Module 3
UNIT 3 MEASUREMENTS
Introduction
Measurements provide the macroscopic information that is the basis of most of
the hypotheses, theories, and laws that describe the behavior of matter and energy in
both the macroscopic and microscopic domains of chemistry. Every measurement
provides two kinds of information: the size or magnitude of the measurement (a number
or quantity); and a standard of comparison for the measurement (a unit).
Scientists primarily use the SI (International System) or metric systems. We use
base SI units such as meters, seconds, and kilograms, as well as derived units, such as
liters (for volume) and g/cm (for density).
Module Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the learners must have:
1. Identified the important SI units in Chemistry
2. Listed common SI-English equivalent quantities
3. Solved problems involving conversion units of mass, length, volume,
temperature and density
4. Differentiated precision and accuracy in measurement
Lesson 1 The SI Units
The results of scientific measurements are usually reported in SI units, using the
units listed in Table 1.1.1. Other units can be derived from these base units. The
standards for these units are fixed by international agreement, and they are called the
International System of Units or SI Units (from the French, Le Système International
d’Unités). SI units have been used by the United States National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) since 1964.
SI Base Units The initial units of the metric system, which eventually evolved
into the SI system, were established in France during the French Revolution. The
original standards for the meter and the kilogram were adopted there in 1799 and
eventually by other countries.
Length. The standard unit of length in both the SI and original metric systems is
the meter (m). A meter was originally specified as 1/10,000,000 of the distance from the
North Pole to the equator. It is now defined as the distance light in a vacuum travels in
1/299,792,458 of a second. A meter is about 3 inches longer than a yard; one meter is
about 39.37 inches or 1.094 yards. Longer distances are often reported in kilometers (1
km = 1000 m = 10 m), whereas shorter distances can be reported in centimeters (1 cm
= 0.01 m = 10 m) or millimeters (1 mm = 0.001 m = 10 m).
Mass. The standard unit of mass in the SI system is the kilogram (kg). A kilogram
was originally defined as the mass of a liter of water (a cube of water with an edge
length of exactly 0.1 meter). In 1889, it was redefined by a certain cylinder of platinum-
iridium alloy, which was kept in France. One kilogram is about 2.2 pounds. The gram (g)
is exactly equal to 1/1000 of the mass of the kilogram (10 kg). On May 20, 2019, a new
definition will be used for the kilogram, based on the unchanging Planck's constant.
Time. The SI base unit of time is the second (s). Alternatively, hours, days, and
years can be used.
Temperature. The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin (K). The IUPAC convention
is to use kelvin (all lowercase) for the word, K (uppercase) for the unit symbol, and
neither the word “degree” nor the degree symbol (°). The degree Celsius (°C) is also
allowed in the SI system, with both the word “degree” and the degree symbol used for
Celsius measurements. Celsius degrees are the same magnitude as those of kelvin, but
the two scales place their zeros in different places. Water freezes at 273.15 K (0 °C)
and boils at 373.15 K (100 °C) by definition, and normal human body temperature is
approximately 310 K (37 °C).
Electric Current. Electric current is the flow of electric charge and is measured
with an ammeter. The SI unit for measuring electric current is the ampere (A), which is
equal to a flow of one coulomb of charge per second.
Amount of Substance. Chemists use the mole so often to measure how much of
a substance is present that it is convenient to have a name for the quantity which this
unit measures. In the International System this quantity is called the amount of
substance and is given the symbol n.
A mole of any element has an Avogadro's number of atoms (= 6.02x1023 atoms
per mole).
Luminous Intensity. Luminous intensity is a measure of the radiant power emitted
by an object in a given direction, and is dependent on the wavelength of light being
emitted. It is weighted to the sensitivity of the human eye, by what is called the
"standard luminosity function". The SI unit for luminous intensity is the candela which
has an operational definition.
A candle has a luminous intensity of about 1 candela, the SI unit of luminous
intensity.
Derived SI Units We can derive many units from the seven SI base units. For
example, we can use the base unit of length to define a unit of volume, and the base
units of mass and length to define a unit of density.
Volume. Volume is the measure of the amount of space occupied by an object.
The standard SI unit of volume is defined by the base unit of length. The standard
volume is a cubic meter (m3), a cube with an edge length of exactly one meter. A more
commonly used unit of volume is derived from the decimeter (0.1 m, or 10 cm). A cube
with edge lengths of exactly one decimeter contains a volume of one cubic decimeter
(dm3).
