedback process, or homeostatic control,
keeps the population more or less constant (Figure 5.13). Is this scenario an example of K-selection
or r-selection?
The factors mentioned above are density-dependent factors. The greater the density of a
population, the more individuals die or fail to reproduce. Density-independent factors, such
as severe weather conditions, volcanic activity or habitat destruction by clearing or fire, are those
that affect all individuals in a population regardless of age or stage. These factors are seen vividly
following a catastrophic event such as a bushfire or f looding. Populations of all living things
usually decrease quite drastically due to either death or emigration to a habitat that is better able to
meet their needs. Many human communities were devastated by the floods of Brisbane and south
east Queensland from December 2010 to January 2011. Floods and fires, however, are part of
nature’s cycle and even though immediate effects to the environment and all communities within
them are drastic, in the long term they redistribute sediment, seeds and animals to new areas.

Figure 5.13  
Homeostatic Raised
mechanism of Increase in environmental Negative
population control population resistance;
feedback
for example,
increased
Equilibrium competition Fall in
population for food or Population
population returns to
(near to the increased
carrying predation norm near to
capacity the carrying
of the capacity of the
Increase in environment
environment) population
Lowered
environmental Roberts, M., Reiss, M. & Monger,
G. (1993) Biology: Principles and
resistance; for Processes. Thomas Nelson. New
edition released as Advanced
example, less
Fall in Negative Biology (Nelson Thornes, 2000),
competition © Micheal Roberts, Michael
Reiss and Grace Monger 1993,
population for food or less feedback 2000. Reprinted by permission of
Oxford University Press.
predation

Figure 5.14  
Density-dependent Density-independent
Populations are
regulated by density- factors factors
dependent and density-
independent factors. Competition
Indirectly affect Physical factors
Disease
the food supply Acidity
Parasites
Rainfall
Predation
Population density Factors affect Humidity
Food supply
influences the individuals Temperature

(Year 11 Biology - Student Workbook)

Adapted from BIOZONE International
effects of these to the same Salinity
factors extent regardless Catastrophic events
of population Volcanic eruption
These factors are density Tsunami
influenced by the
Fire
kangaroo density
Drought
Organisms crowded Earthquake
together: Flood
compete more for
resources
are more easily Can cause ill
found health or death
by predators
spread disease and
parasites more
Influences the
readily
individual’s
ability to reproduce

11 6  Ne l s o n B i o l o g y UNITS 1 & 2 f o r t h e A u s t r a l i a n C u r r i c u l u m 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7

 In some cases, populations of species are not able to recover from such extreme environmental
resistance and disappear from that ecosystem. This may eventually result in widespread
extinction if numbers are continually reduced with little chance of viable population growth.
A combination of factors working together determines the survival of populations. If we
examine survivorship of various species, patterns emerge. Species can be classif ied according
to their probability of survival. This can be represented in a graph (Figure 5.15).

Percentage of population
Table 5.1 Probability of survival of species 100

Classif ication Description Examples

10
Early loss Species that produce many offspring. Fish, frogs
Many, even thousands, of young and many
1

surviving
are produced but the probability of plants
survival is low in early life. Probability
increases with age. 0.1
Age
Constant loss Species whose probability of survival Many bird
of individuals does not change with species   Figure 5.15
age. There is a fairly constant loss at Survivorship curves
all ages.
Late loss Survival of individuals decreases with Humans,
age. elephants

Population distribution Migration, immigration and Population composition

and abundance emigration effect Sex ratios
Density density and distribution The number of organisms
The number of organisms  population composition of each sex
per unit area  dynamic (overall change)
in the population Population fertility
Distribution The reproductive capacity of
The location of individuals the females
within an area
Age structure
Population
Total abundance The number of organisms of
Males, females, young
The total number of organisms different ages

Population growth rate Birth rate (+ immigration rate) Mortality rate (+ emigration rate)
The change in the total 5 The number of organisms born per unit 2 The number of organisms dying per unit
population per unit over time (or immigrated into population) over time (or emigrated from population) over time

  Figure 5.16
Features of populations

question set 5.3

Understanding
1 Draw a simple annotated diagram that summarises homeostatic control of populations.
2 Explain ‘environmental resistance’.
3 What do survivorship curves show about the survival of populations?

