TLE

Drafting
Carpentry
Masonry
Plumbing
Electricity
Electronics
Foods
Cosmetology
Drafting
Definition- The process of drawing to communicate ideas and instructions to others. Most
manufactured products and all major buildings were first created on drawing boards.

Drafting Equipment

 T square –instrument used in drawing horizontal lines. It is also used in guiding triangles when
drawing vertical lines.
 Triangle – a three sided ruler which has typically two equal sides meeting at 900.
o 30 x 60 and
o 45 x 45 degrees.

 Divider - is used to create equal distances, transfer measurements and spacing points or lines
 Masking tape - material used for fastening the drawing paper on the drawing table.
 Erasing Shield - is a useful tool to protect the rest of the drawing when clearing up smudges,
unnecessary pencil lines and other erasures.
 Pencil - is made of a much better grade of graphite, commonly called lead which is used in
drawing lines. (9H, 8H, 7h, 6H, 5H, 4H, 3H, 2H, H, HB, B, 2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, and 6B)

Types of Drawing / Drafting

 Freehand drawing or Sketching – This is a drawing with the use of pencil, paper and eraser only.

 Mechanical drawing – It is the describing of shapes of objects completely and exactly with the
aid of drawing instruments and by the use of orthographic projection.

o Technical Drawing – used to show the material, dimension (Width, Height, Depth) and
shape of a product (do not necessarily need to be drawn perfectly, the important thing
is the measurement).

o Orthographic Drawing– representing the exact shape of an object into 2 or more views
on planes, generally at right angle or 90 degrees.
 o Isometric drawing – the object is represented by three sides seen at one time. It is
made with a 30 x 60 degrees triangle.

o Pictorial drawing – it shows object as it would appear in a photograph. It shows more

than one side of the object.

Lettering (Free Hand)

 Lettering is usually done freehand

 Either one of these two styles may be made; vertically or inclined.

 Italics is 67.5 degrees A67.5o

 A good height of lettering for dimension and notes on a working drawing is 1/8 of an inch.

1/2
5/16
1/4
3/16

5’’
1/8
1/16

 For the lettering of subtitles 3/16 of an inch is recommended.

 All titles should be lettered with capital letters.

 When only capital letters are used, the beginning letter of each sentence is often made higher
than the remaining letters.

 When lower case letters are used, capitals are used in the beginning letter at the start of a
sentence, and for proper names.
 Lettering (Guidelines)

 [1]Cap line – the uppermost line for uppercase letters and for ascender.

 [2]Waist line – line between Cap and Base lines, used to determine the height of the lower case
letters.

 [3]Base line – line where all the letters rest or stand.

 [4]Drop line – a line for letters with strokes that extend downward known as descender.

Drafting (Kinds of Letters)

 Gothic – all letters are composed of uniform width elements

 Roman – letters have strokes (accented), or made up of thick and thin elements

 Text – elements are made with style C or D speedball pens. Old English, church text.

Drafting (Lines)

 [1]Dimension line - used to indicate the measurement of objects which are represented by dark
solid lines.

 [2]Extension line – fine line used to show clearly the dimension limits.

 [3]Center line – light broken lines used in circles, sometimes as extension line

 [4]Leader line – line leading from a dimension value, or explanatory note to the feature on the
drawing. An arrowhead is used in pointing end but not in note end.
  [5]Long break – a limiting line used to limit the length of elongated object.

 [6]Invisible line - a series of light dash line that represents parts of a drawing that are not seen.

 Border line - is considered as the darkest lines that surround a drawing usually in rectangular
shape

Drafting (Isometric Drawing)

 It presents the object in 3 views, FV, TV and RSV.

 Three axes are needed to perform isometric drawing, the vertical axis, left 30 0 axis and right 300
axis (a=1200 , b=1200 , c=1200 )

 The drawing that has equal measure.

 The BOX method is the starting point of isometric drawings.

Drafting (Pictorial Drawing)

 Axonometric Drawing – the object turned so that three faces are viewed simultaneously

 Oblique Drawing - A pictorial drawing having one side parallel to the picture plane. It maybe
drawn at any convenient angle.

 Types of Oblique drawing

 Cavalier –the width, depth and height is the true length or size (Actual representation)

 Cabinet –the depth is reduced to one half. The front is actual size, while the depth of
top and right side are drawn one half to the actual
  Perspective Drawing – the most realistic, the object is drawn as it seen by the naked
eye.

 One point drawing (Vanishing Point)

 Two points drawing

Carpentry
 Carpentry is the term commonly referring to technology and science of cutting, fitting, and
assembling related materials in the construction of boats, bridges and piers, or any other
structure made from construction materials.

Carpentry (Woods)

 Woods Are by-product of trees which are used for carpentry projects.

Carpentry (Types of Woods)

 Lumber - woods that came from trees, either softwood or hardwood.

 Yard Lumber – prepared lumber for variety of uses. Select and common

 Softwood – it comes from the evergreen or needle bearing trees. These are called conifers
because many of them bear cones.

 Hardwood – it comes from broad leafed (deciduous) trees that shed their leaves at the end of
the season.

 Select grade – is lumber of good appearance that can take different finishes such as stain, paint,
and enamel.
  Common grade – it is suitable for rough carpentry. It is not of finishing quality. (eg. Coco
Lumber)

Carpentry (Parts of a Wood)

 [a] Sapwood – the part of the wood that is close to the bark

 [b] Heartwood – inner part of the wood which is made up of accumulated dead cells.

 [c] Cambium layer – a thin layer that divides the inner part of the wood and the bark.

[b]
[a]
[c]

Carpentry (Lumber Defects)

 Split or Check – is a lengthwise separation of the wood along the grain like small crack or split.

 Knot- is a branch or limb of a tree that has been exposed when the log is cut.

 Pitch Pocket – internal cavity that contains resinous materials. (usually attracts ants)

 Stain – discoloration of the wood surface

  Shake – separation between the annual growth rings.

Carpentry (Unit of Measurement of wood)

 The unit of measure for lumber is “board foot”.

 (T” x W” x L’ )/ 12

 How many board feet are there in 7 pieces of 2” x 4” x 12’ lumber?

 56 bd. ft.

 How much will Mr. Smith pay if he purchase 14 pieces of 2x2x10 of lumber and the prices per
board foot is Php 12.50?

[Link]= (T” x W” x L’ )/ 12

[Link]= (2 x 2 x 10) /12

[Link]= 3.33

Total Amount = (3.33 [Link] x 14 pcs ) x Php12.50

Total Amount = (46.66 [Link]) x Php 12.50

Total Amount = Php 583.33

Carpentry (Wood Preparation)

 Seasoning – the process of drying the wood in preparation for use.

 Air Seasoning (Sun Dried) – filling the wood in open air

 Kiln Seasoning (Kiln Dried) – the use of oven to dry wood

 Treated – Use of Chemical compound before seasoning

 The approximate moisture content of drying hardwood for home furniture are:

 20 % for softwood, 6-12 % for hardwood

Carpentry (Finishing)

 Scraper - is tool made of steel. It is used to produce a very smooth surface.

  Wood Fillers (“Masilya”) - this are used to eliminate deep cuts and holes in your finished
project, so that surface can be made even and smooth.

 Stain - is a wood finishing material; derived from different color of woods such as walnut,
mahogany and natural color.

 Shellac - a finishing material came from gums substance of insects.

 Varnish - a finishing material when applied produces high glossy finish to a project. It came in
different forms, from gum, linseed oil, resin, turpentine and or chemical drier.

Carpentry (Joints)

 Joinery is the process of putting the work together.

 Butt joint – the end of one piece is fastened to the surface or edge of other piece.

 Milter joint – the corners are cut usually at 45 degrees and joined forming right angle.

 Dovetail – used on the corners of drawers and chairs. (“Kaltas”)

 Mortise and Tenon – is one of the strongest joint used for quality chairs, tables and
benches. (Force Fitting)
  Dado - is a groove that runs on board and receives the end or edge of the second board.
(“TnG”)

 Rabbet - is a wood joint commonly used for making frames to hold glass in constructing
drawers and other cabinetwork.

Carpentry (Common Tools)

 Push Pull Steel Tape Rule - steel tape is assembled in a fixed casing and retracts automatically
by spring.
 Try Square - is use for testing the squareness of two surfaces.

 Marking Gauge - it is used in laying out and marking the thickness and width of stock.

 Sliding T Bevel - this tool can be set to lay out any angle.

 Knife is used when you know that the marks will disappear.

 Scratch awl is used to lay out positions for drilling and boring holes.
  Dividers are used for dividing space equally, transferring measurements and scribing arcs and
circles.

Carpentry (Holding Tools)

 Vise is used for holding a work of piece to allow work to be performed in it.

 Clamp is used for gluing up large surfaces, edge to edge and for clamping parts together when
assembling projects.

 Brace – it is used for holding auger bits, fastener bits and other tools with rectangular shape
shanks.

Carpentry (Cutting Tools)

 Long crosscut saw – it is used in cutting large and round timber.

 Rip saw – it is designed in sawing along the grain.

 Crosscut saw – it is designed in cutting across the grain. The shape of the teeth is similar to knife
blades.

 Backsaw – it has stiff blades for more accurate work both on the bench and the vise.
  Hack saw – is used to cut metal.

 Coping saw – used in cutting irregular shapes.

 Keyhole saw – used in cutting circle shape in a wood.

Carpentry (Smoothening Tools)

 Plane - it is used in reducing the thickness or width of a piece of wood and for smoothing
surfaces

 Spokeshave – it is used to plane convex and concave edges.

  Chisels and gouges – it is used in cutting edge and carving of woods.

Carpentry (Boring Tools)

 Auger bits – it is designed for boring holes in woods.

 Brace – it is used for holding auger bits and other tools with rectangular shape shanks.
  Drill – a set of twist drills used for drilling both metal and wood.

 Gimlet – it is a small brace bit fitted with a box wood handle. It is used in boring holes with small
diameter.

Carpentry (Driving Tools)

 Mallet – it is made of wood and it is used in driving chisels with wooden handles.

 Claw Hammer – it is used in driving and pulling nails.

  Ball Peen Hammer – it has a round knob at the back of the hammer. It is used in metal work.

Masonry
 Masonry is the art of building with stone, bricks, concrete blocks or similar materials.

 It is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar.

Masonry (Basics)

 Concrete – the artificial stone as a result of mixing sand, cement, gravel and water.

 Mortar – mixture of cement, sand and water used for binding stones, bricks, etc. or for
plastering.

 Plaster – mixture applied wet to wall or ceilings and hardened to produce smooth surface.

 Cement – a bonding agent that reacts with water to form a hard stone-like substance.

