Types Of 3D Printing

As per the ISO/ASTM 52900 standard, all 3D printing processes can be categorized into
seven groups. Each category has its own advantages and disadvantages, which often
relate to factors like cost, speed, material characteristics, and limitations on shapes that
can be produced.

1. Vat photopolymerization

The main 3D printing technique that frequently used is photopolymerization, which in

general refers to the curing of photo-reactive polymers by using a laser, light or

ultraviolet (UV). A 3D printer based on VAT photopolymerization has a container filled

with photopolymer resin, which is hardened with an ultraviolet light source to create an
object.

The three most common forms of VAT polymerization are

1a) Stereolithography (SLA): Invented in 1984, SLA uses an ultraviolet laser to crosslink
chemical monomers and oligomers to form polymers that make up the body of a three-
dimensional solid. While the process is fast and can construct almost any structure, it
can be expensive.

1b) Digital Light Processing (DLP): It utilizes conventional light sources such as arc lamps
(instead of lasers). Each layer of the object is projected onto the vat of liquid resin, which
is then solidified layer by layer as the lifting platform moves up or down.
1c) Continuous Liquid Interface Production (CLIP): It is similar to stereolithography but
continuous and up to 100 times faster. CLIP can produce rubbery and flexible objects
with smooth sides, that couldn’t be created with other techniques.

2. Material Extrusion

In this process, a filament of solid thermoplastic material is pushed through a heated

nozzle,which melts the material and deposits it on a build platform along a
predetermined path.

This material eventually cools and solidifies, forming a three-dimensional object. The
most commonly used techniques in this process are

2a) Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM): It uses a continuous filament of a thermoplastic

material, such as nylon, thermoplastic polyurethane, or polylactic acid.

2b) Robocasting: It involves the extrusion of a paste-like material from a small nozzle
while the nozzle is moved across a build platform. The process is different from FDM as it
doesn’t rely on drying or solidification of material to retain its shape after extrusion.
 3. Sheet Lamination

Some printers use paper and plastic as the build material to lower the cost of Printing. In
this technique, multiple layers of adhesive plastic, paper, or metal laminates are
successively joined together and cut to shape using a laser cutter or knife.

The layer resolution can be defined by the material feedstock. Typically, it ranges
between one and a few sheets of copy paper. The process can be used to make large
parts, but the dimensional accuracy of the final product will be quite lower than that of
stereolithography.

4. Directed Energy Deposition

The directed energy deposition technique is widely employed in the high-tech metal
industry and rapid manufacturing. This process involves a printing apparatus equipped
with a nozzle attached to a multi-axis robotic arm. The nozzle deposits metal powder
onto the build platform, which is then melted using a laser, plasma, or electron beam, to
form a solid object.

This type of 3D printing supports various metals, functionally graded materials, and
composites, including aluminum, stainless steel, and titanium. It not only enables the
construction of entirely new metal parts but also allows for the addition of material onto
existing parts, facilitating hybrid manufacturing applications.

5. Material Jetting

Material jetting operates in a similar fashion to inkjet paper printers. In this process, a
photosensitive material is applied in droplets through a small diameter nozzle and then
hardened by ultraviolet light, building a part layer-by-layer.

The materials used in this technique are thermoset photopolymers (acrylics). Multi-
material printing and a broad range of materials (including rubber-like and transparent
materials) are also available.

Since material jetting 3D Printing can construct parts of high dimensional accuracy with
a smooth surface finish, it’s an attractive option for manufacturing both visual
prototypes and commercial tools.

6. Binder Jetting
Binder jetting uses two materials: a powder base material and a liquid binder.

The process involves evenly distributing the powder in layers within the build chamber.
Then, jet nozzles apply the binder, effectively “gluing” the powder particles together to
create the desired object.

Wax or thermoset polymer is often mixed with bonded powder to increase its strength.
Once the 3D print is completed, the leftover powder is collected and used for printing
another structure.

Since the technique is very similar to an inkjet-like process, it is also called the inject 3D
Printing. It is mostly used for printing elastomer parts, overhangs, and colorful
prototypes.
 7. Powder Bed Fusion

Powder bed fusion is a subset of additive manufacturing whereby a heat source (such as
a thermal print head or laser) is used to consolidate material in powder form to build
physical objects. The five most common forms of this technology are

7a) Selective Laser Sintering (SLS): It uses a laser as the power source to sinter
powdered material like polyamide or nylon. Here, the term sinter refers to the process of
compacting and forming a solid mass of material by applying pressure or heat without
melting it to the point of liquefaction.

7b) Selective Laser Melting (SLM): Unlike SLS, this technique is designed to completely
melt and fuse metallic powders together. It can create fully dense materials (layer by
layer) that have mechanical characteristics similar to those of traditional manufactured
metals. This is one of the fast-developing processes that is being implemented in both
industry and research.

7c) Electron Beam Melting (EBM): In the process, the raw material (wire or metal
powder) is placed inside a vacuum and fused together using an electron beam. Although
EBM can only be used with conductive materials, it has superior build speed because of
its higher energy density.

7d) Selective Heat Sintering (SHS): It uses a thermal printhead to apply heat to layers of
powdered thermoplastic. As soon as the layer is finished, the powder bed moves down,
and a new layer of material is added, which is then sintered to form the next cross-
section of the model. This technique is best for manufacturing inexpensive prototypes
and parts for functional testing.

7e) Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS): It is similar to SLS but uses metal power
instead. The leftover power becomes a support structure for the object and can be
reused for the next 3D print. DMLS parts are mostly made with powdered materials like
titanium, stainless steel, aluminum, and several niche alloys. It’s an ideal process for
custom medical parts, oil and gas components, and hard functional prototypes.

Classification of 3D Printing Technologies

Several distinct 3D printing technologies are available today, each with unique strengths
and applications.

Let's explore some of the most prominent ones:

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

FDM is one of the most widely used 3D printing technologies. It extrudes thermoplastic
filaments through a heated nozzle, solidifying as it cools down. FDM printers are
relatively

affordable and can produce robust,

functional prototypes and end-use

parts. However, the layer lines may be

visible, affecting the surface finish.

FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING (FDM)

Stratasys Inc. was founded in 1989 and has developed most of the company’s products
based on the

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) technology. The technology was first developed by
Scott Cramp

in 1988 and the patent was awarded in the U.S. in 1992. FDM uses the extrusion process
to build 3D

models. Stratasys introduced its first rapid prototyping machine, the 3D modeler® in
early 1992 and

started shipping the units later that year. Over the past decade, Stratasys has grown
progressively,

seeing her rapid prototyping machines’ sales increase from six units in the beginning to
a total of 1582

units in the year 2000 [9]. The company’s address is Stratasys Inc., 14950 Martin Drive,
Eden Prairie,

MN 55344-202, USA.

Principle

The principle of the FDM is based on surface chemistry, thermal energy, and layer
manufacturing
technology. The material in filament (spool) form is melted in a specially designed head,
which

extrudes on the model. As it is extruded, it is cooled and thus solidifies to form the
model. The model

is built layer by layer, like the other RP systems. Parameters which affect performance
and

functionalities of the system are material column strength, material flexural modulus,
material

viscosity, positioning accuracy, road widths, deposition speed, volumetric flow rate, tip
diameter,

envelope temperature, and part geometry.

Fused Deposition Modeling is an additive manufacturing process that can quickly

produce

geometrically complex parts through the melting, depositing, and solidifying of

thermoplastics, layer

by layer. Due primarily to its many cost -effective applications, Fused Deposition
Modeling has

emerged the most popular 3D Printing method since its creation in the 1980s. On top of
being

affordable and widely applicable, its lead times are extremely short when compared to
traditional

manufacturers. Thus, the FDM technology has since been patented by Stratasys, a
leading company

in the world of Additive Manufacturing.

As stated by Stratasys, ―Fused Deposition Modeling is a 3D Printing method that makes

durable

objects under the same plastics used in every-day products. The affordable and
industrial-grade

thermoplastics used within this process have created several beneficial parts, including
concept

models, functional prototypes, and even production -grade components. The following
sections

describe exactly how Fused Deposition Modeling achieves these incomparable

fabrications.

Fused Deposition Modeling revolves around a simple manufacturing process, called

extrusion. The

FDM technology utilizes this old-age process under specific conditions with specialized
components.

These components are:

Build Material
The build material is the polymer used to build the part. This material is usually a
thermoplastic,

meaning it can retain its mechanical microstructure through thermal manipulation. In

other words,

this plastic material can easily be melted and solidified without losing its structural
integrity. The

build material is stored as a filament wrapped around a spool and it is pulled to the
extrusion head

before depositing onto the build platform.

Support Material

The support material is the removable polymer used to support the build material,
especially when

complex geometries are being built. This support material is used to create support
structures on the

build platform, essentially acting as scaffolding for the build material. These structures
are broken

away from the final part during post-processing. The support material is also stored as a
filament wrapped around a spool, and it is pulled to the extrusion head before depositing
onto the build

platform.

Extrusion Head

The extrusion head is essential to the FDM process in that it performs three of the most
important

functions. The extrusion head, pulls the materials from the spools, melts them, and
accurately places

them onto the build platform within a two-dimensional plane. This extrusion head uses
two gripping

drive wheels per material, pinching the filament and pulling it to the head. A heating
element melts

the filament as it is leaving the extrusion head and entering the build chamber. Finally,
this nozzle

assembly moves along the x and y of the build chamber by sliding along a two-axis rail
system. These

pre-programmed movements are known as the tool paths.