9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7 U n i t 1 C h a p t e r 5: P o p u l at i o n dy n a m i c s 11 7
 Case study
Breeding, releasing and succeeding
Scientists have, for many years, mastered the concept of captive-breeding programs of endangered
species. For example, remnant populations of native wildlife are kept and bred within controlled
environments in an effort to restore numbers to a level where they will survive in their natural habitat.
However, the projects may hit a snag when the carefully bred individuals are released back into the wild
and within months there are few left. One such example is the 15-year project to breed and then return
the brush-tailed rock wallaby (Petrogale penicillata  ) to western Victoria. The project is on hold as foxes are
eating the released animals faster than they can breed.
The project run co-operatively by the Department of Environment and Primary Industries (DEPI), Parks
Victoria, Melbourne Zoo, Adelaide Zoo, University of Melbourne researchers and ACT Parks decided to
suspend the release of further animals pending a review of their procedures.
The breeding program began at Adelaide Zoo in 1998. Since that time, a total of 39 wallabies have
been released into the Grampians in Victoria, and only seven have survived. According to Dr David
Schultz of Adelaide Zoo veterinary department:
‘Our biggest problem has been that the pouch young that have been born in the wild don’t appear to
have survived. We’re not getting young surviving into adulthood, and that’s mostly due to predation.’
Three years prior to the commencement of the breeding and release program, Parks Victoria ran a
massive fox-baiting program. Other methods used included soft-jaw trapping as well as experienced,
professional shooters. Remote digital camera surveillance and animal-feet tracking was also used to
bring rapid f ield staff responses. The idea was to turn the Grampians into a fox-free haven for the wallaby,
as well as other threatened species such as the long-nosed potoroo, Southern brown bandicoot, smoky
mouse and heath mouse. But still the fox prevailed.
Dr Schultz says predator evasion lessons are being tested at the Tidbindilla nature reserve in the ACT.
Captive-bred wallabies from Adelaide and Melbourne Zoos are sent to Tidbindilla or to a property in Dunkeld,
Victoria, for ‘hardening up’ to living in the wild. Predator wariness training is now part of that process.
Another suggestion is the control of the fox population by Tasmanian devils. The devil vanished from
mainland Australia about 600 years ago. According to Dr Schultz, ‘the devils would root through the fox
dens and knock off the pups’.
Adapted from Elder, J. (2013) ‘Brush-tailed wallaby breeding program outfoxed’. The Sunday Age, 14 July.

Questions
1 Propose the type of evidence you would expect to f ind to indicate that foxes were mainly responsible
for the deaths of the released wallabies.
2 Outline the purpose of captive breeding programs. Evaluate the value of this specific program.
Discuss your reasons for your assessment.
3 Suggest the implications for other captive breeding programs in Australia, considering the result in
this case.

Restoring populations
Although the rate of species loss worldwide is alarming, there are many examples of endangered
populations of species being restored. Some of the recovery is due to natural cycles of population
change, but many are the result of careful management and legal protection of species.
Whale species, for example, are staging extraordinary recoveries after being hunted to the
verge of extinction. By 2050 it is predicted that the population of southern right whales in
Australian waters may approach their pre-whaling numbers. Populations of humpback whales
are expanding in the north Atlantic, north Pacif ic and of f Western Australia.

Controlling populations
When does a living thing become a pest? Sometimes populations of species increase enormously
at the expense of others when environmental conditions change. The development of
particular agricultural practices, the introduction of species accidentally or deliberately and the
concentration of people in urban environments have created excellent conditions for certain
plants and animals to exploit.

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 Many fungi and insects, without natural predators, have been able to wreak havoc on crops
of all kinds. Consider the mouse plagues common in Australia since European settlement or
the invasive weed, Paterson’s curse, which lives up to its name. Paterson’s curse, also referred
to as Salvation Jane, is a hardy European annual plant with a tap root that enables it to survive
drought conditions. Individual plants produce many thousand seeds through late spring. When
germination occurs, they are fast growing plants that quickly take over complete pastures. The
name Salvation Jane was coined when, during drought, pasture animals were able to feed and
survive, though a prolonged diet exclusively of the plant could lead to liver problems due to
toxins present in the plant.