 Two types of Cement

 Portland Cement (Approx 24Hrs Curing Period)

 Pozzoland Cement (Approx 72Hrs Curing Period)

Masonry (Tools)

 Plumb bob - is used in guiding the vertical position in laying bricks

 Water and Tube Level – use to establish level marks in laying out masonry works

 Crandall – tool with pointed steel pikes used for dressing concrete.

 Bolster – tool similar with chisel including its services

 Spade – basic construction tool used in mixing concrete.

 Float – tool with handle at the back usually made of wood.

  Trowel – flat tool used for applying, spreading and shaping plaster or mortar to produce smooth
finish.

Masonry (Common Materials)

 CHB - is the most widely used masonry material for construction works.

 Bricks – are manufactured from clay and other materials processed into workable consistency
and molded to standard sizes.

 Ashlars – carefully worked and joined stone blocks laid in parallel horizontal courses.

 Rubble stone – irregular stones with good face for wall surface.

 Aggregates - the material that is bound together into a conglomerated mass by cement and
water to form concrete, mortar or plaster.

 Fine – sand

 Coarse – crushed rocks, gravel .

Masonry (Mixing Proportion)

Cement Sand Gravel

AA – 1 : 1½ : 3

A– 1 : 2 : 4

B– 1 : 2½ : 5

C– 1 : 3 : 6

For Handmixing
 ½ kg of water + 1 kg of cement + 2 kg of sand + 2.5 – 3 kg of gravel

Masonry (Strength of Concrete)

 Correct proportion of the ingredients

 Quality of the materials

 Proper methods of mixing

 Proper placement or depositing of the concrete inside the form

 Adequate protection during the period of curing

 Finding the Quantity of Cement, Sand and Gravel

 It will depend on the kind of mixture (AA, A, B or C)

 Find the volume

One cubic feet of gravel is equal to 95% of the volume of concrete

Cement is equal to

cubic feet of gravel

quantity of gravel in the proportion

Sand is equal to

cubic feet of gravel

Volume = T” x L’ x W’

Example: 5” x 10’ x 20’

5/12 x 10 x 20 = 83.33 cu. ft.

 How many bags of cement, sand and gravel are needed for the construction of a concrete
flooring with 5 inches thick and dimensions of 10 x 20 feet of class B concrete mixture?

class B – 1 : 2.5 : 5

Volume = 5/12 x 10 x 20 = 83.33 cu. ft.

83.33 x 95% = 79.16 [Link]. of gravel

 79.16 / 5 = 15.83 bags of cement

79.16 / 2 = 39.58 [Link]. of sand

 A floor 15 feet by 20 feet is to be concreted with 4 inches thick. The proportion is Class A. Find
the number of cement, sand and gravel in [Link].

Cement = 23.75 bags

Sand = 47.5 [Link].

Gravel = 95 [Link].

Masonry (CHB Quantity)

 Find the area of the wall (sq. m.)

The area to 12.5 (given no. of HBs per sq. m. with ½ “ thick mortar )

Ex. 3m x 8m = 24 sq. m. x 12.5 = 300

 How many CHBs are needed for the construction of 8 meters high and 8 meters long fence?

Plumbing
Plumbing (RA 1378)

 Plumbing is the art and science of installing pipes, fixtures and other apparatus to convey and
supply water in buildings and to dispose and discharge waste water in a safe, orderly, healthy
and sanitary way.

 Plumbing designs and installations are governed by a set of rules prescribed by the National
Plumbing Code.

 Republic Act 1378, otherwise known as the "Plumbing Law".

Plumbing (Purpose of the Code)

 Establish standards that will protect the health of the community. Faulty plumbing is a serious
health hazard.

 With the increasing standardization of equipment and materials, plumbing codes in different
areas of the country are tending more and more toward uniformity,.

Plumbing (Basic Terms)

  Fixture – any of the fixed plumbing items in a household such as lavatories, showers, bath tubs,
etc.

 Sewer – an underground tunnel that carries off the drainage and water matter from a house.

 Fittings – are piece of apparatus, equipment or furnishing used for pipe installations.

 Drainage – includes all piping within the public or private premises that conveys sewage,
rainwater and other liquid wastes.

 Vent pipe – facilitate ventilation to avoid siphonage or backflow of the water seal.

 Soil pipe – pipes that convey waste coming from water closet (toilet).

 Waste pipe – conveys waste from various fixtures other than water closet.

 Solid waste – from water closet (toilet)

 Liquid waste - from various fixture

 Cleanout be installed in the pipe system to facilitate troubleshooting in case of stoppage of flow

 Any structure with a house drain installed, must have at least one soil stack or stack vent
extended full size above the roof.

 Not less than 3” or 75mm diameter, no less than 2 m above the roof if the roof is used other
than protection from the elements of weather.

 The ideal position of horizontal pipe, were those installed at 2% slope. 2 cm per 1 meter length,
a 3 meters pipe will have inclination of 3x2=6 cm.

 The house drain shall be provided with adequate number of cleanouts to facilitate
troubleshooting or cleaning in case of stoppage or flow. Every 20 m space

Plumbing (Types of Pipe)

 Rigid type

 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

 Chlorinated Polyvinyl chloride (CPVC)

  Styrene Rubber Plastic (SR)

 Flexible type

 Polyethylene (PE)

 Polybuthylene (PB)

 Copper pipe – used in installing hot water supply

PVC pipes quickly installed using solvent cementing.

Plumbing (The Septic Tank)

 Septic Tank – is is the receptacle or vault used to collect organic waste discharge from the house
sewer.

 An ideal size of septic tank is 1.3 cu.m, for 6 family members

 A very large tank is not advisable because the bacterial activities would be retarded.

 Bacteriological Processes

 Sedimentation process - decomposition in the upper portion of the tank (with the scum)

 Anaerobic decomposition –decompo-sition of the sludge at the bottom of the tank.

 Sludge – a semi-liquid substance accumulated at the bottom of the septic tank.

 Scum – a floating substance at the septic tank.

 The minimum distance required between the septic tank and residence is ten feet (10’)

 The minimum distance required between the well and septic tank is seventy-five feet
(75’)

Plumbing (Tools and Materials)

 Pipe wrench – used in turning soft iron pipes and fittings with rounded surface.

 Wrench – is used to tighten or loosen hexagonal fittings.

  Pipe vise – used in holding pipes for cutting and threading.

 Threader – tools used in making teeth on pipes

 Pipe cutter – used to cut pipes

 Hacksaw – a fine tooth saw with blade held under tension in a frame, used for cutting metals or
plastics.

Plumbing (Fittings)
 P-trap – a device designed to seal a liquid or prevent the back passage of air without affecting
the flow of the sewage through it.

 Nipple – a short pipe with small opening which provides way for liquid to pass through the pipe.
It has a male thread on each end and is used for extension from fitting.

 Bushing - fittings that can be inserted into one pipe and allow you to screw another (smaller
pipe) pipe into it.

 Coupling – a fitting device used to connect two shafts together at their ends.

 Union – like coupling, except it is designed to allow quick and convenient disconnection of pipes
for maintenance. “Union Patente”
 Plug – cap end, designed to insert into the end of tube to end the flow of water.

 Cap – similar to plug, it covers the end of a pipe.

 Elbows – ¼ bend, 45 degrees and 90 degrees, to change direction

 Reducer – used to connect smaller pipe from a larger pipe.

  Tee

 Wye

Plumbing (Valves)

 Gate valve – it is used to permit or prevent the flow of water.

 Check valve – a device which allows liquid to flow through it in only one direction. It is often
used in some types of pumps – inlet and outlet ball check valves.
 Inlet valve – it is used to control the pressure of the flow of water.

 Flush valve – device located at the bottom of the tank for flushing water closets.

 Float valve – used in filling water tanks, avoiding overflow and backflow of water.
Electricity
 Electricity is a form of energy resulting from the existence of charged particles (such as electrons
& protons). Either statically on an accumulation of charge of dynamically a current

 Current Directional flow of electric charge

Electricity (Sources)

 Biomass – all solid materials from plants and animals which energy may be extracted.

 Advantages of Biomass Energy

 Renewable energy source

 Very low greenhouse gas emissions

 Can produce energy on-demand

 Energy is easily stored

 Disadvantages of Biomass Energy

 Low energy return on investment

 High air pollution emissions

 Very high water and land requirements

 High occupational hazards

 Geothermal Energy – heat energy of the earth.

 Hydropower – force of moving water from rivers and water reservoirs.

 Advantages of Hydropower
  Very high return on energy investment

 Very low greenhouse gas & air pollution emissions

 Inexpensive once dam is built

 Disadvantages of Hydropower

 Very high land requirements

 Extremely high impacts to land and water habitat

 Best sites are already developed or off-limits

 Disastrous impacts in case of dam failure

 Ocean Power – energy from the currents and waves.

 Marine Currents

 Two-way currents – caused by ocean tides.

 One-way currents – ocean water flowing like rivers.

 Solar Energy – heat energy provided by the sun

 Advantages of Solar Energy

 Renewable energy source

 Very low greenhouse gas emissions

 Very low air pollution emissions

 Very low water requirements

 Modular, low-profile, low-maintenance

 Very safe for workers and public

 Disadvantages of Solar Energy

 Intermittent energy source

 High land requirements

 Expensive

 Manufacture involves some toxics

 Wind Power – energy from the force of the wind.

 Advantages of Wind Power

 Renewable energy source

 Very low greenhouse gas emissions

 Very low air pollution emissions

 Very low water requirements

 Very safe for workers and public

 Disadvantage of Wind Power

 Intermittent energy source

 Limited to windy areas

 Potentially high hazard to birds

 Moderate land requirements

 Coal Energy – energy derived from burning coals, a rock mostly made of carbon element.

 Advantages of Coal Energy

 Inexpensive

 Abundant

 Low land requirements

 Can produce energy on-demand

 Disadvantages of Coal Energy

 Non-renewable energy source

 Very high greenhouse gas emissions

 Very high air pollution emissions

 High land/water impacts from acid rain, mine drainage

 Highly hazardous occupation

  Nuclear Energy – energy trapped inside the atom, the same with the principle of producing
energy by heat.

 Advantages of Nuclear Energy

 Low greenhouse gas emissions

 Low air pollution emissions

 Low land requirements for power plants (though not for waste storage)

 Can produce energy on-demand

 Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy

 Non-renewable energy source

 High water requirements

 Relatively expensive

 Waste remains dangerous for thousands of years

 Serious accident would be disastrous

 Natural Gas – energy from methane, a combination of hydrogen and carbon, formed when
organic matters are trapped beneath the sedimentary layers of the earth.

Electricity (Types of Current)

 Alternating Current (AC) - the flow of electrons changes alternately. It goes positive, and then it
goes negative, and so on as a cycle.

 It reverses direction 120 times per second, or 60 cycles per second – called 60 hertz
power.

 Direct Current (DC) - the flow of electron in a conductor is only in one direction.