Build Chamber / Build Platform

The build chamber consists of the x-y-z manufacturing boundaries of the FDM machines.
This

temperature-controlled area instantly solidifies the melted thermoplastics as they are

being laid onto
the build platform. The build platform is the stage upon which the build and support
materials are

deposited it is where the part is being build. This platform moves vertically, in the z-
direction, starting

close to the extrusion head and slowly moving downward as the FDM process progresses

Often times, the build platforms are also temperature-controlled to prevent warping of
the build part.

Proprietary Software

The proprietary software manipulates the CAD file for use by the FDM machines. This
software

slices the 3D models into hundreds/thousands of layers and it creates tool paths for each
of these

layers. These tool paths tell the extrusion head where and when to move in the x-y
plane, as well as

how much filament to deposit into the build chamber. The tool paths also tell the build
platform

where and when to move in the z-direction. This software also determines the
temperature of the

build chamber based on the specific material’s critical thermal points.

The FDM Process

After the key components have been identified, the overall process can be broken down
into just

a few steps.

1. Pre-processing

The pre-processing represents the very first steps in any additive manufacturing. This
includes

readying the CAD file for ―printing,‖ or building.

The proprietary software performs as described above, creating a code that translates
into

mechanical movements and thermal adjustments performed by the FDM machines.

2. Building

With the build chamber and build platform clean and empty, the building begins. The
extrusion

head heats up to the appropriate temperature. When thermally stable, the head pulls
the build

material and support material from their perspective storage Spools. These
thermoplastic

filaments melt at the extrusion head and deposit as a bead being laid onto the build
platform.
Simultaneously, the extrusion head moves along the tool paths that were pre-
programmed for

each layer. As the tool path of that specific layer is completed, the build platform
descends

vertically in a very small incriminate. This vertically aligns the extrusion head with the
next

layer.

The thermoplastics solidify almost instantly upon entering the temperature-controlled

build

chamber, which builds the part layer by layer, from bottom to top. Support materials are
built under

overhanging sections of the part. These are visible in below the Figure shows FDM
Process –

Building a part. This stage can take a couple minutes to several hours, depending on the
geometrical

size and complexity of the build part.

3. Post-processing

As the extrusion head finishes depositing material, the build chamber and build platform
remain

mechanically and thermally stable. This allows the build part and support structures to
settle and

cure with proper microstructures. After this cooling stage, the support structures are
broken away

and the final build part is cleaned. Thus, the fused deposition modeling process has
come to a

finish.

Detailed FDM Process (For making tea shape cup components)

The figure shows FDM process for making tea shaped cup component. In this patented
process, a

geometric model of a conceptual design is created on a CAD software which uses IGES or
STL

formatted files. It can then imported into the workstation where it is processed through
the

QuickSlice® and SupportWorkTM

Propriety software before loading to FDM 3000 or similar systems. For FDM Maxum and
Titan, a

newer software known as Insight is used. The basic function of Insight is similar to that of
QuickSlice®
and the only difference is that Insight does not need another software to auto-generate
the supports.

The function is incorporated into the software itself. Within this software, the CAD file is
sliced into

horizontal layers after the part is oriented for the optimum build position, and any
necessary support

structures are automatically detected and generated. The slice thickness can be set
manually to

anywhere between 0.172 to 0.356 mm (0.005 to 0.014 in) depending on the needs of
the models. Tool

paths of the build process are then generated which are downloaded to the FDM
machine.

The modeling material is in spools — very much like a fishing line. The filament on the
spools is

fed into an extrusion head and heated to a semi-liquid state. The semi-liquid material is
extruded

through the head and then deposited in ultra thin layers from the FDM head, one layer at
a time. Since

the air surrounding the head is maintained at a temperature below the materials’
melting point, the

exiting material quickly solidifies. Moving on the X–Y plane, the head follows the tool
path generated

by QuickSlice® or Insight generating the desired layer. When the layer is completed, the
head moves

on to create the next layer. The horizontal width of the extruded material can vary
between 0.250 to

0.965 mm depending on model. This feature, called ―road width‖, can vary from slice to
slice. Two

modeler materials are dispensed through a dual tip mechanism in the FDM machine. A
primary

modeler material is used to produce the model geometry and a secondary material, or
release material,

is used to produce the support structures. The release material forms a bond with the
primary modeler
material and can be washed away upon completion of the 3D models.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The main advantages of using FDM technology are as follows:

(1) Fabrication of functional parts. FDM process is able to fabricate prototypes with
materials that

are similar to that of the actual molded product. With ABS, it is able to fabricate fully
functional

parts that have 85% of the strength of the actual molded part. This is especially useful in

developing products that require quick prototypes for functional testing.

(2) Minimal wastage. The FDM process build parts directly by extruding semi-liquid melt
onto the

model. Thus, only those material needed to build the part and its support are needed,
and material

wastages are kept to a minimum. There is also little need for cleaning up the model after
it has

been built.

(3) Ease of support removal. With the use of Break Away Support System (BASS) and
Water Works

Soluble Support System, support structures generated during the FDM building process
can be
easily broken off or simply washed away. This makes it very convenient for users to get
to their

prototypes very quickly and there is very little or no post-processing necessary.

(4) Ease of material change. Build materials, supplied in spool form (or cartridge form in
the case of

the Dimension or Prodigy Plus), are easy to handle and can be changed readily when the
materials

in the system are running low. This keeps the operation of the machine simple and the
maintenance

relatively easy.

The main disadvantages of using FDM technology are as follows:

(1) Restricted accuracy. Parts built with the FDM process usually have restricted accuracy
due to the

shape of the material used, i.e., the filament form. Typically, the filament used has a
diameter of

1.27 mm and this tends to set a limit on how accurately the part can be built.

(2) Slow process. The building process is slow, as the whole cross-sectional area needs to
be filled

with building materials. Building speed is restricted by the extrusion rate or the flow rate
of the

build material from the extrusion head. As the build material used are plastics and their
viscosities

are relatively high, the build process cannot be easily speeded up.

(3) Unpredictable shrinkage. As the FDM process extrudes the build material from its
extrusion head

and cools them rapidly on deposition, stresses induced by such rapid cooling invariably
are

introduced into the model. As such, shrinkages and distortions caused to the model built
are a

common occurrence and are usually difficult to predict, though with experience, users
may be able

to compensate for these by adjusting the process parameters of the machine.

FDM Applications

FDM models can be used in the following general applications areas:

(1) Models for conceptualization and presentation. Models can be marked, sanded,
painted and drilled

and thus can be finished to be almost like the actual product.

(2) Prototypes for design, analysis and functional testing. The system can produce a fully
functional
prototype in ABS. The resulting ABS parts have 85% of the strength of the actual molded
part.

Thus actual testing can be carried out, especially with consumer products.

(3) Patterns and masters for tooling. Models can be used as patterns for investment
casting, sand

casting and molding.

Stereolithography (SLA)

SLA employs a vat of liquid photopolymer resin and a laser to cure the resin layer by
layer selectively. SLA

printers are known for their high

precision and ability to produce

intricate details. This technology is

often used in jewelry making, dental

applications, and rapid prototyping

industries.

STEREOLITHOGRAPHY APPARATUS (SLA)

It is the first RP system developed by 3D systems of varencia in California, USA in 1996.

First

Model developed ewas 250/50 followed by 250/30,3500,5000 and 7000.

Principle

SLA is a laser based Rapid Prototyping process which builds parts directly from CAD by
curing

or hardening a photosensitive resin with a relatively low power laser.

Stereolithography (SL) is the best known rapid prototyping system. The technique builds
three-

dimensional models from liquid photosensitive polymers that solidify when exposed to
laser beam.

The model is built upon a platform in a vat of photo sensitive liquid. A focussed UV laser
traces out

the first layer, solidifying the model cross section while leaving excess areas liquid. In
the next step,

an elevator lowers the platform into the liquid polymer by an amount equal to layer
thickness. A

sweeper recoats the solidified layer with liquid, and the laser traces the second layer on
the first. This
process is repeated until the prototype is complete. Afterwards, the solid part is removed
from the vat

and rinsed clean of excess liquids. Supports are broken off and the model is then placed
in an ultraviolet

oven for complete curing.

The SLA process is based fundamentally on the following principles:

(1) Parts are built from a photo-curable liquid resin that cures when exposed to a laser
beam (basically,

undergoing the photo polymerization process) which scans across the surface of the
resin.

(2) The building is done layer by layer, each layer being scanned by the optical scanning
system and

controlled by an elevation mechanism which lowers at the completion of each layer.

These two principles will be briefly discussed in this section to lay the foundation to the
understanding

of RP processes. They are mostly applicable to the liquid-based RP systems described in

this chapter.

This first principle deals mostly with photo-curable liquid resins, which are essentially
photopolymers

and the photo polymerization process. The second principle deals mainly with CAD data,
the laser,

and the control of the optical scanning system as well as the elevation mechanism.