Chemical and biological control

The use of chemical pesticides (chemical control) is a quick and ef fective method of getting
rid of pests, but there is a down side: the pesticides can be ecologically damaging as well as costly.
Scientists now favour the use of biological control agents, which exploit relationships between
organisms, or an integrated approach when rapid response is needed in the early stages to manage
a problem. This may also be known as integrated pest management, which encourages the use of
biological measures to control pests and limits the use of chemicals to narrow-spectrum agents
that target specif ic species. Even biological control measures have their limitations.
There are four kinds of biological control agents:
1  general predators: organisms that consume a great variety of pest species; for example,
ladybirds target aphids, caterpillars, mites and small beetles
2  specialised predators: organisms that target one pest species, such as the way dragonf lies
target all life stages of mosquitoes
3 parasites: organisms such as wasps or f lies that lay their eggs in the bodies of hosts. When the
eggs hatch, the larvae feed on the body of the host (moths and caterpillars) causing the host’s death.
4  microbial diseases: caused by bacteria, fungi and viruses that target species and cause
death through illness. Examples include Myxomatosis, which was introduced to control rabbit
populations.
Almost all ecological disasters resulting from biological control have been due to the f irst
method. For example, cane toads were introduced in north-eastern Queensland to control cane
sugar beetle pests. Cane toads have rapidly expanded their range to the north and south of the
original site, and are now found in the Northern Territory and into southern New South Wales.
Introduced plant weeds, some escaped from gardens or dumped from aquariums, choke
many waterways. The plants grow freely, without any environmental control, and impact on
the local animal and plant populations negatively. Too many weeds limits the populations of
other species that native animals require for food and shelter. A small South American weevil,
the natural predator of the water weed Salvinia, was released in 1980 with great success in many
areas. Moths and f lea beetles, introduced in 1977, are reducing the impact of the alligator weed.
Another beetle from South America is controlling water hyacinth. There tends to be a balanced
relationship now between the control agents and the plants.
Wasps are being used to control the native stem-girdler moths that can decimate macadamia
and pecan crops in Queensland. The wasps lay their eggs in the moth eggs, which are then
consumed by the wasp larvae. Many other wasps have been harnessed to control a range of
pests, such as the Heliothis moth that feeds on cotton plants. Recent research has shown that
green ants are a cost-ef fective method of controlling most pests that attack mangoes. Growers
are being encouraged to introduce the ferocious predators into their mango orchards!
‘Myco-insecticides’ (‘myco’ = fungi) are showing promise as control agents. Many species of
fungi in the soil attack grubs (larvae) that gnaw away at the roots of plants, including pasture
grasses, sugar cane, potatoes and other crops. Selected fungi are now being used as biological
control agents of scarab beetles and other target insects. Beetles carry diseases that af fect plants,
such as Dutch elm disease. This is a fungal infection that leads to the death of the tree, not
limited but most commonly occurring in elm trees. The fungus is carried by beetles that infect
each tree on which they feed. One way of combating the infection in the trees is to target the
beetles. This is achieved by the action of fungi that infect the beetle’s digestive system and
prevent the beetle from gaining adequate nutrition, thus dying of f.

9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7 U n i t 1 C h a p t e r 5: P o p u l at i o n dy n a m i c s 11 9
 WOW
Ladybirds: ecowarriors
Ladybirds have been introduced to battle aphids on
citrus trees. This reduces the use of expensive chemical
pesticides and limits the impact of these chemicals on

Alamy/Graphic Science
other species.