 It flows from negative pole, through a device, and on the positive pole.

 Sources:

 Chemical battery , Electronic power supply, and Mechanical Generator

Electricity (Types of Electricity)

 Static Electricity – electricity at rest, the buildup of electric charge on the surface of objects.
  Electricity produced by friction

 Dynamic Electricity – the flow of electric charge, also known as electric current. It also known as
electricity in motion.

Electricity (Electric Circuit)

 Circuit is the complete flow of current through a conductor or path from the source to the load
and back to the source. It is the continuous flow of current.

 Source – it provides electrical power to the circuit. Ex. Cell or battery, generators.

 Load – electrical device (appliances) connected to the circuit that consumes electricity or power.

 Control/Switch – a device that turns the current ON and OFF.

 Path – a conductor composed of 2 or more lines that provide passage for the current from the
source to the load.

Electricity (Electric Symbols)

QUANTITY UNIT SYMBOL PROPONENT FORMULA

Electron Current Ampere I or A Andre Ampere I=E/R

Applied Voltage Volt V or E Allesandro Volta V = I x R

Circuit Resistance Ohm R George Ohm R=E/I

Power Watt P James Watt P=IxE

Electricity (Types of Circuit)

 Series Circuit

 Loads are connected end to end along the path of current in a single closed loop.

 Current is the same throughout the circuit

 (Itotal = Il=I2=I3….)

 Voltage is equal to the sum of individual voltage drops in a circuit.

 (Vtotal = Vl+V2+V3….)

 Resistance in series is equal to the sum of individual resistances

 (Rtotal = Rl+R2+R3….)

RT= R1 + R2

RT= 10 + 10

RT= 20 Ohms

 Parallel Circuit

 Loads are connected side by side across the path of the current.

 Current in each branch is independent from each other, when branch or load
opens, the other load will still function.

 Current is equal to the sum of the individual currents.

 (Itotal = Il+I2+I3….)

 Voltage drop across each load is the same. (Vtotal = Vl=V2=V3….)

 Resistance is found by this formula: (Product over sum technique)

 RT= (R1)(R2)

R1 + R2

RT= (10)(20)

10+20

RT= 200

30

RT= 6.67 Ohms

 Series and Parallel Circuit

 Combination of series and parallel connection in one circuit.

 Use the Product over sum Technique then get the sum of the result of the
parallel to the remaining load in series.

R12= (R1)(R2)

R1 + R2

R12= (10)(20)

10+20

R12= 200

30
 R12= 6.67 Ohms

RT = R12 + R3

RT = 6.67 Ohms + 20 Ohms

RT = 26.67 Ohms

Electricity (Ohms Law)

 OHM’S LAW

 George Simoun Ohm – discovered the relationships of voltage, current and resistance in
a circuit.

 Current is directly proportional to voltage

 Increase in voltage will result to increase in current

 Current is inversely proportional to resistance

 Increase in resistance will result to a decrease in current

 QUANTITY UNIT SYMBOL PROPONENT FORMULA

 Electron Current Ampere I or A Andre Ampere I=E/R
 Applied Voltage Volt V or E Allesandro Volta V = I x R
 Circuit Resistance Ohm R George Ohm R=E/I
 Power Watt P James Watt P=IxE

Electricity (Ohms Law)

Electricity (Ampere “I”)

 Ampere is represented as “I”

  Voltage is represented as “V”

 Resistance is Represented as “R”

 How to determine the Ampere required for a voltage of 12V and a resistance of 1o
ohms.

I=V/R

I= 12 /10

I=1.2

The Ampere required is 1.2A

Electricity (Voltage “V”)

 Ampere is represented as “I”

 Voltage is represented as “V”

 Resistance is Represented as “R”

 How to determine the Voltage required for a current of 2A and a resistance of 14 ohms.

V=I x R

V= 2 x 14

V=28

The Voltage required is 28V

Electricity (Resistance “R”)

 Ampere is represented as “I”

 Voltage is represented as “V”

 Resistance is Represented as “R”

 How to determine the Resistance of the circuit for a current of 2A and a Voltage of 24V.

R=V/I

R= 24 x 2

R=12

The Resistance is 12Ohms

Electricity (Power “P”)

 Ampere is represented as “I”

  Voltage is represented as “V”

 Power is Represented as “P”

 How to determine the Power (Watts) for a current of 30A and a Voltage of 220V.

P=V x I

P= 220 x 30

P=6600

The Power or watts is 6600W

Electricity (Household Electricity)

 Breaker – an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect electrical circuit

caused by overload or short circuit.

 (Fuse operates once, must be replaced. Breaker can be reset to resume normal
operation).

 20 amp – for convenience outlets (general purpose)

 15 amp – for lighting fixtures

 30 amp – for heavy duty appliance outlets (SPO) such as ref and aircon.

 60 amp - for main breaker

Circuit Condition

 Overload – when the total current flowing in the circuit is more than the capacity of the
conductor.

 Short Circuit – when insulated conductors from line 1 and line 2 of a circuit come into
contact with each other without passing any load, or when the resistance of the load
becomes unnecessary low.

 This is dangerous because it creates a very high flow of current which produces
unusual heat and may cause fire.

 Grounded circuit = when one uninsulated conductor touches the metal part of an appliance.
It causes voltage drain, and electrocution when touch by uninsulated individual.

 Open circuit = when the flow of the current is incomplete. When circuit is switched off.

 Closed circuit = when the flow of current is complete. When circuit is switched on.

Always use appropriate size of wires

 Sizes of wires (As the Number increases the actual size decreases)

 Measured in terms of AWG (American Wire Gauge)

  # 14 AWG (2.0mm2) – for lighting fixtures

 # 12 AWG (3.5mm2) – for convenience outlets

 # 10 or 8 AWG (5.5 to 8.5mm2)– for service entrance

Electricity (Test Instruments)

 Ohm meter – test for resistance

 Ammeter – test for current

 Voltmeter – test for voltage

 Multimeter/ VOM – Can test for both resistance, ampere and voltage

Electronics
 Electronics – refers to the flow of charge (moving electrons) through nonmetal conductors
(mainly semiconductors).

 The flow of charge through various materials and devices such as, semiconductors,
resistors, inductors, capacitors, and vacuum tubes.

 Electronic components -It refers to any physical entity in an electronic system whose intention
is to affect the electrons in a desired manner consistent with the intended function of the
electronic system

 Electronic circuit – composed of different components that are classified as active and passive
components.

 Passive – components that do not generate voltage but controls the current in a circuit.

 Ex. Resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc.

 Active – components that can generate, amplify and even control voltage and current in
a circuit.

 Ex. Diode, transistor, integrated circuits (IC), etc.

 Semiconductors – a group that are neither good conductors nor good insulators

 Inductors – the choke or coil in a circuit that oppose changes in electric current.

 Resistor – a device that opposes the flow of electric current, it lowers the voltage. It is polarized.

 Capacitor - is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric

field.
  Electrical Circuit – a network that has a closed loop, allowing the complete flow of current.

 Conductors – are metals and other substances where electrons can move freely

 Insulators – substances where electrons cannot move freely.

 Transformer – is an electronic devised used in producing desired voltage.

Electronics (Tools)

 Electric Drill and Drill Bits - in the range of 1/8 inch to 1/2 inch will come in handy when you
need to drill holes on PCB’s (Printed Circuit Boards).

 Soldering Iron - a 20 Watt to 30 Watt soldering iron with tips of 1/8 inch to 1/2 inch can be used
for soldering of through hole components.

 Disordering Pump - A pump aids in the removal of the liquid solder.

 Wire stripper - is used to strip off wire insulator from its conductor before it is used to connect
to another wire.

 Long nose Pliers – a 4-inch long nose pliers used to hold components that have short leads that
need to be soldered onto the PCB.

 Side-Cutting Pliers - 4-inch side cutting pliers used to trim off excess component leads on the
printed circuit board and to cut wires before being used.

 Small tweezers - is used to hold small components.

Maintenance

 Tinning – the process of cleaning and applying a thin coat of solder on the tip of the pre-heat
soldering iron.

 Flux – chemical cleaning agent, The purpose of flux is to clean oxides from metal surfaces to
ensure a clean bond in soldering.

 Maintenance Tips of Electronic Tools

 Ensure that the tools are used only for their intended purposes.

 Keep them lubricated with a light film of oil to inhibit rust.

 Keep the tools clean and sharp; keep the soldering tips clean and well tinned.

 Ensure that proper uses of the tools are always adhered to by following the instructions
of using the tools.

Electronic Components

 It is a basic electronic element usually packaged in a discrete form, intended to be connected

together, usually by soldering to a printed circuit board, to create an electronic circuit with a
particular function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator).
 Capacitor

 is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a

dielectric.

 It stores and discharge electrical energy.

 The voltage rating found in a capacitor is called working voltage.

 The rating is expressed in capacitance; the unit of measurement in capacitance is farad.

 Types of Capacitor

 Electrolytic Capacitor (Electrochemical Type Capacitor)

 Tantalum Capacitor

 Ceramic Capacitor

 Polystyrene Film Capacitor

 Mica Capacitor

 Metalized Polyester Capacitor

 Variable Capacitor

 Trimmer Capacitor

 Diode

 It converts AC to DC.

 It is a device that conducts current to flow in only one direction.

 They are called rectifiers

 It is polarized, the terminals are anode (positive) and cathode (negative)

 Forward biased – when current is applied to the cathode (negative), it permits the flow
of current. (ON switch)

 Reverse biased – when current is applied to the anode (positive), it will not permit the
flow of current. (OFF switch)
  Zener diode – used as voltage reference, connected across a circuit where regulated
voltage is required; acts as a regulator

 Light emitting diode (LED) – it acts like rectifier diode except that is usually intended to
indicate flow of current.

 Photo diode – a diode which is sensitive to light; a light sensitive diode.

 Transistors

 Is an active semiconductor device having 3 electrodes. It could perform a variety of

applications such as switch, amplifier, and rectifier.

 The terminals of a transistor are base, collector and emitter.

 BASE - which is the lead responsible for activating the transistor.

 COLLECTOR - which is the positive lead.

 EMITTER - which is the negative lead.

 Kinds of Transistor

 NPN – arrow pointing outward;

 PNP – arrow pointing inward.

 The arrow points where negative is; supply is connected to the emitter and collector.

Resistors

 Is a device that opposes the flow of electric current, it lowers the voltage.
  The simplest components in any circuit. Their job is to restrict the flow of electrons and reduce
the current or voltage flowing by converting electrical energy into heat.

 Variable resistors (also known as potentiometers) have a dial control on them so they change
the amount of resistance when you turn them.