In this process photosensitive liquid resin which forms a solid polymer when exposed to
ultraviolet

light is used as a fundamental concept. Due to the absorption and scattering of beam,
the reaction only

takes place near the surface and voxels of solid polymeric resin are formed. A SL
machine consists of

a build platform (substrate), which is mounted in a vat of resin and a UV Helium-

Cadmium or Argon

ion laser. The laser scans the first layer and platform is then lowered equal to one slice
thickness and

left for short time (dip-delay) so that liquid polymer settles to a flat and even surface and
inhibit bubble

formation. The new slice is then scanned. Schematic diagram of a typical

Stereolithography apparatus

is shown in figure 1.9.

Process
3D Systems’ stereolithography process creates three-dimensional plastic objects directly
from CAD

data.

The process begins with the vat filled with the photo-curable liquid resin and the elevator
table set just

below the surface of the liquid resin (see Figure 1.9: below).

The operator loads a three-dimensional CAD solid model file into the system. Supports
are designed

to stabilize the part during building.

The translator converts the CAD data into a STL file. The control unit slices the model
and support

into a series of cross sections from 0.025 to 0.5 mm (0.001 to 0.020 in) thick.

The computer-controlled optical scanning system then directs and focuses the laser
beam so that it

solidifies a two-dimensional cross-section corresponding to the slice

The computer-controlled optical scanning system then directs and focuses the laser
beam so that it

solidifies a two-dimensional cross-section corresponding to the slice on the surface of the

photo-

curable liquid resin to a depth greater than one-layer thickness. The elevator table then
drops enough

to cover the solid polymer with another layer of the liquid resin. A levelling wiper or
vacuum blade

(for ZephyrTM recoating system) moves across the surfaces to recoat the next layer of
resin on the

surface. The laser then draws the next layer. This process continues building the part
from bottom up,

until the system completes the part. The part is then raised out of the vat and cleaned of
excess polymer.

The main components of the SLA system are a control computer, a control panel, a laser,
an optical

system and a process chamber. The workstation software used by the SLA system,
known as 3D Light

year exploits the full power of the Windows NT operating system, and delivers far richer
functionality

than the UNIX-based Maestro software. Maestro includes the following software modules:

(1) dverifyTM Module. This module can be accessed to confirm the integrity and/or
provide limited

repair to stereolithography (STL)

files before part building without having to return to the original CAD software. Gaps
between

triangles, overlapping or redundant triangles and incorrect normal directions are some
examples

of the flaws that can be identified and corrected.

(2) ViewTM Module. This module can display the STL files and slice file (SLI) in graphical
form.

The viewing function is used for visual inspection and for the orientation of these files so
as to

achieve optimal building.

(3) MERGE Module. By using MERGE, several SLI files can be merged into a group which
can

be used together in future process.

(4) VistaTM Module. This module is a powerful software tool that automatically generates
support

structures for the part files. Support structures are an integral part to successful part
building,

as they help to anchor parts to the platform when the part is free floating or there is an
overhang.

(5) Part ManagerTM Module. This software module is the first stage of preparing a part
for

building. It utilizes a spreadsheet format into which the STL file is loaded and set-up with
the

appropriate build and recoat style parameters.

(6) SliceTM Module. This is the second stage of preparing a part for building. It converts
the

spreadsheet information from the Part

(7) ManagerTM module to a model of three-dimensional cross sections or layers.

(8) ConvergeTM Module. This is the third and last stage of preparing a part for building.
This is the

module which creates the final build files used by the SLA.

Stage wise SLA Process

In new SL systems, a blade spreads resin on the part as the blade traverses the vat. This
ensures

smoother surface and reduced recoating time. It also reduces trapped volumes which
are sometimes

formed due to excessive polymerization at the ends of the slices and an island of liquid
resin having

thickness more than slice thickness is formed. Once the complete part is deposited, it is
removed from

the vat and then excess resin is drained. It may take long time due to high viscosity of
liquid resin. The

green part is then post-cured in an UV oven after removing support structures.

Overhangs or cantilever

walls need support structures as a green layer has relatively low stability and strength.
These overhangs

etc. are supported if they exceed a certain size or angle, i.e., build orientation. The main
functions of

these structures are to support projecting parts and also to pull other parts down which
due to shrinkage

tends to curl up. These support structures are generated during data processing and due
to these data
grows heavily specially with STL files, as cuboid shaped support element need
information about at

least twelve triangles. A solid support is very difficult to remove later and may damage
the model.

Therefore a new support structure called fine point was developed by 3D Systems (figure
1.10) and is

company s trademark. Build strategies have been developed to increase build speed and
to decrease

amount of resin by depositing the parts with a higher proportion of hollow volume. These
strategies

are devised as these models are used for making cavities for precision castings. Here
walls are designed

hollow connected by rod-type bridging elements and skin is introduced that close the
model at the top

and the bottom. These models require openings to drain out uncured resin.

OPERATIONS

i) The process begins with the solid model in various CAD formats.

ii) The solid model must consist of enclosed volumes before it is translated form CAD
formats

into .STL FILE

iii) The solid model is oriented into the positive octant of Cartesian coordinate system
and then

translate out Z axis by at least inches to allow for building of supports.

iv) The solid model is also oriented for optimum build which involves placing complex

curvature in XY plane where possible and rotating for least Z heights as well as to where

least amount of supports are required.

v) The .STL FILE is verified.

vi) The final .STL FILE one which supports in addition to original file are then sliced into

horizontal cross section and saved as slice file.

vii) The slice file are then mashed to create four separates files that control SLA machine

ending with extension L,R,V and PRM.

viii) Improvement one is V [Link]. Vector file. The V file contains actual line data that the
laser

will follow to cure the shape of the part.

ix) R file is the range file which contains data for solid or open fields as well as re-coater
blade

parameters.
The four build files are downloaded to SLA which begins building supports with platen
adjust

above the surface level. The first few support layers are actually cured into perforations
into platen,

thus providing a solid anchor for the rest of the part.

By building SLA uses laser to scan the cross section and fill across the surface of resin
which

is cured or hardened into the cross-sectional shape. The platen is lowered as the slices
are

completed so that more resin is available in the upper surface of the part to be cured.
Final step is

post processing.

POST PROCESSING

i) Ultraviolet Oven (Post Curing Apparatus)

ii) An Alcohol Bath

Clean the part in the alcohol bath and then go for final curing.

SLA Software

i) SLA CONTROL AND SET UP SOFTWARE: It operates on SLA and SLA machines. It

has got three packages.

a) SLA VIEW: UNIX based system for viewing and positioning.

b) BRIDGE WORKS: UNIX based software for generating support structures.

c) SLA SLICE: slicing and system operation software.

ii) MAESTRO: UNIX based software.

iii) MS WINDOWS NT SOFTWARE (SD LIGHT YEAR): It is used for viewing, positioning,

support generation and slicing, build station for operating SLA machine.

The SLA control and setup software has gone through various changes since the
inception of the

original MS-DOS version, which still operates on many SLA250 and SLA500 machines
today. For a

while, there were three packages required: a UNIX-based system T\/f for viewing and
positioning

(SLA View). another UNIX-based third-party software for generating support structures
(Bridge-

Works); and finally, the slicing and system operation software

(SLA Slice) located on the PC attached to the SLA machine. The next generation of
software combined
the view/positioning and the support generation into a more powerful UNIX-based
software deemed

Maestro™, but still maintained the same DOS software for operation of the system. The
latest systems

have Microsoft.

Windows NT® software for all operations: 3D Light year for viewing and positioning,
support

generation, and slicing; and Build station for operating the SLA machine. Fortunately, the
newer

software can still write code for the old DOS-operated machines as well.

Build Materials

Epoxy resin, Acrylate Resin

Epoxy resin has better material properties and less hazardous but require large exposure
time for

curing.

The SLA is a liquid-based RP process, which builds parts directly from CAD by selectively
curing, or

hardening, a photosensitive resin with a relatively low-powered laser. Polymerization is

the process of

curing a plastic or polymer by introducing a catalyst. In other words, polymerization links

small

molecules (monomers) to create larger chain molecules (polymers), this finally develops
into a fully

cross-linked solid polymer. Photo polymerization is essentially the same effect, only that
the catalyst

introduced is light energy.

The light energy kicks off a free-radical polymerization, where the liquid photopolymer is
phased from

liquid to gel to solid. The solid obtained is, however a thermo-set, so it can only be used
one time after

it has been cured (non-recyclable). In the SLA process, the light energy is introduced by
a focused

laser, which selectively cures the resin in a desired shape following a CAD file. The
original SLA build

materials were acrylate based. They were improved upon by epoxy-based materials, also
known as the

ACES (Acrylic Clear Epoxy System) build style. The epoxy materials provide advantages
over the
acrylate resins in that they have better materials properties and are less hazardous. The
integration of

the epoxies did require, though, longer exposure time for cure as well as higher-powered
lasers. There

are now a wide variety of resins available not only from the vendor but also from third-
party vendors

as well. The competitive market continues to open up with higher-performance build

materials at

slightly lower costs. Resins can be purchased to improve resolution, temperature

capacity, or even

speed of the build.

The SLA Hardware

The build chamber of SLA contains

a) A removable VAT that holds the buld resins.

b) A detachable perforated build platen on a Z axis elevator frame

c) An automated resin level checking apparatus

d) VAT has a small amount of Z movement capability which allows computer to maintain
a exact

height per layer.

e) A recoated blade rides along the track at the top of the rack and serves to smooth the
liquid

across the part surfaces to prevent any rounding off edges due to cohesion effects.

f) Some systems have Zaphyrrecoater blade which actually softens up resin and delivers
it evenly

across the past surface.

g) Behind the build chamber resides the laser and optics required to cure resin.

h) Laser unit is long rectangular about feet long and remains stationary.