Figure 5.17  
A ladybird feeding on
citrus aphids

Culling
The thought of culling populations of particular species that are pushing their ecosystem
beyond its carrying capacity can cause strong reactions in people. Populations of some species
of kangaroos have increased and expanded enormously since Europeans arrived. Land use
was changed in such a way that it af fected many endemic species of plants and animals. Six
kangaroo species, for example, have become extinct. There are 7 kangaroo species that are
endangered but the remaining 35 species are viable in their rangelands.
The Australian red and grey kangaroos have thrived in those areas where permanent
water is made available for cattle. As populations of kangaroos have increased, there has been
increased competition for resources. Each year, more than 2 million kangaroos are culled
under strict regulations. The kangaroo industry is worth more than $200 million each year.
A small proportion of the meat is processed for human consumption, most of it for export.
In 2013, conservationists called for the culling of the wild horse population of Victoria’s alpine
areas as it threatened the health of the alpine environment. The wild horse (brumby) population was
estimated at 10 000 strong. Australian environments suffer from the effects of these hooved animals.
Grasses are trampled, leading to soil erosion and the prospect of long-term rehabilitation of the area
a reality. In the process, the habitats of many native f lora and fauna are compromised. In some areas,
where smaller populations of the brumby survived, co-existence with native species was possible.

To cull or not to cull?

Kangaroo Island, off the coast of South Australia in the Great Australian Bight, has been the home
of large koala populations over the years. The year 1997 saw the introduction of the Kangaroo
Island Koala Management Program to reduce the negative effects the large koala population was
K a n ga r o o having on some eucalypt species on which the animals were selectively feeding. At the time, culling
cu l l i n g koalas was one option under discussion. Ultimately, this option was not pursued and two other
Using the programs were implemented. The first was the sterilisation of 9500 koalas. This reduced the rate of
information given, reproduction to a sustainable level. The second strategy was the translocation of 3800 individuals
prepare a report to their historic range in south-east South Australia. Both these strategies have resulted in positive
on the merits of
outcomes for both the animals and the trees. The trees have returned to a healthy state that can be
kangaroo culling
in Australia.
sustained with the current numbers of koalas. The koala numbers have been controlled without
needing to cull existing populations. This is a win–win situation for all involved.

Reintroducing populations
The devastation that has occurred to native populations has often followed on from the invasion of
introduced species. These species have been able to populate and then overrun habitats unchecked.
So what defines a pest? One useful definition is any species causing harm or death to other
organisms. It is also a species that can feed and reproduce to such an extent that local populations
do not have any chance when competing for the same resources. One example worthy of study
is the Galaxias genus. Galaxias are native freshwater fish whose numbers have suffered since the
introduction and proliferation of the mosquitofish, which does very little to impact the mosquito
numbers. Galaxias do not lay eggs – they give birth to live young that are easily devoured by the
pest species. The numbers of galaxias have dropped to such low levels that numbers in the wild
are no longer self-sustaining in some areas. However, they are relatively easy to breed in captivity.
In order to re-introduce galaxias to the wild, the mosquitofish needs to be eradicated, or the same
cycle that led to decreased numbers of galaxias will still exist. Eradication is a difficult process,

1 2 0  Ne l s o n B i o l o g y UNITS 1 & 2 f o r t h e A u s t r a l i a n C u r r i c u l u m 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7

 so currently the only means of introducing galaxias back into the wild is through the location of
uninfested waterways or artificially created ponds that have no migratory possibilities with infested
ponds, lakes, streams or rivers. The reduction in numbers of galaxias has led to associated drops in
the population numbers of native frogs and other aquatic species such as native insects.

  Figure 5.18
Galaxias genus fish
are native freshwater
fish whose populations
decreased when
mosquitofish were
introduced.
Alamy/Diarmuid Toman

Other species suf fering similar decreases in numbers due largely to predation by introduced
pest species, face the same issues. They can be bred in captivity. For land animals such as
bandicoots, wallabies, quolls and marsupial mice, the threat is from feral cats, dogs and foxes.
Their successful reintroduction requires safe release areas such as those with pest-proof fencing,
which is then another expense that impacts on the success of any such captive-breeding program.

question set 5.4

Understanding
1 a Under what circumstances does an organism become a pest?
b Provide advantages and disadvantages regarding the use of chemicals to control pests.

