CLASS - IX
BIOLOGY
CHAPTER – 5
The Fundamental Unit of Life
Robert Hooke
British scientist
Robert Hooke
English physicist
Discovered Born in 1635 in England.
the phenomenon of diffraction of
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History
• Robert Hooke
In 1665 observed cork cells.
Named it as “cell” in his book
“Micrographia”
Cellulae (Latin) = A little room
History
• Anton von Leeuwenhock:
In 1674, described free cells like
bacteria, in pond water
History
• Robert Brown:
In 1831 discovered Nucleus from an
orchid root cell
• Schleiden and Schwann:
In 1838-39 gave the basics of cell theory
• Rudolph Virchow in 1855 stated – Life
originates from Life
• Haeckel in 1866 – Nucleus stores and
transmits hereditary information
Conclusion
• All living organisms are made up
of microscopic units called cells.
Definition of cell:
Cell is the structural and functional
unit of living organisms
Cell Theory
- All living organisms are composed of cells
- Cell is the basic unit of life
- All cells are basically alike in structure and
metabolic activities
- A cell is a mass of protoplasm containing a nucleus
and bounded by a cell membrane, and in many
cases by a cell wall also
- All living cells arise from the pre-existing cells
Two Basic Categories of Living Organisms
Unicellular Organisms Multicellular Organisms
1. It consists of a single 1. It consists of a large number
cell. of cells.
2. The single cell performs 2. A single cell performs one or
all the life activities a few activities
3. There is a division of labour
3. There is no division of
as cells are specialized to
labour as the single cell
perform different functions of
performs all the activities
the body.
4. Single cell is involved in
the production of new 4. Only germ cells take part in
organisms during reproduction.
reproduction.
Two Categories of Cells Based on Complexity
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
1. Generally smaller in size (1 1. Generally larger in size (5 –
– 10 µm) 100 µm)
2. Distinct Nucleus absent. (An
2. Distinct Nucleus present
undefined nucleoid present)
3. Contains single 3. Contains more than one
chromosomes chromosomes
4. Nucleolus absent 4. Nucleolus present
5. Membrane bound cell
5. Membrane bound cell
organelles present
organelles absent
6. Cell division occurs by
6. Cell division occurs by
fission or budding. (Mitosis
Mitosis or Meiosis
does not occur)
BBQ – Page 59
1. Who discovered cells, and how?
Robert Hooke discovered cells with the help
of his self-designed microscope. In 1665,
Robert Hooke was examining a thin slice or
cork and he saw that the cork resembled the
structure of a honey comb consisting of many
compartments which he called as cells.
BBQ – Page 59
2. Why is the cell called the structural and
functional unit of life?
Every living organism is made up of cells. It is
the smallest unit of a living organism.
Every living cell has the capacity to perform
certain basic functions with the help of cell
organelles, that are characteristic of all living
forms.
A cell is able to live and perform all its functions
with the help of cell organelles. Thus it is the
structural and functional unit of life.
Essential Characteristics of a cell
• 1. Plasma membrane
Every cell is enclosed on all sides by a
distinct selectively permeable cell
membrane made of lipids and proteins.
• 2. Nuclear material
All cells have DNA or RNA which stores,
express and transmit hereditary
characters.
• 3. Cytoplasm
All cells have a viscous colloidal fluid
with many cell organelles in it.
Plasma membrane
Plasma membrane
• Every cell is enclosed on all sides by a
distinct selectively permeable membrane
made of lipids and proteins known as
Plasma membrane or cell membrane
Plasma membrane
Molecular Structure
• The Fluid Mosaic Model proposed by S.
J. Singer and G. Nicolson in 1972 is the
most accepted model of structure of
plasma membrane
Plasma membrane - Molecular Structure
• Plasma membrane is made up of a
phospholipid bilayer and proteins
• The proteins can be of two types
– Intrinsic proteins (Integral proteins)– Embedded
fully or partially in phospholipid bilayer
– Extrinsic proteins (Peripheral proteins) –
Attached superficially on inner or outer surface
• The protein molecules can move freely in
the phospholipid bilayer
Plasma membrane - Structure
Plasma membrane - Functions
• Gives form to the cell.