The build chamber of the SLA contains a removable vat that holds the build resin, a
detachable,

perforated build platen on a –z axis elevator frame, and an automated resin-level

checking apparatus.

The vat has a small amount of -z movement capability, which allows the computer to
maintain the

exact height per layer. A recoated blade rides along a track at the top of the vat, and
serves to "smooth"

the liquid across the part surface to prevent a rounding of edges due to cohesion effects.
Some systems
now have a Zephyr recoated blade, which actually siphons up resin and delivers it
evenly across the

part surface. In an enclosed area above and behind the build chamber, resides the laser
and optics

required to cure the resin. The laser unit is long and rectangular, about 4 feet long, and
remains

stationary. The laser beam is transferred to the part surface below by a series of optics,
the final of

which moves to scan the cross section of the part being built. Also required, however,
are the post

processing units; an ultraviolet oven call the Post Curing Apparatus (PCA); and an alcohol
bath large

enough to hold entire build platens with parts attached. Parts are washed in the alcohol
or a similar

solvent immediately after being removed from the machine (while still attached to the
build platen).

This step removes any extra resin that clings to the surfaces of the part. After the final
supports are

removed, with some build styles the parts are required to be placed in the PCA to finish
fully curing.

• The main advantages of using SLA are:

• Parts have best surface quality

• High accuracy

• High speed

• Finely detailed features like thin vertical walls, sharp corners & fall columns can be
fabricated

with ease.

(1) Round the clock operation. The SLA can be used continuously and unattended round
the clock.

(2) Good user support. The computerized process serves as a good user support.

(3) Build volumes. The different SLA machines have built volumes ranging from small to
large to suit

the needs of different users.

(4) Good accuracy. The SLA has good accuracy and can thus be used for many
application areas.

(5) Surface finish. The SLA can obtain one of the best surface finishes amongst RP
technologies.

(6) Wide range of materials. There is a wide range of materials, from general-purpose
materials to
specialty materials for specific applications.

The main disadvantages of using SLA are:

• It requires post processing [Link] curing

• Careful handling of raw materials required

• High cost of Photo Curable Resin

(1) Requires support structures. Structures that have overhangs and undercuts must
have supports that

are designed and fabricated together with the main structure.

(2) Requires post-processing. Post-processing includes removal of supports and other

unwanted

materials, which is tedious, time consuming and can damage the model.

(3) Requires post-curing. Post-curing may be needed to cure the object completely and
ensure the

integrity of the structure.

Applications of SLA

• Investment casting

• Wind and tunnel modelling

• Tooling

• Injection mould tools

The SLA technology provides manufacturers with cost justifiable methods for reducing
time to market,

lowering product development costs, gaining greater control of their design process and
improving

product design. The range of applications includes:

❖ Models for conceptualization, packaging and presentation.

❖ Prototypes for design, analysis, verification and functional testing.

❖ Parts for prototype tooling and low volume production tooling.

❖ Patterns for investment casting, sand casting and molding.

❖ Tools for fixture and tooling design, and production tooling.

Software developed to support these applications include QuickCastTM, a software tool

which is used

in the investment casting industry. QuickCast enables highly accurate resin patterns that
are

specifically used as an expendable pattern to form a ceramic mold to be created. The

expendable

pattern is subsequently burnt out. The standard process uses an expendable wax pattern
which must
be cast in a tool. QuickCast eliminates the need for the tooling used to make the
expendable patterns.

QuickCast produces parts which have a hard thin outer shell and contain a honeycomb
like structure

inside, allowing the pattern to collapse when heated instead of expanding, which would
crack the shell.

LAMINATED OBJECT MANUFACTURING (LOM)

Introduction

Laminated Object Manufacturing is a rapid prototyping technique that produces 3D

models

with paper, plastics or composites. LOM was developed by Helices Corporation, Torrance,

California. LOM is actually more of a hybrid between subtractive and additive process. In
that

models are built up with layers of cross section of the part. Hence as layers are been
added, the

excess material is not required for that cross section is being cut away. LOM is one of the
fastest

RP processes for parts with longer cross sectional areas which make it ideal producing
large parts.

System Hardware
 1. LOM system is available in two sizes.
• LOM 1015 produces parts up to 10×15×14 inches
• LOM 2030 produces parts up to 20×30×24 inches
2. Common build material is paper
3. Build material has pressure and heat sensitive additive on the banking
4. Material thickness ranges from 0.0038 – 0.005 inches.

Softwares

LOM SLICES SOFTWARE

It provides interface between operator and the system. LOM does not require a pre
slice of
STL FILE i.e. once the parameters are loaded into LOM SLICE, the STL file slices as
the part
builds. The process of continuous slicing is called slice on the fly. The LOM has a
feed spindle
and a take up spindle for the build material. The feed spindle holds the roll of
virgin material
whereas the take up spindle serves to store the excess material after the layer is
cut. A heated roller
travels across the face of the part being after each layer to activate adhesive and
bond the part layer
together.
An invisible 25Watts CO2 laser is housed on the back of the LOM and reflected off
three mirrors
 before finally passing through a focusing lens on the carriage. The carriage moves
in the X
firection and the lens moves in the Y direction on the carriage, thus allowing focal
cutting point
of laser to be moved like a plotter pen while cutting through build material in the
shape desired.
This X and Y movements allows for two degrees of freedom or essentially a 2-D
sketch of part
cross section. The part being built is adhered to a removable metal plate which
holds the part
stationary until it is completed. The plate is bolted to the platen with brackets and
moves in the Z
direction by means of a large threaded shaft to allow the parts to be built up. This
provides the
third degree of freedom where in the LOM is able to build 3D models.
Some smoke and other vapors are created since the LOM functions by essentially
burning through
the sheets of materials with a laser, therefore LOM must be ventilated either to the
outside air or
through a large filtering device at rates around 500 cubic feet per minute.

LOM OPERATION

The way the LOM constructs the parts is by consecutively adhering layers of build
material while
cutting the cross section of the parts with a laser. The LOM SLICE software that
comes with LO

machine controls all these. The following description of operation is described with paper
as build

material.

SOFTWARE

1. As with all RP systems, the LOM must begin with the standard RP computer file or STL

file

2. The STL file is loaded into the LOM SLICE which graphically represents the model on

the screen.

3. Upon loading the STL file, LOM SLICE creates initializing files in the background for

controlling the LOM machine. Now there are several parameters the user must consider

and enter before building the part.

PART ORIENTATION

The designed shape of the parts to be built in LOM must be evaluated for determining
the

orientation in which to build the parts.

FIRST CONSIDERATION

Accuracy Desired for Curved Surfaces

Parts with curved surfaces tend to have a better finish if the curvatures of the cross
sections are

cut in the XY plane. This is true due to the fact that the controlled motion of the laser
cutting than

the layered effects of XY and YZ planes.

If a part contains curvatures in more than one plane, one alternative is to build the Part
at an angle

to the axis. The benefits here are too full as the part will not only have more accurate
curvatures

but will also tend to have better laminar strength across the length of the part.

SECOND CONSIDERATION

Time taken to fabricate a part

The slowest aspect of build process for LOM is movement in Z direction or time between
the

layers. This is mainly because after laser cuts across the surface of the beam material,
the LOM

must bring more paper across the top face of the part and then adhere to the previous
layer before

the laser can begin cutting again.

For this reason, a general rule has come for orientation long narrow parts is to place the
lengthiest

sections in the XY plane. This way the slowest part of the process the actual laser cutting
is minimized to a smaller number of layers.

These are some third-party software renders that have automatic testing functions that
will

strategically place parts in optimum orientations for the selected sections.

Cross hatching

Cross Hatching is necessary to get rid of excess paper on the individual layers. Cross
hatch is set

in LOM SLICE by the operator and can vary throughout the part. Basically, the operator
puts in a

range of layers for which we want a certain cross hatch pattern for sections of the part
that do not

have integrate features or cavities, a larger cross hatch can be set to make a part build
faster but

for thin walled sections and hollowed out areas, a finer cross hatch will be easier to
remove. The

cross-hatch size is given in values of X and Y. Therefore, the hatch pattern can vary from
square
to long thin rectangles.

The two main considerations for cross hatching are

• Ease of part removed

• Resulting build time

A very small hatch size will make for easy part removal. However, if the part is rather
large or has

large void area it can really slow down the build time. This is the reason for having
varying cross

hatch sizes throughout the part.

The LOM operator can either judge where and how the part should be cross hatched
visually or

use long slice to run a simulation build on the computer screen to determine layer
ranges for the

needed hatch sizes.

Also since the LOM SLICE creates slices as the part build parameters can be changed
during a

build simply by pausing a LOM machine and typing in new cross hatch values.

System Parameters

There are various controlling parameters such as laser powder, heater speed, and
material advance

margin and support wall thickness and heater compression.

Laser Power

It is the percentage of total laser output wattage.

For e.g. LOM 1015 is operated at a laser power of about 9% of maximum 25W laser or

approximately 2.25 W. This value will be different for various materials or machines but
essentially it is set to cut through only one sheet of build material.