Resistor Color Coding

Color 1st Significant figure 2nd Significant figure Multiplier Tolerance

Black ---- 0 1 ----

Brown 1 1 10 +- 1%

Red 2 2 100 +- 2%

Orange 3 3 1,000 +- 3%

Yellow 4 4 10,000 +- 4%

Green 5 5 100,000

Blue 6 6 1,000,000

Violet 7 7 10,000,000

Gray 8 8 108

White 9 9 109

Gold ---- ---- 0.1 +- 5%

Silver ---- ---- 0.01 +- 10%

No color ---- ---- 20 +- 20%

Resistor Computation

A resistor is color coded with Yellow-Violet-Black-Gold. What is the value and tolerance of the resistor?

Yellow = 4; Violet = 7; Black = 1; 47x1 = 47 ohms, +- 5%

ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS

1. Resistor

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

Resistor A resistor restricts the flow of current,
for example to limit the current passing
through an LED. A resistor is used witha
capacitor in a timing circuit.
Variable This type of variable resistor with 2
Resistor(Rheostat) contacts (a rheostat) is usually used to
control current. Examples include:
adjusting lamp brightness, adjusting
motor speed, and adjusting the rate of
flow of charge into a capacitor in a
timing circuit.
Variable This type of variable resistor with 3
Resistor(Potentiometer) contacts (a potentiometer) is usually
used to control voltage. It can be used
like this as a transducer converting
position (angle of the control spindle)
to an electrical signal.
Variable This type of variable resistor (a preset)
Resistor(Preset) is operated with a small screwdriver or
similar tool. It is designed to be set
when the circuit is made and then left
without further adjustment. Presets are
cheaper than normal variable resistors
so they are often used in projects to
reduce the cost.

2. Capacitors

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

Capacitor A capacitor stores electric charge. A
capacitor is used with a resistor in a
timing circuit. It can also be used as a
filter, to block DC signals but pass AC
signals.

Capacitor, polarized A capacitor stores electric charge. This

type must be connected the correct way
round. A capacitor is used with a
resistor in a timing circuit. It can also be
used as a filter, to block DC signals but
pass AC signals.

Variable Capacitor A variable capacitor is used in a radio

tuner.

Trimmer Capacitor This type of variable capacitor (a

trimmer) is operated with a small
screwdriver or similar tool. It is
designed to be set when the circuit is
made and then left without further
adjustment.

3. Diodes

Component
Circuit Symbol Function of Component

A device which only allows current to

Diode flow in one direction.

LEDLight Emitting A transducer which converts electrical

Diode energy to light.

Zener Diode A special diode which is used to

maintain a fixed voltage across its
terminals.
Photodiode A light-sensitive diode.

4. Transistor
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Transistor NPN A transistor amplifies current. It can be
used with other components to make an
amplifier or switching circuit.

Transistor PNP A transistor amplifies current. It can be

used with other components to make an
amplifier or switching circuit.

Phototransistor A light-sensitive transistor.

5. Audio and Radio Devices

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

Microphone A transducer which converts sound to
electrical energy.

Earphone A transducer which converts electrical

energy to sound.

Loudspeaker A transducer which converts electrical

energy to sound.

Piezo A transducer which converts electrical

Transducer energy to sound.

Amplifier(general An amplifier circuit with one input.

symbol) Really it is a block diagram symbol
because it represents a circuit rather
than just one component.
Aerial(Antenna) A device which is designed to receive or
transmit radio signals. It is also known
as an antenna.

6. Meters and Oscilloscope

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

Voltmeter A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.
The proper name for voltage is 'potential
difference', but most people prefer to
say voltage.
Ammeter An ammeter is used to measure current.

Galvanometer A galvanometer is a very sensitive

meter which is used to measure tiny
currents, usually 1mA or less.

Ohmmeter An ohmmeter is used to measure

resistance. Most multimeters have an
ohmmeter setting.

Oscilloscope An oscilloscope is used to display the

shape of electrical signals and it can be
used to measure their voltage and time
period.

8. Logic Gates

Gate Type TraditionalSymbol Function of Gate

NOT A NOT gate can only have one input.

The 'o' on the output means 'not'. The
output of a NOT gate is the inverse
(opposite) of its input, so the output is
true when the input is false. A NOT gate
is also called aninverter.

AND An AND gate can have two or more

inputs. The output of an AND gate is
true when all its inputs are true.
 NAND A NAND gate can have two or more
inputs. The 'o' on the outputmeans 'not'
showing that it is a Not ANDgate. The
output of a NAND gate is true unless all
its inputs are true.

OR An OR gate can have two or

more inputs. The output of an
OR gate is true when at least
one of its inputs is true.

NOR
A NOR gate can have two or
more inputs. The 'o' on the
output means 'not' showing
that it is a Not OR gate. The
output of a NOR gate is true
when none of its inputs are
true.

EX-OR
An EX-OR gate can only have
two inputs. The output of an
EX-OR gate is true when its
inputs are different (one true,
one false).

EX-NOR
An EX-NOR gate can only
have two inputs. The 'o' on
the output means 'not'
showing that it is a Not EX-
OR gate. The output of an
EX-NOR gate is true when its
inputs are the same (both true
or both false).

Food
Food (PREPARATION TERMS)
 Baste – to moisten meat or other foods while cooking to add flavor and to prevent drying of
surface. Liquid is usually melted fat, meat drippings, fruit juice or sauce.

 Blend – to mix thoroughly two or more ingredients.

 Bread – to coat with bread crumbs alone and to coat with bread crumbs then with diluted
slightly beaten egg or milk and again with crumbs.

 Dice – to cut into cubes, usually less than ½ inch

 Dot – to scatter small bits such as butter over the surface of foods.

 Dredge – to sprinkle or coat with flour or other fine substances.

 Flake – to break or pull apart a food like chicken or fish that divides naturally.

 Fold – top combine by using two motions, cutting vertically through the mixture and turning by
sliding across the bottom of the mixing bowl by each term.

 Grate – to rub the food against the grater to divide into small particles.

 Knead – to manipulate with a pressing motion accompanied by folding and stretching.

 Marinate – to let food stand in a marinade – usually an acid –oil mixture.

 Mince – to cut or chop in a very small pieces

 Pare – to cut off the outside covering

 Peel – to strip off the outside covering.

 Score – to make light cuts on a surface, to cut 1/8 inch to ½ inch intervals in the fatty edge of
steaks or chops to prevent edges from curling during cooking.

 Skim – to remove a floating layer by passing a utensil or ―skimmer‖ under it, as skimming
cream from milk, excess fat from broth or scum from jelly and broth.

 Whip – to beat rapidly to produce expansion due to incorporation of air. This is applied to
cream, eggs, and gelatin dishes.

 Toss – to tumble ingredients lightly with a lifting motion. Use two forks or a spoon or fork.

 Baking – to cook in an oven type appliance. Covered or uncovered containers may be used.

 Barbeque – to roast solely in a grid-iron, over coals or under a free flame or even electric unit,
usually basting with a highly seasoned sauce.

 Blanch – to preheat in boiling water or steam.

 Braise – to cook slowly in a covered container in a small amount of liquid or steam.

 Caramelize – to heat sugar or foods containing sugars until a brown color or characteristics
flavor develop.
  Fry – to cook in fat; applied especially (1) to cook in a small amount of fat also called stir or pan-
fry, (2) to cook in a deep layer of fat also called deep-fat fry.

 Sear – to brown or cook in small amount of fat.

 Stew – to simmer in a small quantity of liquid.

 Stir-fry – to fry quickly and turn frequently in a small amount of fat; also means to sauté.

Food (Nutrients)

 Nutrients can be classified in accordance with the following:

 a. As to function –

 Carbohydrates, fats and protein are caloric nutrients while vitamins and minerals are
non – caloric nutrients.

 b. As to chemical properties –

 the nutrients are classified as either organic or inorganic. Organic nutrients are those
which contain carbon. These are protein, fats, carbohydrates, and vitamins. On the
other hand, the inorganic nutrients do not contain carbon in their compounds. These
are water and minerals.

 c. As to essentiality –

 A nutrient that performs one function in the body

 (e.g. iron in the production in red blood cells)

 This is as important as another nutrient that performs more than one function

 (e.g. Protein for building tissues, repairing tissues, providing energy in the
absence of carbohydrates).

 d. As to concentration –

 some nutrients are needed in large amounts than others. Some nutrients exist in very
small amounts but they function as significantly as the others. Nutrients present in large
amounts are called macronutrients. These are protein, fats, carbohydrates and water.
They are measured in grams. On the other hand, nutrients that exist in very little
amounts are called micronutrients. These are vitamins and minerals. They are usually
measured in milligrams and micrograms.

Food (5 Major Nutrients)

 1. Proteins

 Meat, fish, poultry, milk, cheese, eggs (White), and glandular organs.

 Plant sources include legumes and nuts.

  Beans which is available in the market in various forms such as tokwa, tofu,
tahu, tausi, and soya milk, monggo

 2. Carbohydrates - classified based in their complexity of sugars.

 Polysaccharides –consist of the digestible types which are starch and dextrins.
cereal grains, rice and rice products, bread and other flour products.

 Disaccharides –Sucrose is cane sugar or beet sugar. It is also found in syrups,

molasses, and some fruits. It is used in cooking and in table service; hence it is
called ―table sugar. milk sugar is found in milk and milk products and is the
least sweet among common sugars

 Monosaccharides – The simple forms of sugar and is also known as dextrose or

grape sugar. It is found in fruits, honey, corn syrup, and sweet corn. Fructose is
the sweetest of all sugars and is found in ripe fruits (Esp Manggo), vegetables
and honey.

 3. Fats

 This refers to food fats and oils which are simple lipids.

 The end products of fats in digestion are fatty acids and glycerol.

 Fat supplies 9 calories per gram; which is 2 ¼ times more than carbohydrates or
protein.

 It is also a sparer of protein.

 Sources

 Fat sources are the visible fats – butter, margarine, cooking oil, lard, and
fats from animals like pork, beef, chicken, fish; and

 Invisible fats which are found in egg yolks, milk, avocado, and in lean
meat.

 4. Vitamins

 Vitamins are organic compounds which occur in very small quantities in food
but are very important to life for specific regulatory functions and the
maintenance of life and normal growth.

 They are very important to life for specific regulatory functions and the
maintenance of life and normal growth.

 Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamin A, D, E and K

 Vitamin A is important for normal vision especially for normal night

vision.
  Vitamin D promotes bone and teeth development , it facilitates
absorption of calcium and phosphorous.

 Vitamin E or tocopherol is important for cellular respiration and the

prevention of hemolysis (anemia).

 Vitamin K is needed in the proper coagulation of blood by maintaining

the prothrombin level in blood plasma.

 Water-soluble vitamins include vitamins C or ascorbic acid and B complex which

include thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, cobalamin, pantothenic and folic
acid, and biotin.

 Vitamin C is needed in holding cells together. It maintains the integrity

of the cells.