• Keeps cell contents in place
• Protects cell from injury
• Regulates the flow of materials across
• Maintains individuality of cell
Solution
Solute + Solvent = Solution
Salt + Water = Salt Solution
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Solute is a substance which is dissolved in a solvent
Solvent is a substance in which a solute is dissolved
Membranes – A Physical Barrier
• Impermeable membranes
– Does not allow passage of solute and solvent
• Permeable membranes
– Allows free passage of solute and solvent
• Semipermeable membranes
– Allows passage of solvent only
– Prevents passage of solute
• Selectively permeable membrane
– Allows passage of solvent
– Allows passage of few selected solutes
Permeability of Plasma Membrane
• Plasma membrane is a Semipermeable
membrane
• But it allows the passage of a few
selected solutes also
• So Plasma membrane or cell membrane
is a selectively permeable membrane
Transport of materials across Cell membrane
Diffusion
• The process by which a substance
uniformly spreads into another substance
by random movement of its particles from
a region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration due to their
kinetic energy is called diffusion.
• Eg: Diffusion of a drop of ink in water
It is faster in gases than in liquids and solids
Osmosis
• The diffusion of water or solvent through
a semipermeable membrane from a
solution of lower concentration of solutes
to a solution of higher concentration of
solutes to which the membrane is
relatively permeable is called osmosis
Thistle Funnel Experiment
Thistle Funnel Experiment
Types of Solutions
• Hypotonic Solutions
• Isotonic Solutions
• Hypertonic Solutions
Hypotonic Solutions
• If the medium surrounding the cell has a
higher water concentration than the cell,
meaning that the outside solution is very
dilute, the cell will gain water by osmosis. Such
a solution is known as a hypotonic solution.
Isotonic Solutions
• If the medium has exactly the same water
concentration as the cell, there will be no net
movement of water across the cell membrane.
Such a solution is known as an isotonic
solution.
Hypertonic Solutions
• If the medium has a lower concentration of
water than the cell, meaning that it is a very
concentrated solution, the cell will lose water
by osmosis. Such a solution is known as a
hypertonic solution.
Exosmosis and Endosmosis
The movement of water from the cell to the
outer environment through a semi
permiable membrane is called exosmosis.
The movement of water from the outer
environment into the cell through a
semipermiable memebrane is called
endosmosis.
Exocytosis
In exocytosis, materials are exported out
of the cell via secretory vesicles.
In this process, the Golgi complex
packages macromolecules into transport
vesicles that travel to and fuse with the
plasma membrane.
This fusion causes the vesicle to spill its
contents out of the cell.
Endocytosis
Endocytosis, is the process by which
materials move into the cell.
There are three types of endocytosis:
1. phagocytosis
2. pinocytosis
3. receptor-mediated endocytosis.
Cell Wall
Cell Wall
• Outermost covering of a plant cell
• Thick, Porous (Plasmodesmata),
non-living, rigid, completely permeable
• Secreted by the cell for protection
• Also present in Bacteria and Fungi
• Bacterial Cell wall contain bacterial
cellulose and Fungal cell wall contain
Chitin.
Cell Wall
Chemical Composition
• Mainly made of insoluble fibrous
polysaccharide - cellulose
• Also contain hemicellulose, pectin and
some proteins
• Thickening of chemicals like lignin,
suberin etc. observed in some cells.
Cell Wall
Physical Structure
• The cell wall consists of two region:
– Primary cell wall
– Secondary cell wall
• Primary cell wall is single layer of wall
material and are found in young cells
• Secondary cell wall is multilayered and
are found in mature plant cells
• A tertiary cell wall internal to secondary
cell wall is formed in some plant cells
Cell Wall
Functions
• 1. Maintains the shape of the cells
• 2. Protects cell from mechanical injury
• 3. Provides mechanical support
• 4. Allows materials to pass in and out of
the cells
• 5. Allows exchange of materials between
adjacent cells through plasmodesmata
Cell Wall
Plasmolysis
• The phenomenon of shrinkage of
protoplast from the cell wall due to
exosmosis caused by a hypertonic
solution in a plant cell is called
plasmolysis.
Cell Wall
Stages of Plasmolysis
• 1. Limiting Plasmolysis
Gradual loss of water causes to stop exerting pressure on cell
wall. It is the beginning of plasmolysis.
• 2. Incipient Plasmolysis
Shrinking of protoplasm begins from the corners of the cell.
• 3. Evident Plasmolysis
Maximum shrinking of the protoplast. Complete plasmolysis
Deplasmolysis
If a plasmolysed plant cell is immediately placed in hypotonic
solution, water enters the cell and the protoplast swells up.
Nucleus
• The nucleus is small, round and membrane
bound structure found in cell.
• The fluid inside the nucleus surrounded by
nuclear membrane is called nucleoplasm.