Heater Speed

It is the rate at which hot roller passes across the top of the part. The rate given in
inches/second.

It is usually 6”/sec for initial pass and 3”/sec for returning pass of heater. The heater
speed effects

the lamination of the sheet so it must be set low enough to get a good bond between
layers.

Material Advance

It is the distance the paper is advanced in addition to length of the part.

Support Wall Thickness.

It controls the outer support box walls throughout a part. The support wall thickness is
generally

set 0.25” in the Margin X and Y direction, although this value can be changed by
operator.

Compression

It is used to set the pressure that the heater roller exerts on the layer. It is measured in
inches which

are basically the distance the roller is lifted from its initial track by the top surface of
part. Values

for compression will vary for different machines and materials, but are typically 0.015”-
0.025”.

Building

In the building phase, thin layers of adhesive-coated material are sequentially bonded to
each other

and individually cut by a CO2 laser beam. The build cycle has the following steps:

(1) LOMSliceTM creates a cross-section of the 3D model measuring the exact height of
the model and

slices the horizontal plane accordingly. The software then images crosshatches which
define the

outer perimeter and convert these excess materials into a support structure.

(2) The computer generates precise calculations, which guide the focused laser beam to
cut the cross-

sectional outline, the cross-hatches, and the model’s perimeter. The laser beam power is
designed to cut exactly the thickness of one layer of material at a time. After the
perimeter is burned,

everything within the model’s boundary is “freed” from the remaining sheet.

(3) The platform with the stack of previously formed layers descends and a new section
of material

advances. The platform ascends and the heated roller laminates the material to the
stack with a

single reciprocal motion, thereby bonding it to the previous layer.

(4) The vertical encoder measures the height of the stack and relays the new height to
LOMSliceTM,

which calculates the cross section for the next layer as the laser cuts the model’s current
layer.

This sequence continues until all the layers are built. The product emerges from the
LOMTM

machine as a completely enclosed rectangular block containing the part.

Materials

Potentially, any sheet material with adhesive backing can be utilized in Laminated Object

Manufacturing. It has been demonstrated that plastics, metals, and even ceramic tapes
can be used.

However, the most popular material has been Kraft paper with a polyethylene-based
heat seal adhesive

system because it is widely available, cost-effective, and environmentally benign [

In order to maintain uniform lamination across the entire working envelope it is critical
that the

temperature remain constant. A temperature control system, with closed-loop feedback,

ensures the

system’s temperature remains constant, regardless of its surrounding environment.

Principle

The LOMTM process is based on the following principles:

(1) Parts are built, layer-by-layer, by laminating each layer of paper or other sheet-form
materials and

the contour of the part on that layer is cut by a CO2 laser.

(2) Each layer of the building process contains the cross-sections of one or many parts.
The next layer

is then laminated and built directly on top of the laser-cut layer.

(3) The Z-control is activated by an elevation platform, which lowers when each layer is
completed,

and the next layer is then laminated and ready for cutting. The Z-height is then
measured for the

exact height so that the corresponding cross sectional data can be calculated for that
layer.

(4) No additional support structures are necessary as the “excess” material, which are
cross-hatched

for later removal, act as the support.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The main advantages of using LOM technology are as follows:

(1) Wide variety of materials. In principle, any material in sheet form can be used in the
LOMTM

systems. These include a wide variety of organic and inorganic materials such as paper,
plastics,

metals, composites and ceramics. Commercial availability of these materials allows

users to vary
the type and thickness of manufacturing materials to meet their functional requirements
and

specific applications of the prototype.

(2) Fast build time. The laser in the LOMTM process does not scan the entire surface area
of each

cross-section, rather it only outlines its periphery. Therefore, parts with thick sections are
produced

just as quickly as those with thin sections, making the LOMTM process especially
advantageous

for the production of large and bulky parts.

(3) High precision. The feature to feature accuracy that can be achieved with LOMTM
machines is

usually better than 0.127 mm (0.005"). Through design and selection of application
specific

parameters, higher accuracy levels in the X–Y and Z dimensions can be achieved. If the
layer does

shrink horizontally during lamination, there is no actual distortion as the contours are cut
post-

lamination, and laser cutting itself does not cause shrinkage. If the layers shrink in the
transverse

direction, a closed-loop feedback system gives the true cumulative part height upon
each

lamination to the software, which then slices the 3D model with a horizontal plane at the

appropriate location.

The LOMTM system uses a precise X–Y positioning table to guide the laser beam; it is
monitored

throughout the build process by the closed-loop, real-time motion control system,
resulting in an

accuracy of ±0.127 mm regardless of the part size. The Z-axis is also controlled using a
real-time,

closed-loop feedback system. It measures the cumulative part height at every layer and
then slices

the CAD geometry at the exact Z location. Also, as the laser cuts only the perimeter of a
slice there

is no need to translate vector data into raster form, therefore the accuracy of the cutting
depends

only on the resolution of the CAD model triangulation.

(4) Support structure. There is no need for additional support structure as the part is
supported by its
own material that is outside the periphery of the part built. These are not removed
during the

LOMTM process and therefore automatically act as supports for its delicate or overhang
features.

(5) Post-curing. The LOMTM process does not need to convert expensive, and in some
cases toxic,

liquid polymers to solid plastics or plastic powders into sintered objects. Because sheet
materials

are not subjected to either physical or chemical phase changes, the finished LOMTM
parts do not

experience warpage, internal residual stress, or other deformations.

The main disadvantages of using LOM are as follows:

(1) Precise power adjustment. The power of the laser used for cutting the perimeter (and
the

crosshatches) of the prototype needs to be precisely controlled so that the laser cuts
only the current

layer of lamination and not penetrate into the previously cut layers. Poor control of the
cutting

laser beam may cause distortion to the entire prototype.

(2) Fabrication of thin walls. The LOMTM process is not well suited for building parts with
delicate

thin walls, especially in the Z-direction. This is because such walls usually are not
sufficiently

rigid to withstand the post-processing process when the cross-hatched outer perimeter
portion of

the block is being removed. such delicate parts are located in the model and take
sufficient

precautions so as not to damage these parts.

(3) Integrity of prototypes. The part built by the LOMTM process is essentially held
together by the

heat sealed adhesives. The integrity of the part is therefore entirely dependent on the
adhesive

strength of the glue used, and as such is limited to this strength. Therefore, parts built
may not be

able to withstand the vigorous mechanical loading that the functional prototypes may
require.

(4) Removal of supports. The most labor-intensive part of the LOMTM process is its last
phase of post-
processing when the part has to be separated from its support material within the
rectangular block

of laminated material. This is usually done with wood carving tools and can be tedious
and time

consuming. The person working during this phase needs to be careful and aware of the
presence

of any delicate parts within the model so as not to damage it.

Applications

(1) Visualization. Many companies utilize LOMTM’s ability to produce exact dimensions of
a potential

product purely for visualization. LOMTM part’s wood-like composition allows it to be

painted or

finished as a true replica of the product. As the LOMTM procedure is inexpensive several
models

can be created, giving sales and marketing executives opportunities to utilize these
prototypes for

consumer testing, marketing product introductions, packaging samples, and samples for
vendor

quotations.

(2) Form, fit and function. LOMTM parts lend themselves well for design verification and

performance evaluation. In low-stress environments LOMTM parts can withstand basic

tests, giving

manufacturers the opportunity to make changes as well as evaluate the aesthetic

property of the

prototype in its total environment.

(3) Manufacturing. The LOMTM part’s composition is such that, based on the sealant or
finishing

products used, it can be further tooled for use as a pattern or mold for most secondary
tooling techniques including: investment casting, casting, sanding casting, injection
molding, silicon

rubber mold, vacuum forming and spray metal molding. LOMTM parts offer several
advantages

important for the secondary tooling process, namely: predictable level of accuracy
across the entire

part; stability and resistance to shrinkage, warpage and deformity; and the flexibility to
create a

master or a mold. In many industries the master created through secondary tooling, or
even when

the LOMTM part serves as the master (e.g., vacuum forming), withstands enough
injections, wax
shootings or vacuum pressure to produce a low production run from 5 to 1000 pieces.

(4) Rapid tooling. Two part negative tooling is easily created with LOMTM systems. Since
the material

is solid and inexpensive, bulk complicated tools are cost effective to produce. These
wood-like

molds can be used for injection of wax, polyurethane, epoxy or other low pressure and
low

temperature materials. Also, the tooling can be converted to aluminum or steel via the
investment

casting process for use in high temperature molding processes.

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

SLS employs a high-powered laser to fuse powdered materials, such as nylon or metal,
into solid objects. The

advantage of SLS lies in its ability to

print complex geometries and

functional parts with excellent

mechanical properties. It finds

applications in aerospace, automotive,

and medical fields.

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

Selective Laser Sintering is a rapid prototyping process that builds models from a wide
variety

of materials using an additive fabrication method. SLS was developed by University of

Texas Austin

in 1987. The build media for SLS comes in powder form which is fused together by a
powerful carbon

dioxide laser to form the final products. DTM sinter station 2500 is the machine used for
the process.

SLS begins like other rapid prototyping processes with a standard.

.STL CAD file format. DTM view software uses the .STL files. This software do the
required
orientation and scaling of parts. This machine has auto nesting capabilities which will
place multiple

part optimally in the build chamber for best processing speed and results. Once the .STL
file is placed

and parameters are set the model is directly built from the sile. Figure 2.1 shows
Selective laser

sintering process.

