23CH212- Electrical Drives and Control

Unit:1 Notes DC Machines

1
DC Generator Construction and working principle

2
DC Generator:
A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into direct current
electricity. This energy conversion is based on the principle of production of dynamically induced
emf. This article outlines basic construction and working of a DC generator.
The above figure shows constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. A DC machine
consists of two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC machine are described
below.
1.​ Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel. It
not only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries the magnetic flux

3
 produced by the field winding. (moisture, dust, and acid from outside environment). low
reluctance path, mechanical strength, high permeability)
2.​ Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding. They
carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i)
they support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly. cast iron or cast steel

3.​ Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed on
each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized,
they form alternate North and South poles.
4.​ Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in shape with slots
to carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for
reducing eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for
cooling purposes. Armature is keyed (fixed) to the shaft.

5.​ Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots.
The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core.
Armature winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding.
Double layer lap or wave windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that each
armature slot will carry two different coils.
6.​ Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a
commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc generator is to
convert alternating armature induced emf in to unidirectional current (DC) and the
function of a brushes are to collect the current generated in armature conductors..
Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator helps in providing current to the armature
conductors from supply. A commutator consists of a set of copper segments which are
insulated from each other. The number of segments is equal to the number of armature coils.
Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the commutator is keyed (or fixed) to the
shaft. Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on commutator segments
and slide on the segments when the commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect
or supply the current.

4
Need of a Split ring commutator:

According to Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of induced current changes whenever the
direction of motion of the conductor changes. Let’s consider an armature rotating clockwise and a
conductor at the left is moving upward. When the armature completes a half rotation, the direction
of motion of that particular conductor will be reversed to downward. Hence, the direction of
current in every armature conductor will be alternating. If you look at the above figure, you will
know how the direction of the induced current is alternating in an armature conductor. But with a

split ring commutator, connections of the armature conductors also gets reversed when the current

reversal occurs. And therefore, we get unidirectional current at the terminals.

5
 MMF Produced.

Working Principle of a DC Generator:

According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor is placed in a
varying magnetic field (OR a conductor is moved in a magnetic field), an emf (electromotive force)
gets induced in the conductor. The magnitude of induced emf can be calculated from the emf
equation of dc generator. If the conductor is provided with a closed path, the induced current will
circulate within the path. In a DC generator, field coils produce an electromagnetic field and the
armature conductors are rotated into the field. Thus, an electromagnetically induced emf is
generated in the armature conductors. The direction of induced current is given by Fleming’s right
hand rule.

6
Z=Armature Conductors
Expression for induced emf of a DC generator
To derive the e.m.f equation of a DC generator, we start with the basic principles of
electromagnetic induction. The e.m.f generated in a DC generator can be derived from Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction, which states that the induced e.m.f in a circuit is equal to the
rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit. The equation can be derived as follows:

7
Revolutions of armat ure per minute = N (RPM).
The time taken for one revolution is t= 60/N' seconds.

8
Problem
1. A 6-pole, DC generator has 800 conductors on its armature. The flux
per pole is 0.035 Wb. The speed of rotation of the armature is 1500 RPM.
Calculate the generated EMF when the armature is, (a) Lap wound, (b)
Wave wound.

9
 Losses in DC Generator
The input power is not fully transformed into the output power in a DC machine. Some part of input
power gets wasted in various forms. In a DC machine, the losses are broadly classified into four
types:
●​ Copper Loss​
Copper loss takes place when the current flows through the winding. These losses occur due to
the resistance in the winding. The copper loss is categorized into three forms armature loss, the
field winding loss and brush contact resistance loss.

●​ Core Losses or Iron Losses​

Some losses in the iron core occur when the armature rotates in the magnetic field. These losses
are known as core losses. These losses are categorized into two losses as Hysteresis loss and
Eddy current loss.

10
 Types of DC generator
The DC generator can be classified into two main categories as separately excited and self-excited.