• It controls the cell’s growth and reproduction
because it contains cell's hereditary
information.
• It is covered by dual layer called nuclear
membrane.
• The nuclear membrane contains pores due to
which materials can travel both inside the
nucleus from its outer surrounding i.e.
cytoplasm.
Nucleus
• The nucleus contains some thread like
structures called chromatin. It exists during the
resting stage of cell.
• The chromatin contains DNA (Deoxy-ribo nucleic
acid), RNA (Ribo Nucleic acid) and proteins.
• The nucleus contains some rod shaped
structures in a cell that contains the hereditary
information. They are called chromosome.
• They are formed when the chromatin condenses
together when the cell is about to divide.
Nucleus
• Chromosomes contain DNA and nuclear proteins.
• They contain the hereditary information for
inheritance of features from the parents to the
offspring as DNA.
• The DNA molecules contain the information for
construction and organization of cells. Genes are
the functional segments of DNA.
• Human body has 23 pairs of chromosomes.
• The nucleus of cell divides itself to give rise to
new offsprings.
• Genes present in the chromosomes decide the
hereditary characters.
Chromosomes-Chromatin-DNA
DNA - Gene
Nucleus
Nucleus - Diagram
Nucleus - Diagram
Nucleus - Diagram
Nucleus - Diagram
Nucleus - Diagram
Nucleus - Diagram
Prokaryotic Cell
Cytoplasm
• In eukaryotic cells, cytoplasm refers to
everything present inside the cell except the
nucleus.
• Cytoplasm is a thick solution that fills each
cell and is enclosed by the cell membrane.
• It is mainly composed of water, salts, and
proteins.
Functions of Cytoplasm
Most of the vital cellular and enzymatic reactions
like cellular respiration and translation of mRNA
into proteins occur in the cytoplasm.
It acts as a buffer and protects genetic materials
as well as other organelles from damage due to
collision or change in the pH of the cytosol.
The process called cytoplasmic streaming helps
in the distribution of various nutrients and
facilitates the movement of cell organelles within
the cell.
Cell organelles
Cell organelles are specialized entities present
inside a particular type of cell that perform a
specific function.
There are various cell organelles, out of which,
some are common in most types of cells like cell
membranes, nucleus, and cytoplasm.
However, some organelles are specific to one
particular type of cell-like plastids, lysosomes
and centrioles
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is present as an
interconnection of tubules that are connected to the
nuclear membrane in eukaryotic cells.
There are two types of ER based on the presence or
absence of ribosomes on them:
1. Rough ER (RER) with ribosomes attached on the
cytosolic face of Endoplasmic Reticulum and thus is
involved in protein synthesis
2. Smooth ER (SER)which lacks ribosomes and has
a function during lipid synthesis.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Structure:
Endoplasmic Reticulum exists in three forms viz.
cisternae, vesicles, and tubules.
Cisternae are sac-like flattened, unbranched
structures that remain stacked one on top of
another.
Vesicles are spherical structures that carry proteins
throughout the cell.
Tubules are tubular branched structures forming a
connection between cisternae and vesicles.
Golgi apparatus
• The stacks of flattened membranous vesicles are
called Golgi apparatus.
• It basically stores, packs and modifies the
products in vesicles.
• It temporarily stores protein that moves out of
the cell through the vesicles of the Golgi
apparatus.
• It packs and transports the materials
synthesised in Endoplasmic Reticulum to
different targets inside and outside the cell.
Lysosomes
• The sac-like structures in a cell surrounded by
membrane are called lysosomes.
• They keep the cells clean by digesting and
breaking the outside materials like bacteria, food
entering the cell or worn-out cell organelles into
small pieces.
• They can digest these organic materials due to
the presence of strong digestive enzymes that
can break down organic compounds. Therefore,
lysosome is also known as a suicide sac.
• Many scientists believe that lysosomes are not
present in plant cells and their function of
lysosomes in plants is performed by vacuole.
Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are round "tube-like" organelles
that provide energy to a cell in the form of ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate) for performing
different chemical activities for the sustenance
of life.
• Mitochondria is also called powerhouse
of the cell.
Mitochondria
• It is surrounded by two membranes.
• The outer membrane is porous whereas the inner
membrane has deep folds that provides a large
surface to perform the chemical reactions
required for the generation of ATP.
• The inner membrane is compartmentalized into
various cristae.
• The ground substance or space enclosed by
inner membrane is called matrix.
• Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes
and are hence capable to produce some of their
required proteins all by themselves.