The sinter station has built piston at the center and feed piston on the either side. The
model is

build layer by layer like other rapid prototyping process so that the build piston will begin
at the top

of its range and will lower in increments of the set layer size as parts are built. With the
build piston at

the top a thin layer of powder is spread across the build area by the roller from one of
the feed piston.

The laser then cures in a raster sweeps motion across the area of the parts being built.
The part piston
lowers and more powder is deposited and the process is continued until all of the part is
built. The build media is removed from the machine. It is a cake of powder. This cake is
taken to the breakout

station where excess powder is removed from the part manually with brushes the excess
powder that

has been removed can be kept for recycling and can be reused. Some material needs
additional

finishing. Some of the finishing techniques include grid blasting, sanding, polishing,
drilling, toping

and coating.

PURPOSE OF SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING

To avoid a prototyping tool.

To decrease the time and cost of design to product cycle.

It can use wide variety of materials to accommodate multiple application throughout the
manufacturing

process.

APPLICATIONS

• As conceptual models

• Functional prototypes

• As pattern masters

ADVANTAGES

• Wide range of build material

• High throughput capabilities

• Self-supporting build envelop

• Parts are completed faster

• Damage is less

• Less wastage of material

DISADVANTAGES

• Initial cost of system is high

• High operational and maintenance cost

• Peripheral and facility requirement

In Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) process, fine polymeric powder like polystyrene,

polycarbonate or polyamide etc. (20 to 100 micrometer diameter) is spread on the

substrate using a

roller. Before starting CO2 laser scanning for sintering of a slice the temperature of the
entire bed is
raised just below its melting point by infrared heating in order to minimize thermal
distortion (curling)

and facilitate fusion to the previous layer. The laser is modulated in such away that only
those grains,

which are in direct contact with the beam, are affected. Once laser scanning cures a
slice, bed is lowered

and powder feed chamber is raised so that a covering of powder can be spread evenly
over the build

area by counter rotating roller. In this process support structures are not required as the
unsintered

powder remains at the places of support structure. It is cleaned away and can be
recycled once the

model is complete.

Digital Light Processing (DLP)

DLP technology utilizes a digital light projector to cure liquid resin, similar to SLA,
selectively. DLP printers can

achieve faster print speeds than SLA,

but the surface quality may be slightly

lower. This technology is commonly

used in dental applications, jewelry

manufacturing, and consumer goods.

Multi Jet Fusion (MJF)

Multi Jet Fusion operates on the principle of selectively applying fusing and detailing
agents to a bed of

powdered material. The process begins

with a thin layer of powdered material,

typically nylon, spread evenly across the

build platform. The print head then

moves across the bed, jetting tiny

fusing agent droplets onto the areas

where fusion is desired.

Simultaneously, a detailing agent is

jetted to define specific features and

enhance resolution.

Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)

The DMLS process begins with preparing a digital 3D model using computer-aided design
(CAD) software.

The model is then sliced into thin cross-

sectional layers, and the DMLS machine

uses this data to guide the laser's

movement and the application of metal

powder. The machine spreads a thin

layer of metal powder across the build

platform, and the laser precisely scans

the layer, selectively melting and fusing

the metal particles according to the

design specifications.

PolyJet

PolyJet works by jetting thin layers of liquid photopolymer materials onto a build tray.
Each layer is then instantly cured using UV light to solidify thematerial. The process
repeats, layer by

layer until the complete object is

formed. What sets PolyJet apart is its

ability to mix different materials on-the-

fly, creating parts with varying

properties, colors, and textures within a single print.

Carbon DLS

Carbon DLS operates by utilizing continuous liquid interface production (CLIP). In this
process, a build platform

is submerged in a vat of liquid resin. An

ultraviolet (UV) image projector projects

a sequence of UV images onto the

liquid resin, creating a cross-sectional

pattern of the printed part. The UV light

selectively cures the resin where it is

exposed, forming a solid layer.

Using oxygen-permeable optics sets

Carbon DLS apart from other 3D

printing technologies. A thin layer of

oxygen between the liquid resin and the

optics prevents the resin from fully curing against the window. This dynamic process
allows continuous printing without needing layer-by-layer printing, resulting in
significantly faster production times.

SELECTIVE LASER MELTING (SLM)

Selective laser melting (SLM) is considered as a new

manufacturing method for bridges and dental crowns. It is a

powder-based fusion process that uses materials such as

metals, polycarbonite (PC), polymers, ABS, wax and

powdered plastics etc., in preparation by powder in bed and

the phase conversion is owing to the fully melting [50]. In

addition, this technique consists of very thin size layers of

powders, which are packed closely and spread on a base.

During this process, the molten material solidifies as the

laser beam moves away from the melt pool. Thus develops

a dense structure. Once the layer of powdered material is

melted, and fuses the underlying layer, then another layer is

deposited over the previous layer. In this way, the process is

repeated and final part is produced, as depicted in figure 3e.

The binder chemistry, shape and dimension of particles,

interaction between binder and powder, deposition speed

and post-processing etc. play a major role in SLM [29,51].

However, high-quality printing and fine resolution are the

merits of SLM that make it appropriate for printing com-

plicated structures [52].

Google

Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is a powder bed fusion 3D printing technology that uses a
high-power laser to completely melt and fuse metal powders layer-by-layer, creating
fully dense (

), complex, and durable metal parts. It is ideal for rapid prototyping and producing
functional, high-strength, and high-precision components directly from CAD data.

Key Aspects of Selective Laser Melting

Process: A high-intensity laser scans a powder bed, melting metal powder to create a
molten pool that solidifies to form a layer. This process is repeated until the part is
finished.

Materials: Common materials include aluminum, stainless steel (e.g., 316L), titanium,
cobalt-chrome, and nickel alloys.

Benefits:

High Density: Near 100% material density with mechanical properties comparable to
wrought materials.

Complexity: Allows for intricate, lightweight, and customized geometries that cannot be
produced by conventional manufacturing.

Speed & Quality: Rapid production of, often, fully functional parts, sometimes reducing
the need for post-processing.

Limitations:

Surface Finish: Parts can have rough surfaces requiring post-machining for high
precision.
Residual Stress: Rapid melting and cooling can cause thermal stress, deformation, or
potential defects like balling.

Cost: High initial investment for equipment and materials.

Applications: Widely used in aerospace, medical implants, automotive components, and

jewelry/watchmaking.

❑ ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

• Although all additive manufacturing (AM) processes feature layer-by-layer fabrication

of three-dimensional objects, production techniques

vary. In 2010, the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) grouped AM
processes into seven categories in a new standard - “ASTM

F42 - Additive Manufacturing.” Every year, members of ASTM Committee F42 meet to
consider new or updated standards. The current

categories of additive manufacturing processes are:

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

• Directed Energy Deposition

• Material Jetting

• Sheet Lamination

• Powder Bed Fusion

• Vat Photopolymerization

• Binder Jetting

• Material Extrusion

• These seven additive manufacturing processes include notable variations on the

layered 3D printing concept. Material state (powder,

liquid, filament), heat or light sources (laser, thermal, electron beam, plasma arc),
number of print axes, feed systems and build chamber

characteristics all vary. Also, some additive manufacturing techniques require additional
post-production processing while others do not.

❑ POWDER BED FUSION

• Powder bed fusion (PBF) is a process common to a variety of popular additive

printing techniques namely Direct Metal Laser Melting (DMLM), Electron Beam

Melting (EBM), Directed Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS), Selective Laser Melting

(SLM), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) and Selective Heat Sintering (SHS).

• As the name suggests, PBF involves melting powder to a sufficient degree for the
particles to fuse together.

• Particles are either “sintered” (partially melted) or fully melted in various PBF

processes.

• Thermal energy in the form of a laser, beams of electrons or a heated print head

partially or fully melt plastic or metal powder.

• An ultrathin layer of material is spread by a roller or blade over the preceding

layer.

❑ VAT PHOTOPOLYMERIZATION

• Vat photopolymerization differs from many additive manufacturing processes in that it

begins with the use of a liquid rather than a powder or a filament.

• Additive printing techniques vary although they all use photopolymer resins

often tough, transparent and castable materials.

• Stereolithography (SLA) is a vat photopolymerization method that dates back

to the 1980s.

• It is one of the earliest 3D printing processes actively used today. SLA makes

use of a build platform in a tank of liquid polymer.

• It is a light-activated, not a heat-activated process.

• Since laser light comes from beneath the object, it is the reverse of other

additive manufacturing processes that feature a heat source directed from

above.

❑ DIRECTED ENERGY DEPOSITION

• Directed energy deposition (DED), (also called direct metal deposition or metal

deposition), utilizes highly focused thermal energy delivered via laser, electron
beam or plasma arc to melt and fuse material jetted into the heated chamber

from either powdered metal or wire filament.

• The additive process is most commonly used with metal, although some DED

systems can be used ceramic powder or polymers.

• The system usually features metal deposition along four or five axes.

• This makes it one of the few additive manufacturing technologies that can be

used to repair worn tools and parts in the aerospace, defense and automotive

industries.

