INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS

2025-2026
Communication principles

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 OBJECTIVES

Explain the importance of standards and protocols in

network communications.
 Communication protocols
 Communication standards
 Network communication models
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 INTRODUCTION

 Before beginning to communicate with each other, we

establish rules or agreements to govern the conversation. The
agreements include the following:
 What method of communication should we use?
 What language should we use?
 Do we need to confirm that our messages are received?

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 DETERMINING THE METHOD, LANGUAGE AND
CONFIRMATION STRATEGIES
Method

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 DETERMINING THE METHOD, LANGUAGE AND
CONFIRMATION STRATEGIES
Language

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 DETERMINING THE METHOD, LANGUAGE AND
CONFIRMATION STRATEGIES
Confirmation

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 COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS
 These rules, or protocols, must be followed in order for the message to be
successfully and understood. Among the protocols that govern successful human
communication are these:
 An identified sender and receiver;
 Agreed upon method of communicating (face-to-face, telephone, letter,
photograph);
 Common language and grammar;
 Speed and timing of delivery;
 Confirmation or acknowledgment requirements
The techniques that are used in network communications share these fundamentals
with human conversations. 8
 WHY PROTOCOLS MATTER?
 Just like humans, computers use rules, or protocols, in order to
communicate.
 Protocols are required for computers to properly communicate across the
network. In both a wired and wireless environment, a local network is
defined as an area where all hosts speak the same language, which, in
computer terms means they must share a common protocol.
 If everyone in the same room spoke a different language, they would not
be able to communicate. Likewise, if devices in a local network did not use
the same protocols, they would not be able to communicate.
 Networking protocols define many aspects of communciation over the 9

local network.
 ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION OVER THE LOCAL NETWORK

Protocol characteristic Description

Message format When a message is sent, it must use a specific format or structure.
Message formats depend on the type of message and the channel that
is used to deliver the message.
Message size The rules that govern the size of the pieces communicated across the
network are very strict. They can also be different, depending on the
channel used. When a long message is sent from one host to another
over a network, it may be necessary to break the message into smaller
pieces in order to ensure that the message can be delivered reliably.
Timing Many network communication functions are dependent on timing.
Timing determines the speed at which the bits are transmitted across
the network. It also affects when an individual host can send data10 and
the total amount of data that can be sent in any one transmission.
 ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION OVER THE LOCAL NETWORK
Protocol characteristic Description
Encoding Messages sent across the network are first converted into bits by the sending
host. Each bit is encoded into a pattern of sounds, light waves, or electrical
impulses depending on the network media over which the bits are transmitted.
The destination host receives and decodes the signals in order to interpret the
message.
Encapsulation Each message transmitted on a network must include a header that contains
addressing information that identifies the source and destination hosts, otherwise
it can not be delivered. Encapsulation is the process of adding this information to
the pieces of data that make up the message. In addition to addressing, there may
be other information in the header that ensures that the message is delivered to
the correct application on the destination host.
Message pattern Some messages require an acknowledgment before the next message can be
sent. This type of request/response pattern is a common aspect of many
networking protocols. However, there are other types of messages that may
11 be
simply streamed across the network, without concern as to whether they reach
their destination.
What are the protocols devices use to see their place in the network and communicate
with other devices?

Ethernet MAC: b2:00:91:28:a1:05

WLAN MAC: 70:2a:d5:bf:9b:c8
IP Adresses:
- IPv4: [Link]/24
- IPv6: 2001:db8:acad:1::100/64
Default Gateways:
- [Link]
- Fe80::1
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DNS servers:
- [Link]
- 2001:4860:4860::8888
What are the protocols devices use to see their place in the network and communicate
with other devices?

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What are the protocols devices use to see their place in the network and communicate
with other devices?

I am in a bubble…
I only see myself- my own
addressing information 14
What are the protocols devices use to see their place in the network and communicate
with other devices?

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 What are the protocols devices use to see their place in the network and communicate
with other devices?

- What is my addressing information? What network am I on?

- Is the destination device on my network or is it on another network?
- Where do I send information when the destination device is on a different network?
- Did the destination device receive the information I sent?
- Do I need to resend information? 16
 WHAT ARE THE PROTOCOLS DEVICES USE TO SEE THEIR PLACE IN THE NETWORK AND
COMMUNICATE WITH OTHER DEVICES?