Analysing
2 Draw up a table that summarises methods of biological control. Include examples of control relationships.

Evaluating
3 Use an annotated diagram to summarise ways to restore the balance of populations of species in an
ecosystem.

C h a p t e r summ a r y
●●
Population numbers of native populations, whether plant or animal, are dependent on interactions
between biotic and abiotic factors.
●●
Biotic factors include relationships between endemic and introduced species, available food resources and
reproduction rates.
●●
Abiotic factors, which are generally measurable and mostly predictable, include water, soil and air quality,
and availability of nesting sites.
●●
r-selection occurs when conditions are ideal for a rapid population increase and decrease, such as occurs
with locusts.
●●
K-selection is found in species that mature slowly and breed later with fewer offspring that benefit from
prolonged parental care, such as primates and elephants.

9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 3 2 4 7 U n i t 1 C h a p t e r 5: P o p u l at i o n dy n a m i c s 121
●●
Methods of recording populations within their environments varies according to the species being
observed, and includes direct observation, GPS and satellite monitoring, capture-mark–recapture
techniques, and transect and quadrat recording methods.
●●
Population regulation may involve human interference using methods such as culling and pest control
through either chemical or biological means.
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Population size is determined by the increasing effects of birth and immigration rates, and decreasing
effects of death and emigration rates.
●●
Carrying capacity indicates the maximum population supported in an environment, and all other factors
listed above assist in determining this.

C h a p t e r g l o ss a r y
abiotic the non-living components of an ecosystem general predator an organism that consumes a
abundance how many; the number of a species in variety of other species
a population K-selected species a slow-growing, long-lived
biodiversity the full range of different living things species typical of those in a climax community
in a particular area or region; it can be described K-selection describes population growth; while
at various levels, including the range of different some individuals may not survive initially, over the long
species, genetic diversity, or the diversity of term a sustainable population can be maintained
ecosystems present in a larger area microbial disease a biological control agent that
biological control when living organisms are used leads to death by illness; e.g. the myxomatosis disease
to control pest species introduced to control rabbit populations
biotic the living components of an ecosystem parasite an organism, such as a bacterium, virus,
capture–mark–recapture an ecological surveying fungi, worm or arthropod, that lives on or in another
technique used to measure animal populations, in organism and causes death
which individual animals are captured, marked and population a group of individuals belonging to the
released; after a time, the population is re-sampled same species living in a particular area at the same
and the number of marked animals caught gives an time
indication of population size quadrat the method used in population sampling
carrying capacity the maximum population size of a where a square is placed on the ground to count
species that can be supported in a given environment each individual of a species and determine their
chemical control the chemical pesticides used to density; useful for stationary organisms
control pest species; quick and effective, but can be random distribution a measurement of distribution;
ecologically damaging and costly organisms are spaced irregularly
clumped (grouped) distribution describes the r-selected species a fast-growing and reproducing
situation in which individuals in a population are organism, often the f irst to occupy unused resources
grouped together where biotic and/or abiotic factors and living space
are favourable; can be social (e.g. schools of f ish) or r-selection describes population growth; opportunistic
clumping of vegetation species quickly colonise an unstable ecosystem, leading
culling reducing the abundance of a particular to a pattern of rapid population increase and decrease
species that is pushing the ecosystem beyond its (or crash), and eventual take over by competitors
carrying capacity sample a small group of organisms selected from the
density the number of individuals in a given area; total population; is representative of the whole population
can use biomass or volume for smaller individuals specialised predator a biological control agent
density-dependent factor the greater the density of a that targets one pest species specif ically
population, the more individuals die or fail to reproduce; species a group of organisms that share a gene
e.g. disease-causing organisms and parasites pool; all members of the same species have the
density-independent factor a factor that affects all capacity to interbreed to produce fertile offspring as
individuals and usually leads to a drastic decline in long as they are not prevented by any physical barrier
population due to death or emigration; e.g. severe species distribution modelling an attempt to
weather conditions, volcanic activity and habitat predict future needs and resource management
destruction by clearing or f ire using computer technology
direct observation a method used to measure transect a method used in population sampling where
abundance; e.g. recording sightings at particular a line is drawn through a community to determine the
intervals; can be time-consuming and dangerous distribution of species; can be used in conjunction with
distribution the places in the ecosystem where quadrats and is useful for stationary organisms
individuals of species are found; usually this is not uniform (continuous) distribution a measurement
evenly spread of distribution where organisms are evenly spaced

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Chapter review questions
Remembering
1 Def ine the types of population growth: K-selection and r-selection.
2 Describe the differences between density-dependent and density-independent factors.
3 In what ways are resources distributed that lead to each of the population distribution patterns?