 For connective tissues and immune function.

 It improves iron absorption and helps in the healing of wounds and

bone fractures.

 Vitamin B1 or thiamine helps maintain good appetite, muscle tone, and

normal function of the nerves.

 Vitamin B2 or riboflavin is essential for protein, fat, and carbohydrate

metabolism. It maintains the health of the skin, tongue, and mouth.

 Sources

 Leafy green and yellow vegetables, fruits, liver, and other glandular organs.

 Legumes, nuts, cereals, eggs, milk, fish and poultry are good source of vitamins.

 Deficiencies:

 Kwashiorkor - deficiency of protein in children which results in slow

growth and retardation.

 Marasmus – deficiency in carbohydrates.

 Beri-beri – deficiency in Vit. B1, thiamine

 5. Minerals These are Non-Caloric and classified as microminerals and macrominerals.

 Macrominerals are those whose occurrence in body weight is greater

than .005%.

 Macrominerals include calcium, phosphorous, potassium, sulfur, sodium,

chlorine, and magnesium. Microminerals include iron (Ferrus Sulfate), copper,
iodine (Sea foods), molybdenum, cobalt, chromium, and fluorine.

Food (4 types of Food Services)

  Buffet Service - the most practical way of serving meals when the space is limited and there’s
limited work force.

 Formal or Russian – there is individual cover

 Blue plate – there is individual cover and plates will be served

 Compromise – dinner plates are stacked up near the one who will be serving

Food (Food Storage)

 Maintain 35-40 degrees F temp in the refrigerator

 Freezer, 0 or below 0 degrees F

 Cover and wrap food properly

 Keep cooked foods above raw foods

 Use FIFO method (First In First Out)

Food (MEAL PREPARATION)

 PREPARE A LOW COST BUT NUTRITIOUS MEAL

 1. What to consider:

 Consider foods that are inexpensive but contain relatively great amounts of nutrients.

 Make an update of current prices in the market and foods in season and know where to
buy to get the good buys.

 Choose and combine nutritionally economical foods to arrive at low cost adequate
meals.

 The foods which could be considered nutritionally economical include the following:

 For Group I or Body Building Foods –shrimp, green monggo, dilis, alamang and
tulingan.
  For Group II or the Body Regulating Foods – papaya, tomatoes, malunggay,
dahon ng sili and alugbati.

 2. How to Plan

 Make a listing of nutritionally economical foods.

 Come up with the nutritional requirements of each and every member of the family.

 Nutritionally economical foods must be combined in the best way possible, with
considerations for the proper bulk, the usual pattern, food preferences, as well as
resources available for the preparation of such meals.

Food (Minimizing Cost of Meal)

 Keep food cost within the budget

 Minimize food cost in meal planning:

 Include foods in season

 Include easily available foods

 Consider appropriate substitute (Sayote for Papaya in Tinola)

 Use dried fish or beans to extend meat supply; extend rice with corn and root crop.

 Utilize leftover foods if there are any.

 Use expensive dishes and one dish meals where feasible.

 Serve more fruit/fruits juices or root crops rather that processed junk snacks.

 Plan a menu in advance and take time out to give it a thought. (Unplanned menu cost
much or double the price)

 Plan on foods liked by the family.

 Plan baby‘s foods from family pot.

 Plan within available resources.

 Be innovative and resourceful. Have your tools on hand (i.e., recipe, guides, etc.,)

 Food purchasing also affects the food cost. In shopping, it is advised that the menu planners
should:

 1. Prepare shopping list; shop alone.

 2. Shop according to available facilities.

 3. Know the guide to purchasing (right quality and specifications, Bidding technique).

 4. Know current cost of item.

  5. Read labels and check weights of food.

 6. Don‘t over buy.

 7. Exercise appropriate scheduling.

Food (Basic Skills in Baking and Cake Decorating)

 PRINCIPLES IN BAKING

 Maintain hygiene and sanitation at all times. This means keeping oneself, the food, tools
and utensils and the surrounding clean.

 Know the kind of flour to use in every type of baked product.

 Cake flour is ideal for cakes,

 Bread flour for practically all bread and

 All-purpose flour for cookies and pastries.

 (While substitution can be made in the absence of one type, it is always best to
use the ideal type.)

 Batters and dough differ in terms of the ratio of liquid to flour.

 Mixing techniques such as creaming, folding, beating, kneading, and stirring affects flour
mixture and the resulting baking products.

 Degree of mixing may alter viscosity or fluidity and texture of the finished product. As a
general rule, breads need thorough kneading for highly developed gluten. Cakes need
just enough mixing for a well-blended batter while pastries require a special technique
in mixing such that some amount of gluten is developed but the dough retains its
characteristics of flakiness and tenderness.

 Optimum mixing time varies with each recipe according to ingredients, their
proportions, temperature, and types of mixing. Optimum mixing is defined as that which
partially or completely dissolves sugar, develops gluten framework, distributes fat
throughout and yield the best flavor, texture and volume.

 Ingredients combined in a product react differently at various temperatures. At higher

temperature, sugar becomes soluble, fat spreads faster, and flour absorbs water
rapidly. The degree of heat to which batters and dough are subjected varies with
altitude above sea level. The higher in elevation, the lower the temperature of boiling
water, hence the need to adjust by increasing the temperature. Normally, the reduction
is 2ºF at 1,000 ft. elevation so that the baking temperature is increased accordingly to
bake the product thoroughly.

 The rate at which boiling point of water is reached within the baked product depends
on oven temperature, the ingredients, size and shape of pan.
  - Softly spongy crumb like biscuit, bread, cakes do not reach internal
temperature above boiling point.

 - Crisp, brittle or rapidly baked product like cookies and crackers require internal
temperature above higher than boiling temperature.

 - If oven temperature is too high the crust forms too fast limiting the expansion
of the leavening gas or reducing its volume

 - If oven temperature is too low the dough dust out and the temperature in the
interior does not rise quickly to set the gluten thus limiting its volume.

 Use pan size called for it in the recipe for good size, shape, and contour. Baking
pan with straight sides gives a more velvety texture.

 Sift flour before measuring when recipe calls for it.

 Pack sugar firmly and level off.

 Baking pans made of aluminum or tins distribute heat evenly and give a delicate
golden brown crust to cake.

 Two types of cake formulas are the butter or shortened cake and foam or
unshortened types of cakes. Butter is reasonably high in fat while foam type
depends on egg protein for the bulk of its volume.

 Shortened cakes / butter cakes include pound cakes and the yellow, white,
spice, and chocolate cakes used in everything from wedding cakes to traditional
layered birthday cakes. These cakes use butter, shortening, or oil for moistness
and richness and are leavened with baking powder and/or baking soda.

 Examples of unshortened cakes are sponge cakes which achieve their high
volume from beaten eggs rather than a leavening agent like baking powder.
Sponge cakes do not contain butter, shortening, or oil. Angel food cakes are the
most popular and are literally fat-free since they use only egg whites, not egg
yolks. Yellow sponge cakes are prepared with whole eggs. Chiffon cakes are also
lightened with beaten eggs, but they are not true sponge cakes because they
contain vegetable oil.

Food (Definition of Terms)

 Bread Making

 Fermentation - allowing dough to rise at a specific period of time.

 Rest - allowing dough to relax for several minutes for easy kneading.

 Kneading - applying massage to dough to create an elastic effect due to gluten

content of flour.

 Dough - a mixture of yeast, flour etc. form together and raw.

  Bread - a finished product after dough is baked.

 Cake Making

 Sifting - allowing to filter all dry ingredients for a good homogenous mixture.

 Batter - a mixture of dry and liquid ingredients and raw.

 Cake -a finished product after batter is baked.

 Pastry Making

 Dough - a mixture of raw ingredients formed together.

 Pastry -a finished product after dough has been baked. The difference between
bread and pastry are its texture and taste. Fat based and has a minimum amount
of water content which creates a flaky effect.

 Crust - a layer of a pastry.

 Dry Ingredients in Baking

 Dry ingredients include

 flour

 sugar

 milk powder

 leavening agents such as

 baking powder

 baking soda

 cream of tartar.

Food (Flour)

 Flour is the major ingredient among all other ingredients. It is a powdery product
obtained from milled cereals, foremost of which is wheat. Flour provides the structure
of baked products. It also contributes to color, texture, and flavor. Other products
include cassava flour, rice flour, soya flour, potato flour, mongo flour, and several
others. Flour used in most baked products is wheat flour.

 There are three (3) kinds of wheat flour:

 Bread flour – Also known as strong or hard flour. It has 12–14 % gluten content.
Bread flour has a course texture. It feels gritty, sandy, dry, and granular. It has a
creamy color and it usually does not lump when pressed together.
  All purpose-flour – Also known as general flour or pastry flour. It has 10-11 %
gluten content. It is a combination of bread and cake flour. Hence, it is used as a
substitute for making breads, cakes, and pastries.

 Cake flour – Also known as soft flour. It has 7-9 % gluten content. It is ideal for
cakes, cookies, pastries, and crackers. This flour has a velvety and smooth
texture, is whiter than the two other types, and tends to hold shape when
lumped together.

Food (Sugar)

 This is a sweet, crystalline, soluble compound that comes from the processing of sugar cane and
sugar beets. It is available in the market in different forms.

 Brown sugar –The darkest brown sugar is usually sticky, lumpy, and contains more
molasses than the brown and light-brown types. Unlike white sugar, it contains some
caramel, mineral water, and more moisture. Brown sugar is less purified than white
sugar.

 White, granulated sugar – This is the type commonly used by bakers in practically all
baked products and in preparing varieties of icings, fillings, etc. it varies in texture, from
coarse to sandy, to fine and smooth.

 Confectioner‘s sugar – This sugar is the finest in texture compared with brown or white
sugar. It contains about 3 % cornstarch. This prevents the lumping or crystallization of
the sugar granules. This type of sugar is used mostly in icings and in cake mixes where a
blending of flour and sugar is done and then added in the final stages of mixing.

 Other types of sugar include:

 1. Panutsa – A solid mass of crude sugar usually in half coco shell shape.

 2. Lump sugar – This sold in the market in cubes. It is white and porous.

 3. Molasses – This is unrefined sugar that is liquid in form, black in color, and very thick
in consistency.

 Sugar contributes to the browning of the crust. The intensity of its brownness depends on the
amount and kind of sugar used. As the amount of sugar is increased, the brown sugar becomes
darker. Likewise the bread is baked in a shorter time to retain its moisture. A rich brown crust
adds appeal and palability to the baked product.

Food (Leavening Agent)

 These are substances that produce gas while mixing or heating the dough or the batter. When
gas is produced, the product increases its volume and becomes light and porous.

 There are three (3) groups of leavening agents. They are air, water or steam, and carbon dioxide.