Mitochondria
Plastids
• The term ‘plastids’ was first coined by ‘A.F.W
Schimper’.
• Just like mitochondria it is also double
membraned organelle which has its own DNA
and ribosome.
• Plastids exist in plant cells only.
• They are specialised to synthesise and store
organic substances.
• Depending upon the type of function they play in
the cell they can be classified as Leucoplast and
Chromoplast.
Plastids
Leucoplasts are colourless, usually present in
storage cells of roots and underground stems.
• They are of three types (on the basis of what it
stores)
(i) Amyloplast- (found in tubers, cotyledons and
endosperm, stores starch)
(ii) Aleuroplast- (found in seeds and nuts, stores
proteins, also called as proteinoplast)
(iii) Elaioplast- (found in epidermal cells, stores oil)
Plastids
▪Chromoplasts are of two types:
(i) Non- green chromoplast:
They are photosynthetically inactive.
Due to presence of carotenoids of various
colours, they provide colour to flowers and fruits.
(ii) Green chromoplast:
They are called Chloroplast
Green in colour due to presence of pigment
chlorophyll. They can perform photosynthesis.
Hence called- Kitchen of the cell.
Chloroplast can get converted into any coloured
chromoplast.
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are cell organelles that conduct
photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplasts contain photosynthetic pigments
called ‘Chlorophyll’ along with lipids,
carbohydrates, minerals, DNA, RNA, grana,
thylakoids and stroma.
The main functions of chloroplasts are:
•Conducting photosynthesis in plants.
•Protein synthesis
•Releases oxygen
•Storage of Starch
Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are small, rounded structures not
bound by membrane.
• They are formed by two subunits joined together.
• They are found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells.
• They are found either in free state in the cytoplasm
or bound to the RER.
• They are composed of nucleo- proteins
[Ribonucleic acid and proteins]
• Prokaryotes have a 70s ribosome [50s + 30s]
• Eukaryotes have a 80s ribosome [40s + 60s].
(‘s’ = Svedberg)
RNA
• Present in nucleus – Transcription (Copying of
DNA)
• Transcription DNA 🡪 RNA --- mRNA
• Ribosomes – rRNA
• Present in cytoplasm – tRNA
• tRNA – Translation – RNA 🡪 Protein
Ribosomes
• Function:
– Provide surface for protein synthesis.
– They are also called protein factories.
Vacuoles
• Vacuoles are the places where cells can store the
liquids and solids.
• They are present in both plants and animals.
• The plant vacuoles are bigger in size than the
animal vacuoles.
• There are three types of Vacuoles
– Sap Vacuoles
– Contractile Vacuoles
– Food Vacuoles
Sap Vacuole
• These vacuoles are filled with a fluid
called vacuolar sap.
• The fluid contains Amino Acids, Salt, Sugar,
Proteins, Water, and Waste Materials.
• Sap vacuoles are separated from the cytoplasm
by a semi-permeable membrane called Tonoplast.
• A number of sap vacuoles are found in young
plant cells and animal cells.
• In mature plants the small sap vacuoles combine
together to form a single large central vacuole.
Major Functions of Sap Vacuoles
• In plants vacuoles
maintain turgidity and
rigidity of the cell.
• In plants they maintain
osmotic concentration
required for
absorption of water
• They act as storage
spaces in plant cells
• Help in
osmoregulation and
excretion
Cell Division
Cell division is the process by which a
parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.
Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell
cycle.
Cell
Cycle
Types of Cell Division
• Binary Fission
• Mitosis
• Meiosis
Types of Cell Division
• Most prokaryotes, or bacteria, use binary
fission to divide the cell.
• Eukaryotes of all sizes use mitosis to divide.
• Sexually-reproducing eukaryotes use a special
form of cell division called meiosis to reduce the
genetic content in the cell.
• Meiosis is necessary in sexual
reproduction because each parent must give
only half of the required genetic material,
otherwise the offspring would have too much
DNA, which can be a problem.
Prokaryotic cell Division- Binary
Fission
• Prokaryotes replicate through a type of cell
division known as binary fission.
• Prokaryotes are simple organism, with only one
membrane and no division internally.
• When a prokaryote divides, it simply replicates
the DNA and splits in half.
• The two strands of DNA separate into two
different sides of the prokaryote cell.
• The cell then gets longer, and divides in the
middle.
Prokaryotic Cell Division
Eukaryotic Cell Division: Mitosis
Mitosis
[Link]
Eukaryotic Cell Division: Meiosis
Meiosis
[Link]