• Laser engineered net shape (LENS) technology builds solid parts as the

powder is dispensed from nozzles and selectively melted by a laser

❑ MATERIAL JETTING
• Material jetting is an additive manufacturing process that uses drop-on-demand

(DOD) technology.

• Like a 2D inkjet printer, tiny nozzles dispense tiny droplets of a waxy

photopolymer, layer by layer.

• UV light cures and hardens the droplets before the next layer is created. Since this

additive technology relies heavily on support structures, a second series of nozzles

dispenses a dissolvable polymer that supports the object as it is printed.

• When printing is complete, the support material is dissolved away.

• Material jetting produces patterns used in lost-wax casting, investment casting

and mold making.

• Nanoparticle jetting (NPJ) is a sub-category of material jetting that uses liquids

infused with metal particles

❑ BINDER JETTING
• The binder jetting process is similar to material jetting, although it employs

powdered material and a binding agent.

• Nozzles on these 3D printers deposit tiny droplets of a binder on an ultrafine

layer of powdered metal, ceramic or glass.

• Multiple layers result from the powder bed moving downward after each layer

is created.

• The resulting object is in a green state, so post-processing is required.

• For example, bronze may be used to infiltrate a metal object. This improves its

mechanical properties enough to make it a functional component.

• A cyanoacrylate adhesive is a common infiltrant when the object is ceramic.

• However, ceramic objects produced by binder jetting are still fairly brittle, so

they are primarily used as architectural models or models for sand casting.

❑ MATERIAL EXTRUSION
• Fused deposition modeling (FDM), or fused filament fabrication (FFF), is

perhaps the most well-known additive manufacturing process.

• When the general public hears “3D printing,” this is the process they often

think of.

• A thermoplastic filament is extruded through a heated nozzle and onto

the build platform.

• The material solidifies as it cools, although not until it fuses to adjacent

layers. FDM uses a wide variety of thermoplastic filaments, including ABS,

PLA, nylon, PC , ULTEM and more complex filaments like those that are

metal-filled and wood-filled.

• Because the process is fast and inexpensive, it is often used to produce

prototypes.

❑ SHEET LAMINATION

• Sheet lamination is an additive manufacturing process in which ultra-thin layers of

solid material are bonded by alternating layers of adhesive.

• It is possible to use a variety of materials in this additive process called laminated

object manufacturing (LOM).

• For example, paper lamination technology (PLT), combines sheets of paper and

layers of adhesive into a layered object resembling plywood.

• At the conclusion of the process, a laser, metal knife or tungsten carbide blade

directed by a CAD file cuts through the many layers to create the final 3D object.

• Ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM) uses metal sheets, ribbons or foils to

build objects a single layer at a time.

• A variety of metals are used in UAM, including titanium, stainless steel, copper and
aluminum.

Process Parameters

Key parameters influencing part quality (density, strength, surface finish) include:

Layer Thickness: Dictates resolution; smaller layers (0.05–0.1 mm) yield better finish,
while thicker (0.254+ mm) are faster.

Laser Power & Scan Speed: Critical in powder bed fusion and DED to ensure proper
melting and bonding.

Nozzle/Bed Temperature: Vital for FDM adhesion and reducing warping.

Raster Angle/Build Orientation: Affects anisotropy and strength of the finished part.

Layer Deposition Rate: Affects production speed, particularly in DED.

Process Selection for various Applications.

❑ HOW TO SELECT CORRECT AM PROCESS

Selecting the optimal 3D printing process for a particular application can be difficult.
There are often more than one process that are

suitable and each of them offers different benefits, like greater dimensional accuracy,
superior material properties or better surface finish.

Generally, there are three main things you always need to consider:

• The required material properties: strength, hardness, impact strength etc.

• The functional & visual design requirements: smooth surface, strength, heat resistance
etc.

• The capabilities of the 3D printing process: accuracy, available print volume, layer
height etc.
 Guidelines for process selection

• A variety of AM technologies have been developed. According to

ASTM Standard F2792 (ASTM F2792-12a 2012), these

technologies can be catalogued into seven groups: binder jetting,

directed energy deposition, material extrusion, material jetting,

powder bed fusion, sheet lamination and vat photo- polymerization.

• More than 350 industrial AM machines and 450 materials have been

identified in the market (Senvol LLC 2015). The debate about which

machine or technology fares better than others has little value as

each of them has its targeted applications.

• AM technologies are no longer limited to prototyping usage,

but are increasingly also being used for making end products.

• Therefore, „Design for Additive Manufacture‟ (DfAM) becomes increasingly significant

for avoiding potential manufacturing pitfalls and maximizing utilization of AM capability.

The commonly used decision process can be described by a six-stage sequential

decision-making model as proposed

• Identification of the problem

• Obtaining necessary information

• Production of possible solutions

• Evaluation of such solutions

• Selection of a strategy for performance

• Implementation and subsequent learning and reformulation

❑ DESIGN RULES FOR 3D PRINTING

❑ DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

• Most designs that ignore general guidelines require specialized manipulation of the AM
machines or softwares by experts. Despite these caveats, the development of DfAM
(Design for Advance Manufacturing) rules or guidelines will continue to show
commonalities amongst themselves until the next novel manufacturing or prototyping
process is invented and requires a new set of guidelines.

• While the guidelines shown in next slide table are useful and effectively convey

expert knowledge, past efforts are often worded in a way that is easier for

intermediate users to understand, rather than novices. For example, few novices

will know what a support or an island is without further reading or experience.

• Some guidelines are more specific than most novice or intermediate users need or
understand, or would only be necessary if an AM user creates many parts, such as
putting identification markings on parts.

Application

In the past decade, 3D printing has made significant advancements. Its ability to rapidly
produce intricate designs at lower costs has made it a vital tool across various
industries.
From commercial manufacturing and medicine to architecture and custom design, 3D
printing has become indispensable.

Additive manufacturing techniques are now utilized to produce food products. Modern
3D printers feature pre-loaded recipes and enable users to create customized food
remotely via computers and smartphones. Users can tailor the texture, color, shape,
flavor, and nutrition of the 3D-printed food to their preferences.

In 2014, SpaceX sent the first zero-gravity 3D printer to the International Space Station.
Astronauts utilize it to print practical tools like socket wrenches while in space.

In fact, many assembly projects planned for planets or asteroids will rely on materials
available in nearby regions. 3D printing plays a significant role in this process of
bootstrapping.

Moreover, 3D printing technology has shown promise in pharmaceutical formulations.

The first formulation manufactured using 3D printing was developed in 2015, and in the
same year, the FDA approved the first 3D-printed tablet.

3D printing technology has the potential to revolutionize organ transplantation and

surgical practices by providing personalized solutions tailored to individual patients’
needs. For example, surgeons can use 3D-printed organ models to plan complex
surgeries more effectively.

Nowadays, tech companies are integrating additive manufacturing with cloud computing
to enable decentralized and geographically independent distributed production. Some
companies offer online 3D printing services (via website) to both private and commercial
customers.

The Applications of 3D Printing in Manufacturing Technology

Aerospace industry

3D printing technology provides unparallel freedom design in component and

production. In aerospace industry, 3D printing technology has potential to make
lightweight parts, improved and complex geometries, which can reduce energy
requirement and resources [52]. At the same time, by using 3D printing technology, it
can lead to fuel savings because it can reduce the material used to produce aerospace‟s
parts. Furthermore, 3D printing technology has been widely applied to produce the spare
parts of some aerospace components such as engines. The engine‟s part is easily
damaged, which require regular replacement. Therefore, 3D printing technology is a
good solution to the procurement of such spare parts [53]. In aerospace industry, nickel-
based alloys is more preferred due to the tensile properties, oxidation/corrosion
resistance and damage.

Automotive industry

Nowadays, 3D printing technology have rapidly changed our industry to design, develop
and manufacture new things. In the automotive industry, 3D Printing technique have
made phenomena to bring new shines, allowing for lighter and more complex structures
in the fast time. For instance, Local Motor had printed the first 3D-printed electric car in
2014. Not only cars, Local Motors also extended the wide range application of 3D
printing technology by manufacturer a 3D-printed bus called OLLI. OLLI is a driverless,
electric, recyclable and extremely smart 3D printed bus. Furthermore, Ford is the leader
in the use of 3D printing technology also apply 3D printing technology to produce
prototype and engine parts [55]. In addition, BMW uses 3D printing technology to
produce hand-tools for automotive testing and assembly. Meanwhile, in 2017, AUDI was
collaborated with SLM Solution Group AG to produce spare parts and prototypes [56].

Consequently, by using 3D printing technology in automotive industry enable company

to try various alternatives and emphasize right in the improvement stages, prompting
ideal and effective automotive design. At the same time, 3D printing technology can
reduce the wastage and consumption of the materials. Moreover, 3D printing technology
can reduce costs and time, therefore, it allows to test new designs in a very fast time
[57].

Food industry

3D printing technology open the doors not only for aerospace industry, but also for food
industry. At present, there is a growing demand for the development of customized food
for specialized dietary needs, such as athletes, children, pregnant woman, patient and so
on which requires a different amount of nutrients by

reducing the amount of unnecessary ingredients and

enhancing the presence of healthy ingredients [58].