 1. Air is incorporated in several ways when one creams the butter and sugar; eggs are
added one at a time while mixing; the batter is folded into the whipped egg whites, or
egg whites are beaten with a whisk beater;
  2. Steam or hot water vapor causes the mixture to rise as in steamed Puto and Siopao;

 3. Carbon dioxide is produced by the use of yeast, a biological leavener; baking powder
and baking soda which are chemical leaveners.

 Leavening agents are used in almost all baked products because they make baked products light,
due to their open and porous texture. The products become:

 1. bigger in volume due to the air cells

 2. light due to its porous texture

 3. easily chewable due to its light and porous characteristics

 Leavening agents such as baking powder, baking soda, and cream of tartar should be kept in
tightly lidded containers. These containers should be in a clean, cool, and dry place. Exposure to
heat leads to rapid deterioration. Yeast should be kept in a cool place in a tightly closed
container.

Food (Salt)

 A minimal amount of salt (about 2% of the weight of the flour used) is recommended in yeast
bread. Salt used should be cleaned and refined. Salt serves several purposes in baked products.

 1. It enhances the flavor due to contrast of saltiness and sweetness.

 2. It removes the flat taste of food.

 3. It controls yeast activity so that production of gas is also controlled.

 4. It strengthens the gluten in the dough.

 5. It modifies the color of the crust in the yeast breads.

 6. It helps prevent growth of undesirable bacteria in bread. (Mold and Mildew)

Food (Liquid in Baking)

 Liquid ingredients include water, milk or cream, and fruit juices. In baking, it is added to flour to
develop the gluten.

 Gluten is the elastic substance from the protein components of the flour namely glutenin
and gliadin.

 The amount of water in flour influences its consistency. Too much water weakens and
tends to spread the gluten. On the other hand, too little water makes the dough stiff and
difficult to handle.

 The amount of water used depends partly on the types of flour used. Bread flour absorbs
more of water while cake flour absorbs less water.

 Therefore, the proportion of water to flour is in a ratio of 1:2 ½ cups for bread flour, 1:2
for cake flour, and 1:3 for all-purpose flour.
  Liquid ingredients are important in baking for the following reasons:

 1. They are integral components in the preparation of batters and dough.

 2. They add flavor as in milk and juices.

 3. They contribute to the volume and texture of the products.

 4. They promote the growth of leavening agents like yeast as in lukewarm water.

Food (Fats, Oil and Other Ingredients )

 Fats and oils are the same in chemical composition but differ in appearance. Fats are
solid while oils are liquids. Fats are either visible or invisible. Visible fats, which can be
seen by the eye, are butter, pork fat, beef fat, and oils used for salads, frying, and other
cooking.

 Fats come from animals and vegetables. Bacon oil and butter come from animals while
coconut, peanut, soya beans, and corn oil come from vegetables.

 Invisible fats are not seen by the eye but can be recognized due to their greasiness or
oiliness. Examples are egg yolks, avocado, lean meat, and cheese.

 Fats and oils are used in foods for different purposes:

 a. For table use – example are margarine, butter, and cheese

 b. For cooking – like coconut oil, peanut oil, corn oil

 c. As shortening in cakes in pies

 d. As salad dressing as in mayonnaise and French dressing

Food (Uses of Fats in Bread and Cakes )

 1. For all types of yeast bread

 It contributes to tenderness of the product.

 It improves the flavor of the bread.

 It helps in retaining gas in the dough, thus giving it a better volume and crust.

 It lubricates the gluten strands, producing better layers.

 It gives the product better flavor.

 2. For cakes

 Because of its good creaming property, it helps in incorporating air in the

mixture, thus giving the cake better volume;

 Because of its emulsifying property, it allows the water-in-fat and air-in-fat

emulsion which makes the product more tender and better texture;
  It gives the product better flavor; and It allows easy slicing or cutting of cakes
due to separation of gluten stands.

Food (Uses of Eggs in Baking)

 1. Leavening – When egg white is beaten, the foam consists of many air bubbles each
surrounded by a film of egg protein. On baking, the air bubbles expand with heat and the
protein film is sufficiently elastic to stretch.

 Overbeating incorporates too much air thus stretching the albumin so that it becomes
thin and possible collapse of the foam may take place.

 Egg whites are beaten to various stages depending upon their use as follows:

 a. Slightly beaten egg white is frothy or slightly foamy, transparent and flows easily, and
has large air bubbles. It is usually used for thickening.

 b. Stiff egg white has lost its frothy appearance but still foamy; has small air bubbles; is
no longer transparent but is opaque white, very shiny, and moist, and flows if the bowl
is tipped. If allowed to stand, the liquid portion of the stiff foam separates out readily. It
is used for sift meringue.

 c. Stiff egg white is no longer foamy but moist, shiny, smooth opaque white, and has tiny
air bubbles. This is the stage of beating that is often used. It is usually used for
meringues and cakes.

 d. Dry egg white is white but dull. It is avoided in meringues or cakes because the
stability is decreased. If allowed to stand, the liquid portion separates.

 2. Color – The yolk of the egg provides the desirable yellow color that gives the cake a rich
appearance.

 3. Richness – Fats and other solids of the egg provides the product additional fat and sweeter
taste. It also provides shortness in the mix, enabling the mixture to be handled easily.

 4. Flavor – The odor of the egg gives a desirable aroma to the baked products.

 5. Freshness and Nutritive Value – Egg retards staling because of its moisture content (75% for
whole egg) and its natural ability to bind and retain moisture. Egg has high nutritional value. It is
rich in calcium, phosphorous, and iron. The protein in egg is complete protein, capable of
supplying all the essential amino acids required to maintain growth and good health. In addition,
the use of egg supplies important amounts of Vitamin A, D, thiamine, and riboflavin.

Cosmetology
Cosmetology came from the Greek word, “Kosmetikos” meaning “Beautifying”, This is a
professional skill or practice of beautifying the face, hair, and skin. This is also the study and
application of beauty treatment. A branch of specialty includes hairstyling, skin care, cosmetics
and manicures/pedicures.
Cosmetology (Manicure & Pedicure)

 Manicure comes from the Latin word ―”manus” which means hands and ―”cura” which means
care; it means care of the hands and nails.

 Pedicure on the other hand, comes from the Latin word "pedi" meaning foot and "cura"
meaning care. A pedicure helps foot health by preventing a number of nail diseases and
disorders when done regularly.

 Purpose of Pedicure/Manicure

 1. To improve the appearance of hands and nails

 2. To keep hands and feet clean, fair and in good condition

 3. It prevents long nail formation

 4. Prevent nail damage like fragile tips, splitting.

 5. To feel comfortable

 A. Equipment

 1. Manicure table and adjustable lamp.

 2. Patron‘s and manicure‘s chair or stool.

 3. Cushion or small pillow (8 x 12 inches) covered with washable slipcover or sanitized

towel for the patron‘s wrist arm.

 4. Supply tray for holding the cosmetics

 5. Finger bowl for holding warm soapy water.

 6. Container for clean absorbent cotton.

 7. Container for sanitizing solution.

 8. Glass container for cosmetics and accessories.

 B. Tools and Their uses

 1. Orangewood stick – to loosen cuticle, to work around the nail, and for applying cream,
oil, or solvent to the nail and cuticle.

 2. Nail file – used to shape and smooth the free edge of the nail.

 3. Cuticle pusher – to push back and loosen the cuticle.

 4. Cuticle nipper – to trim the cuticle.

 5. Nail brush – to clean the nails and finger tips with the aid of warm soapy water.
  6. Emery board – to shape the free edge of the finger nails with the coarse side and level
the nail on the fine side.

 7. Nail buffer – use to smoothen the top portion of the nail plate

 8. Nail cutter – to cut the nails

 9. Tweezer – to gently lift small bits of cuticle

 C. Cosmetics

 1. Cuticle cream – used to prevent brittle nails and dry cuticle.

 2. Cuticle remover – used to soften the dead cuticle around the nail

 3. Cuticle Oil – used to soften and lubricate the skin around the nails.

 4. Cuticle solvent – may contain 2 – 5 %of sodium or potassium hydroxide plus glycerine.

 5. Nail whitener – applied as a paste, cream, or coated string, this consists mainly of
white pigments (zinc dioxide or titanium dioxide). When applied under the free edge of
the nail they keep the tip looking white.

 6. Nail polisher – solvent containing acetone or other solvent is used to thin out the nail
polish when it is thickened.

 7. Nail polish – is usually prepared in the form of powder or paste. It smoothes the nail
and also imparts a sheen to the nail during buffing.

 8. Nail drier – is a fine spray which protects the nail against stickiness and dulling. Can be
used either as a spray over the top coat or directly in the nail polish.

 9. Base coat – is a liquid product applied before the liquid nail polish. With this
applicator the nail polish adheres readily to the surface. It also has a hard glass which
prevents the color in the nail polish from staining the nail tissue.

 10. Top coat or top sealer – is a liquid applied over the nail polish. This product protects
the polish and minimizes the chipping or cracking of the colored polish.

 11. Nail strengthener – is a product designed to prevent the nails from splitting or
peeling. It is applied to the tips of the nails only.

 12. Hand cream and lotion – keep the skin soft by replacing the natural oil lost from the
skin.

 13. Abrasive - available as pumice powder and is used to smooth irregular nail ridges.

 D. Materials

 1. Absorbent cotton – to remove cosmetics on the nails

 2. Soap – for finger rings

  3. Warm water – for finger bath

 4. Towel – use individual towel for each patron.

 5. Cleansing tissue - to use whenever necessary.

 6. Antiseptic – used for minor injuries to tissues surroundings the nails.

 7. Disinfectants – used to sanitize implements; to sponge the manicure table.

 8. Spatula – used to remove creams from jars

 9. Mending tissue and mending liquid - to repair or cover broken, split, or torn nails

 The shape of the nail should conform to that of the tips for a more natural effect.

 In general the long, almond nail shape, nicely rounded at the base and slightly pointed
at the tips, fits most fingers and toes.

 Oval shape (long, almond shape file at the tip) is considered as ideal and the most
perfect shape of the nail.

 If the form of the nail is small, almond shape is applicable. It makes the finger look
normal in size.

Cosmetology (Fingernails)

 Application Techniques for Nail Color

 1. Test consistency of polish on nail tip before beginning.

 2. Begin by applying polish down to the center of the nail in one stroke, from base to tip,
leaving a small space between polish and cuticle.
 

 3. Apply polish to cuticle base, stopping just short of the cuticle.

 4. Lift brush and stroke one side of nail from base to the tip, avoiding the cuticle.

 5. Stroke other side of nail from base to tip. If color has touched the cuticle or skin, wait
until the polish has dried and remove with a cotton wrapped cuticle stick dipped in nail
polish remover. To make your manicure last longer, apply top coat following the final
coat of polish and allow to dry thoroughly.