Permanent Magnet DC Generators

This type of generator utilizing permanent magnets for creating the flux in the magnetic
circuit is known as the Permanent magnet DC generator and is the most basic type of
generator. This type cannot supply much power due to the design of the generator and does
not employ it in industry applications. Permanent magnet DC generators usually are used in
small applications, the same as dynamos in motorcycles.
Separately Excited DC Generator
A DC generator whose field winding or coil is energised by a separate or external DC source is
called a separately excited DC Generator. The flux produced by the poles depends upon the field
current with the unsaturated region of magnetic material of the poles. i.e. flux is directly proportional
to the field current. But in the saturated region, the flux remains constant.
Self Excited DC Generator
Self-excited DC Generator is a device, in which the current to the field winding is supplied by the
generator itself. In self-excited DC generator, the field coils may be connected in parallel with the
armature in the series, or it may be connected partly in series and partly in parallel with the armature
windings.

11
 Compound Wound DC Generators
compound wound generators are available, combining both series and shunt. The circuit of the
compound wound generators includes both series and shunt field wounding. There are a series and a
parallel winding with the armature and include two types of short shunt compound wound generator
and long shunt compound wound generator.

12
CUMULATIVE AND DIFFERENTIAL COMPOUND GENERATOR

Applications of DC Generators
A few applications of DC generators are:
●​ The separately excited type DC generators are used for power and lighting purposes.
●​ The series DC generator is used in arc lamps for lighting, stable current generator and
booster.
●​ DC generators are used to reimburse the voltage drop within Feeders.
●​ DC generators are used to provide a power supply for hostels, lodges, offices, etc.

13
DC Motor : Working & Its Applications

2.2 Principle of Operation of a D.C. Motor

The principle of operation of a d.c. motor can be stated in a single statement as “when a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force”. In a practical
d.c. motor, field winding produces a required magnetic field while armature conductors play a role of
current carrying conductors and hence armature conductors experience a force. As conductors are
placed in the slots which are on the periphery, the individual force experienced by the conductors
acts as a twisting or turning force on the arma ture which is called a torque. The torque is the product
of force and the radius at which this force acts. So overall armature experiences a torque and starts
rotating. Let us study this motoring action in detail.

Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field as shown below Fig a). The magnetic field is
produced by a permanent magnet but in a practical d.c. motor it is produced by the field winding
when it carries a current.

Now this conductor is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a current in a particular direction.
Consider that it carries a current away from an observer as shown in the Fig. b). Any current carrying
conductor produces its own magnetic field around it, hence this conductor also produces its own flux,
around. The direction of this flux can be determined by right hand thumb rule. For direction of
current considered, the direction of flux around a conductor is clockwise.

Now there are two fluxes present,

1.​ The flux produced by the permanent magnet called main flux.

14
 2.​ The flux produced by the current carrying conductor.

These are shown in the Fig (a). From this, it is clear that on one side of the conductor, both the fluxes
are in the same direction. In this case, on the left of the conductor there is gathering of the flux lines
as two fluxes help each other. As against this, on the right of the conductor, the two fluxes are in
opposite direction and hence try to cancel each other. Due to this, the density of the flux lines in this
area gets weakened. So on the left, there exists high flux density area while on the right of the
conductor there exists low flux density area as shown in the Fig (b).

This flux distribution around the conductor acts like a stretched rubber band under tension. This
exerts a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from high flux density area towards low flux
density area, i.e. from left to right for the case considered as shown in the Fig. (b).

One more -Working Principle of DC Motor

The DC motor working principle is the Lorentz force equation. It states that whenever a conductor
that carries current is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force. It also works on
faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction principle. Because an electromagnetic force is induced in
the coil when this coil is rotated in the magnetic field.
A DC supply is given to the armature winding such that the winding carries current. Due to the
current in the winding, the coil is exerted by some force. This force is based on the Lorentz force
equation, as the current-carrying coil is under the influence of the magnetic field.