However, the development of customized foods must

be conducted in a very detailed and inventive way,

which is where the adoption of 3D-food printing

appears. Food layer manufacture also known as 3D-

food printing fabricated through the deposition of

successive layers by layer derived directly from

computer-aided design data [49]. By using 3D printing

technology, specific materials can be mixed and

processes into various complicated structures and

shape [59]. Sugar, chocolate, pureed food and flat

food such as pasta, pizza and crackers can be used to

create new food items with complex and interesting

designs and shape.

3D printing technology is a high-energy

efficiency technology for food production with

environmentally friendly, good quality control and

low cost. 3D-food printing can be healthy and give

benefit for human because it creates new process for

food customization and can adjust with individual

preferences and needs. By allowing food preparation

and ingredients to be automatically adjusted to the

consumer‟s information, it would be possible to have

diets which enforce themselves without need to

exercise [49].

Healthcare and medical industry

3D printing technology can used to print 3D skin [60], drug and pharmaceutical research
[61], bone and cartilage [62], replacement tissues [63], organ [22], printing for cancer
research [64] and lastly

models for visualization, education, and

communication. There are several advantages of 3D

Printing technology for biomedical products which

are:

 3D printing technology can replicate the

natural structure of the skin with the lower

cost. 3D printed skin can be used to test

pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and chemical

products. Therefore, it is unnecessary to

use the animal skin to test the products.

Consequently, it will help the researcher to

get accurate result by using replicate the

skin [65].

 By using 3D printing technology to print

drug can increase efficiency, accurate

control of dropped size and dose, high

reproducibility and able to produce dosage

form with complex drug-release profiles

[22].

 3D printing technology is able to print

cartilage and bone to replace bony voids in

the cartilage or bone that caused by trauma

or disease [66]. This treatment is different

options from using auto-grafts and

allografts because this treatment focuses

on to generate bone, maintain, or improve

its function by using in vivo.

 3D printing technology also can be used to

replace, restore, maintain, or improve the

tissues function. The replacement tissues

produced by 3D printing technology have

the interconnected pore network,

biocompatible, appropriate surface

chemistry and has good mechanical

properties [63].

 3D printing technology also can be used to

print out similar organ failure caused by

critical problems such as disease,

accidents, and birth defects.

 3D printing technologies are able to form

highly controllable cancer tissues model

and shows great potential to accelerate

cancer research. By using 3D printing

technology, the patients can get more

reliable and accurate data.

 3D printout models can use in the

learning process to help neurosurgeons

practicing surgical techniques. By using

3D model, it can improve accuracy, can

take the short time to the trainer when

performing clinical procedure, and

provides opportunities for training

surgeons hands-on, as the 3D model is a

simulation of a real patient‟s pathological

condition.

Architecture, building, and construction industry

3D printing technology can be considered as environmentally friendly derivative and it

give unlimited possibilities for geometric complexity realization. In the construction
industry, 3D printing

technology can be usedto print entire building or can

create construction components. The emergence of

the Building Information

Modelling (BIM) will facilitate better use of 3D

printing technology. Building Information Modelling

is a digital representation of functional and physical

characteristics, can share an information and

knowledge about 3D building. It can form a reliable

source for decision during its life cycle, from initial

conception to demolition for construct or design the

building [67]. This innovative and collaborative

technology will support more efficient method to

designing, creating and maintaining the built

environment.

With 3D printing technology, companies can

design and create the visual of the building in the fast

time and inexpensively as well as avoid delays and

help pinpoint problem areas. At the same time, with

3D printing technology, construction-engineer and

their clients can communicate more efficiently and

clearly. Much of acustomer's expectations come from

an idea, and 3D printing makes it simple to appear that

idea beyond the dated method of paper and pencil

[68]. The examples of 3D printed building are Apis Cor Printed House in Russia [67] and
Canal House in Amsterdam [68].

Fabric and Fashion Industry

When 3D printing technology enters the retail industry, 3D printed shoes, jewellery [4],
consumer goods and clothing [69] are emergence into the

market. The combination of fashion and 3D printing

may not seem like themost natural fit, but it is starting

to become an everyday reality all over the world. For

instance, big companies like Nike, New Balance and

Adidas are striving to development the mass

production of 3D printed shoes. Nowadays, 3Dprinted

shoes are produced for athlete's shoes, custom-made

shoes and sneakers [70].

Besides, 3D printing technology can spread

creative possibilities for fashion design. Indeed, it

makes it possible to makes shapes without moulds. In

fashion industry, by using 3D printing technology, it

can design and produce garments by using mesh

system and also can print ornaments for traditional

textile. Moreover, the application of 3D printing

technology not limited to the fashion industry, but also

can print leather goods and accessories. For instances,

jewellery, watchmaking, accessories and so on [71].

The retailers and designers believe the purpose

of creating fashion products by using 3D printing

enabling more innovative designs created in just one

process [37]. The development of a green electronic

device with low-manufacturing cost, good safety, high

technology is not to duplicate current products, but to

improve product design by offering personalised and

unique products to customers [72]. The advantages of

the product development by using 3D printing

technology are the product is on- demand custom fit

and styling. At the meantime, by using 3D printing

technology, it can reduce the supply chain cost.

Lastly, 3D printing technology can create and deliverproducts in small quantities in the
fast time [73].

Electric and Electronic Industry

As 3D printing becomes more and more accessible to sciences, technology and

manufacturing fields, the manufacturers are starting to see its potential realized in all
sorts of interesting ways.

Nowadays, various 3D printing technologies have

already been used broadly for structural electronic

devices like active electronic materials, electrode and

devices with mass customization and adaptive design

through embedding the conductors into 3D printed

devices [74].
The production process for the 3D electrode by

utilizing the Fused Deposition Modelling of 3D

printing technique provides low-cost and a time

efficient approach to mass producing electrode

materials. Compared to commercial electrodes such as

aluminium, copper and carbon electrodes, the design

and surface area of the 3D electrode can be easily

customized to suit a particular application.

Furthermore, 3D printing process for the 3D electrode

is fully automated, with a high degree of precision,

made it possible to complete the printing process for

eight 8 electrodes in just 30 minutes [75].

In addition, active electronic components are any

electronic devices or components capable of

amplifying and controlling the flow charges of

electric. Besides, active devices also include those that

can generate power. Examples of active electronic

components include silicon-controlled rectifiers,

transistors, diodes, operational amplifiers, light-

emitting diodes (LEDs), batteries and so on. These

components normally require highly elaborate

fabrication processes compared to those used for

passive components due to their complex

functionalities [76]. 3D printing technology provides

advantages for processing of product along with its

electronics. With multi-material printing technology,

the efficiency of electronic system may possibly

be adopted in Industry Revolution 4.0,

reliability and rapid production, is urgently in demand

to address environment pollutions in today‟s society.

❑ ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING APPLICATIONS

Powder Bed Fusion

• Powder bed fusion is ideal for almost all types of end manufacturing, allowing for the
easy design and build of complex geometries.

• Parts typically possess high strength and stiffness with a large range of post-processing
methods available.

Vat Photopolymerization

• Vat photopolymerization is excellent at producing parts with fine detail and smooth
surfaces. Ideal for jewelry, medical applications and low-run injection molds

Directed Energy Deposition

• Exclusively used in metal additive manufacturing, this process is ideal for repairing or
adding material to existing components

Material Jetting

• Ideal for realistic prototypes with high detail, high accuracy and a smooth finish.
Material jetting allows for multiple colors and materials in a single printout

Binder Jetting

• Ideal for aesthetic applications like architectural and furniture design models

• It is generally not used in functional applications due to its brittle nature

Material Extrusion

• Quick and cost effective, FDM is often the go-to method for producing non-functional
prototypes or rapid prototyping where several iterations are needed

Sheet Lamination

• Best for non-functional models, benefits include speed, low cost, ease of material
handling

❑ APPLICATIONS IN AEROSPACE

• AM excels at producing parts with weight-saving, complex geometric designs.

Therefore, it is often the perfect solution for creating light, strong aerospace parts.

• In August 2013, NASA successfully tested an SLM-printed rocket injector during a hot
fire test that generated 20,000 pounds of thrust.

• In 2015, the FAA cleared the first 3D-printed part for use in a commercial jet engine.

• CFM's LEAP engine features 19 3D-printed fuel nozzles.

• At the 2017 Paris Air Show, FAA-certified, Boeing 787 structural parts fabricated from
titanium wire were displayed, according to Aviation Week.

❑ APPLICATIONS IN AUTOMOTIVE

• CNN reported that the McLaren racing team is using 3D-printed parts in its Formula 1
race cars.

• A rear wing replacement took about 10 days to produce instead of five weeks.

• The team has already produced more than 50 different parts using additive
manufacturing.
• In the auto industry, AM's rapid prototyping potential garners serious interest as
production parts are appearing.

• For example, aluminum alloys are used to produce exhaust pipes and pump parts, and
polymers are used to produce bumpers.

APPLICATIONS IN HEALTHCARE

• At the New York University School of Medicine, a clinical study of 300 patients will
evaluate the efficacy of patient-specific, multi-colored kidney cancer models using
additive manufacturing.

• The study will examine whether such models effectively assist surgeons with pre-
operative assessments and guidance during operations.

• Global medical device manufacturing company Stryker are funding a research project
in Australia that will use additive manufacturing technology to create custom, on-
demand 3D printed surgical implants for patients suffering from bone cancer.

• In general, healthcare applications for additive manufacturing are expanding,

particularly as the safety and efficacy of AM-built medical devices is established.