 Sanitary Care in Manicure / Pedicure

 1. Sanitize used manicure implements and place them in clean cabinet sanitizer.

 2. Place used materials like tissue paper, used cotton, used emery board, etc. in the
trash can or close containers.

 3. Wipe the top of the manicure table with disinfectant and put everything in order.

 4. Clean the tops of nail polish bottles with polish remover.

 5. Inspect the manicure drawer for cleanliness and order.

  6. Wash and dry your hands.

 Preparation for a Plain Manicure

 1. Remove old polish – moisten a piece of cotton with the nail polish remover and press
over the nail for a few moments to soften the polish. With the firm movement, bring the
cotton from the base of the nails to the tip.

 2. Shape the nails – Ask the patron, the shape she wants, then file the little nail of the
left hand, from the little finger towards the thumb, in the following manner. Shape the
nails into desired shape. Use the file or emery board to shape the nail. File each nail
from corner to center going from right to left and then left to right. On each side of the
nail, use two short, quick strokes and one long sweeping stroke.

 3. Soften cuticle – After filling the sides of nails, then immerse left hand into finger bowl,
to permit softening of the cuticle. Then for few minutes remove the finger from bowl.

 4. Dry fingerstips – Wipe with towel on both hands, carefully dry the left hand including
the area between the fingers. At the same time, gently loosen and push back the cuticle
and adhering skin on each nail.

 5. Apply cuticle remover – Wet the nail with cuticle remover around the edge of the
nail, and push gently and carefully loosen dead cuticle, avoid too much pressure in
pushing back the cuticle.
  6. Loosen cuticle – Upon pushing the cuticle use the flat or spoon side of the pusher.
Keep cuticle moist while working. Avoid scratching the nail plate so that live tissue at
the root of the nail will not be injured.

 7. Clean under free-edge – use cotton-tipped orangewood stick, dip in soapy water and
clean under free edge from the center toward each side with gentle pressure.

 8. Cleanse nails – Brush nails in soap bath with a downward movement to clean nails
and fingers of both hands. Then dry hands and nails thoroughly.

 Completion:

 1. Bevel nails – Carefully re-examine the nails for defects. Use fine side of the emery
board like a nail to give the nail a smooth beveled edge.

 2. Apply the base coat – Apply the base coat polish, starting with the little finger
working toward the thumb.
  3. Apply liquid polish – Apply the base coat polish, starting with the little finger working
toward the thumb.

 4. Remove excess polish – Dip a cotton-tipped or arrange stick into the nail polish
remover. Apply it carefully around the cuticle and nail edges to remove excess polish.

 5. Apply top or seal coat – Apply the coat with a long strokes to the left hand and then
to the right in the same manners as the base coat. Brush round and under tips of nails
for added support and protection.

 6. Apply hand lotion – After the top coat is completely dry, as an extra service apply
hand lotion with light manipulation over the hands from wrists to fingertips.

 Preparation for a Plain Pedicure

 Pedicure Equipment

 1. Low stool for cosmetologist or manicurist

 2. Ottoman on which to rest patron‘s foot

 3. Waterproof apron or an extra Turkish towel

 4. Special toenail nippers

 5. Antiseptic solutions
  6. Cotton pledgets and foot powder

 7. Paper towels

 Preparation for a Plain Pedicure

 Preparations:

 1. Arrange required equipment, implements, and materials.

 2. Seat patron in facial chair, assist patron in removing shoes and hose.

 3. Place her feet on a clean paper towel on foot rest.

 4. Wash your hands.

 5. Rub the feet with an antiseptic (alcohol) before starting the procedure for

 Procedure:

 1. Remove old nail polish from the nails of both feet.

 2. File nails of left foot with emery board. Smooth rough edges with fine side of
emery board.

 3. Place left foot with warm soapy water.

 4. Shape nails of right foot.

 5. Apply cuticle solvent to the cuticle and under the free edge of each toenail.

 6. Place right foot in bath.

 7. Push the cuticles to loosen them.

 8. Start trimming the dead cuticles.

 9. Brush the nails of the feet.

 10. Wipe with towel to dry the feet.

 11. Massage each toe with cuticle cream or oil.

 12. Repeat same steps with the other foot.

Cosmetology (Facial Care)

 FACIAL BEAUTY CARE TREATMENT AND MAKE-UP

 Types of Make-Up

 1. Ordinary or day make –up – This is basically simple and light make-up. It is
appropriate in ordinary occasions, church or going to work. Choose the shade that is very
light. The time of the day determines how much make-up is to be applied. Day make up
 is light and suits casual wear. Applied lightly, neatly, and beautiful it will go with any
kind of clothes for day wear.

 2. Evening make-up or heavy make up – It uses darker shades. Heavy application of

make-up cannot give a glowing effect to the person. Color or shades of make up are
carefully chosen to complement the color of the dress.

 3. Photographic make-up – Screen make – up is applied to the customer who wants to

appear beautiful in pictures. Those who look attractive or good looking in pictures but
are not in person are photogenic. On the other hand, there are those who, due to poor
lighting or incorrect make up application, appear unattractive in pictures.

 4. Stage screen/theatrical make up – What in seen on the screen are cinematic effects.
Stage make up can change the appearance of an individual‘s face through the use of
varied cosmetics. Some of these cosmetics are plaster of paris, vaseline, zinc oxide and
spirit gum among others.

 Preparation

 Usually, make up is given after a facial massage. However, if the make up is applied
before a comb-out is given, remove rollers and clips and be sure to drape the patron‘s
head to protect her hair.

 The patron is reclined in a facial chair with her head slightly raised. The cosmetologist
may sit at the back of the patron to give the service or may move to the front of the
patron for ease of application.

 Implements and Supplies

Cleansing cream Eyebrow pencil

Cotton pledgets Mascara

Astringent lotion or Skin refreshener Lipstick

Liquid foundation Lip brush

Cream, liquid, or cake foundation Eyebrow brush

Blush on Loose powder

Eye shadow Headband

Eyeliner Towel

Tissues Cotton

 Procedure in Giving Make up

 1. Apply cleansing cream – Remove a small quantity of cleansing cream from the bottle
of cream and place all over the face of the patron, then rub over the face to remove the
dirt or clean the face.
  2. Remove cleansing cream – With a tissue, use an upward or outward motion.

 3. Eyebrow – See to it that the eyebrow is in proper shape. If not, arching is given first
before applying eyebrow pencil.

 4. Apply astringent lotion or skin toner – For oily skin apply astringent lotion; for dry
skin apply a skin toner. Moisten a cotton pad with lotion and pat it lightly over the entire
face, under the chin and on the neck. Blot off excess moisture with tissues.

 5. Apply foundation – Place the amount needed on the palm of the hand. Choose the
kind of foundations and shades best suited and apply it evenly over the entire face and
around the neckline with a gentle upward motion. Blend carefully near the hairline.
Remove the excess foundation.

 6. Apply blush-on – Liquid cream or cake cheek rouge is applied on cheek bones with a
sanitized soft brush.

 7. Apply eye shadow – Select shades to match eyes or to complement them. Apply
lightly on the upper lids or gently outward with fingertips.

 8. Apply eyeliner – Eyeliner can be used to make the eyes look large and lashes appear
thicker. Choose the shade of eyeliner that harmonizes with the skin. Gently draw a very
fine line along entire lid as close to the lashes as possible. If an eyebrow pencil is used,
be sure the point is sharp so that the line will be only an illusion.

 9. Use eyebrow pencil – Brush the eyebrow in place with light feathery strokes. Sketch
on brows with fine-pointed pencil. Cream, liquid or cake eyebrow coloring are available
and applied with a brush.

 10. Apply powder – Powder the entire face to minimize the shine of the skin and make
the face even on the application of the foundation. Powdering the eyelids will prevent
eye makeup from smearing.

 11. Apply mascara – Apply cream mascara on the eyelids. Apply and brush upward on
the underside of the upper lashes. Then gently tip the lower lashes.

 12. Apply tip rouge – Lip rouge is removed from the container with sanitize spatula.
Outline lips with the fine point of a lip brush. Ask the patron to close the lips in a relaxed
position.

 13. Give finishing touches for a final retouch.

 Corrective Make-Up

 Corrective facial make up helps to play up the good features and tone down the bad
ones. Facial features can be accented with proper highlighting or subdued with the
correct shadowing or shading and balanced with the proper style.

 1. Eyes too far apart – When the distance of the eyes is more than the size of one eye.

 Remedy:
  a. Draw the eyebrows close together.

 b. Apply darker shades of eye shadow at the inner corner of the eyes and fade
out at the outer corner. This gives an illusion of closeness.

 2. Close-set eyes – For eyes that are set too close together apply shadow lightly up from
the outer edge of the eyes.

 Remedy:

 a. Draw the eyebrows wide apart.

 b. Apply darker shades at the outer corner of the eyes and lighter shade towards
the inner corner.

 3. Bulging eyes can be minimized by blending the shadow carefully over the prominent
part of the upper lid. Carrying it lightly to the line of the brow. These kinds of eyes are
considered big or large because of prominently bulging eyelids. Use dark shadow as
illustrated.

 Remedy:

 a. Extend eye make up upward.

 b. No need for eyeliner.

 c. Extend eyeliner at the eyelid.

 d. Use dark shades of eye make up to hide the prominent eyelid.

 e. Do not use frosted eye shadow or a highlighter to avoid emphasizing bulging

eyelids.

 f. Use only one dark shade of eye make up.

 4. Chinky or Chinita eye – This kind of eye is small and can be made to appear larger by
extending the shadow slightly above and below the eyes.

 Remedy:

 a. Use another shade of eye make up at the outer and inner corner of the eyes.

 b. Use a highlighter at the center of the upper lid.

 c. Use some eye make up on the lower lid. Apply along the lower eye lashes.

 d. Curl the upper and lower lashes and kitchen them with mascara.

 Corrective Make-Up (For the Lips)

 1. Thin Lower Lip

 Remedy:
  a. Extend curve of lower lip to balance.

 b. Use a lip brush to shape the lip.

 c. Choose a right shade to emphasize the correct shape of the lower lips..

 d. Draw a new shape of the lips.

 2. Thin Upper Lip – Build up the curve of the upper lips to balance

 Remedy:

 a. Extend curve of upper lips to balance.

 b. Use a lip brush to reshape the upper lips.

 c. Draw the new shape of the lips to reshape the upper lips.

 3. Large Full Lips – Keep lipstick covering inside of lip line. Shade color off at side. Keep
corners very sharp and clean-cut.

 Remedy:

 a. Cover the lips with fountain.

 b. Use a dark shade of lipstick to subdue the fullness of the lips.

 c. Draw the new shape of the lips inside the original lip line.

 d. Fill the rest of the lip rouge.