15
The flux force and cut by conductor create a motion for the coil to rotate in the clockwise direction.
Now, as the coil rotates, the coil changes its side I,e the side AB is under N pole influence and the
side CD is under the S pole influence. Now the current in coil side AB is outwards and in coil side
CD it is outwards. But, the force acts in the clockwise direction.

A magnetic field arises in the air gap when the field coil of the DC motor is energised. The created
magnetic field is in the direction of the radii of the armature. The magnetic field enters the armature
from the North pole side of the field coil and “exits” the armature from the field coil’s South pole
side
The conductors located on the other pole are subjected to a force of the same intensity but in the
opposite direction. These two opposing forces create a torque that causes the motor armature to
rotate.
Different Types
These machines are classified based on the excitation and the placement of winding. They are
Separately excited and self-excited motors.

Based on the winding placement classified as follows

1.​ Series Motor
2.​ Shunt Motor
3.​ Compound Motor

16
1. Shunt -wound motor in which the field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature (See Fig-A above). The field winding (shunt) has more number of turns with thin
wires.

2. Series-wound motor in which the field winding is connected in series with the armature
(See Fig-B above). It has less number of turns with thick wires.

3. Compound-wound motor having two field windings ; One connected in parallel with the
armature and the other in series with it. There are two types of compound motor connections.

●​ Short shunt connection

●​ Long shunt connection
When the shunt field winding is connected directly to the armature terminals (See figure-1
below), it is called a short shunt connection.

When the shunt field winding is connected in such a way that is shunts the series
combination of armature and series field (See Fig-2 below), it is called a long shunt
connection.

17
What is back emf or counter EMF?
When the armature of a DC motor rotates under the influence of the driving torque, so the
armature conductors move through the magnetic field and hence an EMF is induced in them
like a generator.

The induced emf acts in the opposite direction to the applied voltage V (Lenz’s law) and is
known as the back or counter emf Eb. Back e.m.f.

18
(Eb = P Φ Z N / 60 A) is always less than the applied voltage V, although this difference is
small when the motor is running under normal conditions.

Voltage / Power equation of DC motor

V = Eb + Ia Ra

Torque Equation of a DC Motor

Let in a DC motor
V = Applied voltage
Eb = Back emf​
Ra = Armature resistance
Ia = Armature current
Let,
F — Force in Newton
r — Radius of armature in meter
Ta — Armature torque in N-m
S — Circumferential distance
f — Flux/pole in Wb
P — Number of poles
Z — Number of armature conductors
A — Number of armature paths
Ia — Armature current
N — Speed of armature in r.p.m. Since, torque is the twisting movement
produced across the armature.
N / 60 = Speed in r.p.s
dt = 60 / N = Time taken for one revolution.

Since the back emf Eb acts in opposition to the applied voltage V, the net voltage in the
armature circuit is V − Eb. The armature current Ia is given by

19
 Ia = ( V − Eb) / Ra
V = Eb + Ia Ra
Multiplying both the side of the above equation by Ia , we get
V Ia = Eb Ia + I2a Ra
This is known as the power equation of a DC motor.
V Ia = Electric power supplied to armature (armature input)
Eb Ia = Power developed by armature (armature output)
I2a Ra = Electric power wasted in armature (armature Cu loss)
Thus a small part (about 5%) of the armature input, is wasted as I2a Ra and the
remaining part Eb Ia is converted into mechanical power within the armature.

20
21
As flux ɸ is assumed to be constant, we can say N ∝ Eb. But, as back emf is also almost constant, the
speed should remain constant. But practically, ɸ as well as Eb decreases with increase in load. Back
emf Eb decreases slightly more than ɸ, therefore, the speed decreases slightly. Generally, the speed
decreases only by 5 to 15% of full load speed. Therefore, a shunt motor can be assumed as a
constant speed motor. In speed vs. armature current characteristic in the following figure, the
straight horizontal line represents the ideal characteristic and the actual characteristic is shown by the
dotted line.