Understanding
4 Capture–mark–recapture is one method used to determine the age structure of mobile populations. What
problems may arise if too much time is left between the initial capture and the second recapture?

Applying
5 In the following examples, determine the resource that is impacting most on the population distribution.
a Heath plants in clumps in a f ield
b Penguins distributed evenly across an ice sheet
c Alpine grasses randomly spread along the side of a hill

Analysing
6 a Draw a graph to show what would happen to a population of rabbits if there were no predators in the
areas where the rabbits lived.
b Introduce a predator such as a fox into your population and show on your graph what may be expected
to happen to the rabbit population.
7 Using Figure 5.6 on page 108, determine the abiotic features that are vital for species found in the following
environments.
a Rock pools
b Zone above the splash zone
c The sublittoral zone
8 Describe the attributes that would indicate that a population is increasing in size.
9 How does the age structure of a human population indicate future growth patterns? What age group
would need to show a steady growth to indicate a healthy overall population growth?
10 A student is asked to estimate the population size and density of beetles in an area shown in Figure 5.19.
She collected data from 10 randomly placed quadrats each 10 cm x 10 cm in size (as shown).

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9   Figure 5.19
Quadrat samples

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Table 5.2 Summary of results

Quadrat coordinate Number of beetles Quadrat coordinate Number of beetles

(0,0) 10 (5,9) 14
(1,4) 0 (6,7) 3
(2,3) 45 (7,3) 6
(3,8) 32 (8,2) 12
(4,5) 48 (9,6) 16

a Calculate the population size and density of the beetles in the total area.
b Investigate two methods that could have been used to obtain the count of beetles.
11 Two populations of different species within an area are measured at 3-year intervals. Over that time, the
numbers of the two species vary as shown in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3

Time Number of species 1 Number of species 2

Year 0 25 85

Year 3 50 50

Year 6 30 75

Year 9 60 70

a Graph the results on one set of axes.

b Describe the trend you see with the two species.
c One species preys on the other. Explain which species you think is the predator and why.

Evaluating
12 A brown moth, so small it is barely visible and with a preference for chardonnay, threatened to become the
Victorian wine industry’s greatest scourge. The light brown apple moth caterpillar is capable of devouring
up to 10 shoots out of every 100 throughout the growing season. Winemakers in the past resorted to
chemical spraying, but they now rely on the native Trichogramma wasp. The wasps lay their own eggs
inside the moth eggs and, as they hatch, the wasp larvae eat the moth caterpillars.
a What are the advantages and disadvantages of chemical spraying?
b What kind of relationships is being made use of to control the moths? Identify the partners.
c Draw a simple graph to show what happens to the population of apple moths and the population of
Trichogramma wasps over time. Label your graph carefully.

Creating
13 How does population sampling assist in each of the following situations?
a Maintaining a population of an endangered species of wallaby
b Maintaining bird populations during the duck shooting season
14 Australia has about 700 endemic species of grasshoppers and locusts, but the one that usually hits the
headlines is the Australian plague locust, Chortoicetes terminifera. Locust populations increase enormously
in favourable climatic conditions, usually following periods of rainfall. Many minor plagues occur regularly
but there have been f ive major plagues in the past 60 years. Densities of 1000 per m2 have been recorded.
a Outline the abiotic and biotic conditions that may give rise to locust outbreaks.
b Are locusts r-selected species or K-selected species? Which features help you determine this?
c Predict the impact of a locust plague on other species, including humans.
d Suggest three ways to combat locust plagues in Australia.

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