 4. Small mouth – Build outsides of upper and lower lips and extend the corner of the
mouth.

 Remedy:

 a. Draw the shape of the lips outside the original lip line.

 b. Fill the outside of the lips with lipstick.

 c. Draw the real or standard shape of the lips to get the right shape of the lips.

 Eyebrow Arching

 Importance of Eyebrow Arching

 Eyebrow arching has a marked effect on the beauty and contour of the face.

 The natural arch or growth of the eyebrow follows the bony structure or the
curved line of the orbit (eye socket). The majority of persons have a disorderly
growth of hairs both above and below the natural line. These hairs should be
removed to give a clean-cut and attractive appearance.
  Correct eyebrow arching gives a clean-cut expression and attractive appearance
to the face. The eyebrows must however fit the shape of the face and the shape
of the eyes. Shaping the eyebrows has thus become an art and a need.

 Tools, Supplies, and Cosmetics Necessary for an Eyebrow Arch

 1. Tweezers

 2. Eyebrow pencil

 3. Cleansing tissue

 4. Eyebrow brush

 5. Absorbent cotton

 6. Antiseptic

 7. Creams

 Procedure for Giving an Eyebrow Arch

 1. Prepare all the necessary materials needed.

 2. Prepare the patron. Seat patron in an inclined position as for facial massage.

 3. Select the type of arch.

 4. Covers the patrons eyes with cotton pledgets moistened with which hazel or
boric acid.

 5. Brush eyebrows with a small brush to remove powder or scaliness.

 6. Soften brows. Saturate two pledgets of cotton or towel with warm water and
place over brows. Allow to remain on brows long enough to soften and relax
eyebrow tissue sufficiently. Brows and surrounding skin may be softened by
rubbing emollient cream into them.

 7. Remove hair between brows.

 Tweezing - In tweezing, stretch the skin that with index finger and thumb of the
left hand. Grasp each hair individually with tweezers and pull with quick motions
in the directions in which the hair grows.

 Sponge tweezed area frequently with cotton moistened with an anti-septic

lotion to avoid infection. Remoisten the cotton if necessary.

 8. Remove hairs from above eyebrow line. Brush hairs downward. Shape the
upper section of one eyebrow, then shape the other sponge area with anti-
septic frequently.
  9. Remove hair from under the eyebrow line. Brush hairs upward. Shape the
lower section of one eyebrow, and then shape the other. Sponge the area with
an antiseptic frequently.

 10. Apply an astringent. After the tweezing has been completed sponge the
brows and surrounding skin with an astringent to contract the area.

 11. Apply brow make up. Brush brows, placing the hairs in their normal position.
Use eyebrow pencil where necessary. The eyebrows should be treated about
once a week.

 Different Sizes, shapes, and Positions of Eyebrows

 1. Size – refers to the density of hair growth of the brows.

 a. Thick – Some hair growth is superfluous.

 b. Thin – Hair growth is sparse and strands are thin.

 c. Medium thick – hair is neither too thick nor too thin.

 2. Shape – refers to the form of arching of eyebrows.

 a. Normal

 b. Straight

 c. Rounded

 d. Oblique

 e. Angular

 Different Sizes, shapes, and Positions of Eyebrows

 3. Position – refers to the placement of eyebrows.

 a. High – high positioning of eyebrow increases the width of a narrow forehead.

 b. Low – Low-placed eyebrows tend to narrow down the width of the forehead.

 c. Far apart – Eyebrows that are far part tend to widen the eyes.

 d. Close-set – Eyebrows that are too close to one another tend to make eyes
appear close to each other.

 Facial Treatments

 Purpose of facial Treatment

 1. Preventive – This treatment is given to maintain the health of the facial skin
by correct cleaning methods, increased circulation, relaxation of the nerves, and
to activate the skin glands and metabolism, through massage.
  2. Corrective – To correct some facial skin condition as dryness.

 Plain facial

 Skin facial is a very restful service or treatment in the beauty salon. The customers are
happy and contented in the stimulation from massage, the soothing effects of creams
and lotions and the finished application of an attractive make-up. Facials can be given
as often as once a week except where otherwise indicated.

 Implements and Supplies

Cleaning cream spatula

Astringent lotion towel

Skin freshener basin

Cleansing lotion facial towel

Tissue warm water

Absorbent cotton muscle oil

Talcum powder facial tray

 Procedure for Plain Facial

 1. Prepare all the materials needed.

 2. Prepare the patron.

 a. Place a clean towel across the back of the facial chair.

 b. Ask patron to remove jewelry like earrings or other accessories.

 c. Put a headband or fasten the hair to protect the patron‘s hair.

 d. Adjust the head rest and then set the chair to a reclining position

 e. Cover the eyes with wet cotton.

 3. Analyze the skin

 a. Cleanse the face to determine if the skin is dry or oily.

 b. This analysis will determine:

 1. The kind of skin toner

 2. The color of make up to apply

 3. The choice of cream to be used in massage

 4. Remove cleansing cream

  c. Wipe the face with tissue paper or a warm moist towel. Remove all the cream
from one area before proceeding to the next.

 d. Wipe the face again with warm moist towel or facial steamer.

 Procedure for Plain Facial

 4. Apply emollient cream

 5. Perform the facial manipulation.

 6. Apply astringent lotion.

 7. Apply foundation and make up the face.

 8. Completion.

 a. Give finishing touches.

 b. Assist the patron with her garments and accessories.

 9. Clean up

Cosmetology (Hair and Scalp)

 Composition of Hair

 Hair composed of a protein substance called KERATIN which is present in all horny
growth such as nails, claws, and hoofs.

 Chemical composition of hair are

 carbon, 50.65 %;

 hydrogen, 6.36 %;

 nitrogen, 17.14 %;

 sulfur, 5.0 %;

 oxygen, 20.8%.

 Hair is divided into two principal parts:

 1. Hair root – is that portion of the hair structure found

beneath the skin surface. This part of the hair is
enclosed within the follicle.

 2. Hair shaft – is that portion of the hair structure

extending above the skin surface.

 Color of Hair
  The natural color of hair, its strength and texture, depend mainly on hereditary qualities
of a physical nature. The color of hair being an inherited characteristic is one which is
easy to observe and classify.

 Hair Distribution

 Hair is found all over the body except on the palms, soles, lips and eyelids.

 Types of hair on the Body

 1. Long hair grow from the scalp, protects the scalp against the sun‘s ray and injury, give
adornment to the head, and form pleasing frame for the face.

 2. Short hair such as the eyebrow and the eyelashes, adds beauty and line of color to
the face. The eyelashes help protect the eyes from dust particles and light glare.

 3. Lanugo hair is the fine, soft dowry hair of the cheek, forehead, and nearly all areas of
the body. It helps in the efficient evaporation of perspiration.

 HAIR SETTING AND HAIR STYLING

 Kinds of Hair Setting

 1. Roller Setting – these are for lifted hairstyle and for styles that are to have a straight
hair effect. Rollers come in a variety of length and sizes.

 2. Clip or Pin Curls – these are good for curls and are used to set curl sections for

 necklines, bangs, and to finish off the style at the bottom.

 3. Curlers Setting – these can be used for setting the entire head or turning ends under

 upward or forward. They are handy for children‘s hair and for smooth hairdos.

 Materials and Equipment Used in Styling

 Tools:

 1. Hair brush
  2. Styling brush

 3. Teasing brush

 4. Roller brush

 5. Hair pins

 Supplies

 1. Spray net

 2. Setting lotion and setting gel

 Equipment

 1. Hair dryer

 2. Hair blower

 Different Kinds of Hair Setting for Long and Short hair

 A. Pin Curling Technique

 Procedure:

 Wet the hair with water or setting lotions, comb smooth and form shaping. Curls
are usually made, starting at the open and of the shaping.

 B. Roller Setting Technique

 Procedure:

 The hair is moistened with water or setting lotions in the same manner
as conventional curl. The hair is then sectioned according to the number
of roller that must be used to achieve the hairstyle desired.

 Hairstyling

 Each type of face demands a hairstyle that is rightly proportional; balance of line,
and correctly frames the face. The essentials of an artistic hairstyle must, therefore,
be based on the following characteristics:

 1. Shape of the entire head

 a. Front view

 b. Profile (side view)

 2. Characteristics in features

 a. Perfect as well as imperfect features

 b. Defects or blemishes
  3. Body structure, posture and poise

 Suggested Hairstyle:

 1. Chignon – Here, the hair is drawn softly to back of the head, leaving the ear covered
with a single deep smooth wave at the side. The length of hair is then handled like
fabric, curled, and folded into a graceful crown shape.

 2. Brush up – Hair is brushed at the end up all around and caught up in a band at the
back of the crown.

 Curls are left free and arranged in soft ringlets.

 A round based hair in large rollers, and is pinned to the crown to a cluster style.

 3. Petals – Here, the style is brushed up with petals on the top of the head or slightly on
the side, shaped with petal style. Hair is looped to form the base and ends with soft
natural looking waves on the side.

 Materials, tools, and implements used for hair cutting

 1. Hair shaping scissors – This scissors is especially used for cutting the hair shaping it
the way the customers would want to. Notice the pointed shape of the scissor. This
facilitates the cutting of hair around.
 2. Thinning shears (One Blade)– One blade notched. This shear is for thinning thick,
kinky hair. Unlike the hair shaping scissors, it does not have a pointed tip.

 3. Thinning shears (Double)– This shear has both notches. It has the same function as
the thinning shear with one blade notch

 4. Straight Razor – use for removing fine hair nearest the skin

 5. Single-edge razor – used for removing fine hair.

 6. Double-edge razor - use for removing fine hair much easier because of the double
edges.
 7. Comb – a toothed strip of bone, metal, plastic, or hard rubber used for arranging the
hair. The kinds of combs used in a beauty salon are the following:

 a. All-purpose comb

 b. Tail comb

 c. Hair shaping

 d. Large tooth comb

 8. Clipper – this is an electric shaving device that is used to smoothen the neck after a
neck trim. It can also be used with a comb to give a tapering effect to the cut at the
back.. This is recommended for use with children to avoid accidents when cutting their
hair. It is easy to use.

 9. Cape – a piece of nylon or cotton material placed around the neck when cutting hair
or giving facials. It is used as a protection for customers. This is to keep their clothes
from being soiled from water, hair trimmings or chemicals.

 10. Barber’s brushes – these are used to brush off trimming clinging to the cape or skin
of the customer. They come in various shapes and sizes.

 11. Water Sprayer – this is used to wet the hair when cutting or trimming. The bottle is
made of plastic or glass. It has a nozzle, hose, and regulator. It comes in various sizes,
colors and shapes.
 12. Do-all clip – it is used to hold the sectioned hair when parting. It is about 3-5 inches
long. It is made of plastic, metal, or a combination of the two. It is useful in hair shaping.
It is sometimes called a duck pin.