Cumulative compound motors are used where series characteristics are required but the load is likely
to be removed completely. Series winding takes care of the heavy load, whereas the shunt winding
prevents the motor from running at dangerously high speed when the load is suddenly removed.
These motors have generally employed a flywheel, where sudden and temporary loads are applied
like in rolling mills.

Why a DC series motor should never start at no load or

Why a DC series motor should start always with some load.
The DC series motor torque equation is, Torque= Flux* Armature current
T = If * Ia
Here If= Ia, then the equation will become
T= Ia2
The DC series motor torque (T) can be proportional to the Ia2 (square of the armature current). In
load test on dc series motor, the motor should be activated on load condition because if the motor can

22
be activated on no load, then it will achieve an extremely high speed. So DC series motor should
always start with some load.

The applications of different types of DC motors are listed below:

●​ Shunt DC Motors
Owing to the fairly constant speed and medium starting torque of shunt DC motors, they
are used in the following applications:
1.​ Centrifugal and reciprocating pumps
2.​ Lathe machines
3.​ Blowers and Fans
4.​ Drilling machines
5.​ Milling machines
6.​ Machine tools
●​ Series DC Motors
Owing to the high starting torque and variable speed of series DC motors, they are used
in the following applications:
1.​ Conveyors
2.​ Hoists, Elevators
3.​ Cranes
4.​ Electric Locomotives
●​ Cumulative Compound DC motors
Owing to the high starting torque of cumulative compound DC motors, they are used in
the following applications:
1.​ Shears
2.​ Heavy Planers
3.​ Rolling mills
4.​ Elevators

Speed Control of DC motors:

Speed Control of DC Series Motors

The field control method is based on the fact that by varying the field flux in the series motor, its
speed can be changed, as,

The change in the flux can be achieved by in the following ways

Flux Diverter

23
The field diverter shunts some portion of the line current from the series field winding, hence
weakening the field and increasing the speed of the motor. The lowest speed that can be obtained
using this method is corresponding to the zero current through the diverter which is the normal speed
of the motor. Therefore, the field diverter method only provides speed above the normal speed. The
series field diverter method is mainly used in traction work.

Armature Diverter
In this method, a variable resistance called armature diverter is connected in parallel with armature,
which shunts some portion of the line current from the armature winding and hence reducing the
armature current. By using armature diverter method, any speed below the normal speed can be
obtained.

Tapped Field Control

24
Armature Resistance Control Method

In the armature resistance control method, a variable resistance is connected in series with
the supply to complete the motor circuit as shown in figure. The armature resistance
control method is the most common method employed to control the speed of DC series
motors.

Numerical Example
A 250 V DC series motor runs at 1000 RPM draws a line current of 50 A. The armature
and series field resistances are 0.08 Ω and 0.05 Ω respectively. If the current taken by the
motor remains the same, determine the value of series resistance required to reduce the
speed to 800 RPM.

25
 ∴ Rseries=1.104−0.13=0.974Ω
Speed of a DC Shunt motor:
1.​ The terminal voltage of the armature, V.
2.​ The external resistance in armature circuit, Ra.
3.​ The flux per pole, φ.

Terminal voltage and external resistance involve a change that affects the armature circuit, while flux
involves a change in the magnetic field. Therefore speed control of DC motor can be classified into:
1.​ Armature Control Methods
2.​ Field Control Methods
Armature Resistance Control Method ( Eb vs Speed –N)
This is the most common method employed. Here the controlling resistance is connected directly in
series with the supply of the motor as shown in the fig. This speed control is below rated speed.

26
Field Flux Control Method (If vs Speed-N
This is the most common method employed. Here the controlling resistance is connected directly in
series with the supply of the motor as shown in the fig. By this method, the speed control above rated
value is possible. This is shown in the Fig. by speed against field current curve. The curve shows the
inverse relation between N and flux as its nature is rectangular hyperbola.

27