A liter (L) is the more common name for the cubic decimeter. One liter is about
1.06 quarts. A cubic centimeter (cm3) is the volume of a cube with an edge length of
exactly one centimeter. The abbreviation cc (for cubic centimeter) is often used by
health professionals. A cubic centimeter is also called a milliliter (mL) and is 1/1000 of a
liter.
Density. The density of a substance is the ratio of the mass of a sample of the
substance to its volume. The SI unit for density is the kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3).
For many situations, we often use grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) for the densities
of solids and liquids, and grams per liter (g/L) for gases.
While there are many ways to determine the density of an object, perhaps the
most straightforward method involves separately finding the mass and volume of the
object, and then dividing the mass of the sample by its volume.
SI Prefixes Fractional or multiple SI units are named using a prefix and the name
of the base unit. For example, a length of 1000 meters is also called a kilometer
because the prefix kilo means “one thousand,” which in scientific notation is 10 (1
kilometer = 1000 m = 10 m).
Lesson 2 Common SI-English Equivalent Quantities
[Link]
Lesson 3 Converting Units of Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature and Density
Conversion of values in one unit to the same value in another unit is often needed in
scientific calculations.
The unit conversion includes the following:
Conversion of the same type of measurement in the same system of measurement,
e.g., conversion of a measured value of the length in meters to kilometers in SI;
Conversion of the same type of measurement in different systems of measurements,
e.g., conversion of a measured value of the length in kilometers from SI to miles
in the English system; and
Conversion of one type of measurement to another type of measurement,
e.g., conversion of a measured value of the mass in g to volume in mL of a
substance using the density of the substance.
Lesson 4 Uncertainty in Measurement
In chemistry, "uncertainty in measurement" refers to the estimated range of
values within which the true value of a measured quantity is likely to lie, essentially
representing the degree of error associated with a measurement and indicating how
much a result could vary due to limitations of the measuring instrument or technique
used; it is typically expressed as a plus or minus value alongside the measured value.
Importance:
Every measurement has some degree of uncertainty, and it's crucial to consider
this when analyzing data and drawing conclusions in chemistry experiments.
How it's expressed:
Uncertainty is usually written as a plus or minus value next to the measured
value, signifying the range around which the true value is likely to be.
Factors contributing to uncertainty:
1. Instrument limitations: The smallest division on a measuring device.
2. Human error: Difficulty in reading a measurement precisely.
3. Environmental factors: Temperature fluctuations affecting the
measurement.
Calculating uncertainty:
Depending on the measurement method, uncertainty can be calculated by
considering factors like the instrument's resolution, calibration data, and statistical
analysis of repeated measurements.
Significant figures:
Uncertainty is often related to the concept of significant figures, where the last
digit in a measurement represents the uncertain digit.
Lesson 5 Precision, Accuracy and Instrument Calibration
In chemistry, "precision" refers to how closely repeated measurements of the
same quantity are to each other, while "accuracy" describes how close a measurement
is to the true value; "instrument calibration" is the process of adjusting an instrument to
ensure both its precision and accuracy by comparing its readings to a known standard,
essentially minimizing errors in measurements by verifying the instrument is functioning
correctly.
Precision: Precision is defined as how close the individual measurements are to
each other.
Represents the consistency of measurements, meaning how closely a
series of repeated measurements are to each other, regardless of
whether they are close to the true value.
Example: If you measure the volume of a liquid multiple times and
get very similar readings each time, even if the readings are
slightly off from the actual volume, it is considered precise.
Accuracy: Accuracy or trueness of the measurement is defined as how close the
average value is to the actual value.
Indicates how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value of a
quantity.
Example: If you measure the volume of a liquid and the reading is
very close to the actual volume, it is considered accurate.
You can have high precision but low accuracy:
If multiple measurements are very close to each other but far from the true
value, the data is considered precise but not accurate.
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Factors affecting accuracy and precision:
1. Instrument quality
2. User technique
3. Environmental conditions
4. Proper handling of samples
Instrument Calibration:
The process of adjusting an instrument to ensure its measurements is both
precise and accurate by comparing its readings to a known standard.
Involves checking the instrument against a reference material and making
necessary adjustments to correct any deviations.
Important for maintaining reliable data quality in experiments.
Why is calibration important?
Quality control: In many industries, accurate measurements are crucial for ensuring
product quality and safety.
Data reliability: Calibration helps guarantee that the data collected by an instrument is
trustworthy and reliable.
Legal compliance: Some industries have regulations requiring regular calibration of
specific instruments.