Most network communications are broken up into smaller data units which we can
refer to as packets.
When packets are sent in a network, many protocols are involved to help them reach
their final destination each accomplishing a different task.

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 [Link] DHCP/ ICMPv6
Protocols
WHAT ARE THE PROTOCOLS DEVICES USE TO SEE THEIR PLACE IN THE NETWORK AND
COMMUNICATE WITH OTHER DEVICES?

Ethernet/WLAN

DNS

Web Page
Text IP and TCP
Image • IP- delivery of the packet
Video • TCP- reliability 18

Music
 WHAT ARE THE PROTOCOLS DEVICES USE TO SEE THEIR PLACE IN THE NETWORK AND
COMMUNICATE WITH OTHER DEVICES?

• There are protocols such as Ethernet and Wireless protocols, that physically
connect the device to the network.
• The protocols DHCP and ICMPv6 provide IP addressing information including IP
addressing that tells the device what network they belong to.
• The address of the default gateway that tells the device where to send packets that
are destined for another network.
• The address of the DNS server for when I know a domain name but not the IP
address. For instance, when you use a request to a page from a web server such as
[Link] , the device asks the DNS server for the IP addres for the
domain name [Link].
• IP is used to deliver the packet from the source of information to its final
destination in this case the web server, similar to sending a letter. The web server
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will then respond back with the requested page.

 WHAT ARE THE PROTOCOLS DEVICES USE TO SEE THEIR PLACE IN THE NETWORK AND
COMMUNICATE WITH OTHER DEVICES?

• TCP is a protocol used to guarantee reliability. In other words, to make sure all the
information that was sent was received, such as the information that make the
request to web page. If any of the packet don’t make it to the destination, TCP
resends them.

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 COMMUNICATION STANDARDS

The Internet and Standards:

• With the increasing number of new devices and technologies coming online, how is
it possible to manage all the changes and still reliably deliver services such as email?
The answer is internet standards.
• A standard is a set of rules that determines how something must be done.
Networking and internet standards ensure that all devices connecting to the
network implement the same set of rules or protocols in the same manner. Using
standards, it is possible for different types of devices to send information to each
other over the internet. For example, the way in which an email is formatted,
forwarded, and received by all devices is done according to a standard. If one
person sends an email via a personal computer, another person can use a mobile
phone to receive and read the email as long as the mobile phone uses the same 21

standards as the personal computer.

 COMMUNICATION STANDARDS

Network Standards Organizations:

• An internet standard is the end result of a
comprehensive cycle of discussion, problem
solving, and testing. These different standards
are developed, published, and maintained by a
variety of organizations. When a new standard
is proposed, each stage of the development
and approval process is recorded in a
numbered Request for Comments (RFC)
document so that the evolution of the
standard is tracked. RFCs for internet
standards are published and managed by the
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Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
Q1: THE RULES THAT GOVERN NETWORK COMMUNICATIONS INCLUDING THE
MESSAGE FORMAT, MESSAGE SIZE, TIMING, AND ENCAPSULATION, ARE
KNOWN AS NETWORK:

A- protocols
B- signaling
C- encoding
D- messaging

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Q2: THE IETF (INTERNET ENGINEERING TASK FORCE) RECORDS AND
PUBLISHES INTERNET STANDARDS IN DOCUMENTS KNOWN AS:

A- Internet Specification Standards (ISS)

B- IETF Standards Documents (ISD)
C- Internet Protocol Standards (IPS)
D- Request for Comments (RFC)

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 NETWORK PROTOCOLS

ETHERNET IP TCP HTTP

When we are requesting a webpage, or downloading a webpage, the message contains all of
these protocols.
• Ethernet: the Ethernet protocol governs network interface card to network interface card
in the same network.
• IP: Internet Protocol governs communication from the original source all the way to the
final destination. Make sure the message gets there, and gets there all along the way,
these devices called routers know where the packet is going. IP is for that.
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): this protocol makes sure that the information gets
there reliably. And if it arrives out of order, if there’s a sequence of packets all associated
with the same message, it makes sure that they get re-ordered properly.
•
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HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): this protocol governs the exchange or transfer of
HTML, Hypertext Markup Language.
NETWORK COMMUNICATION MODELS

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 THE PROTOCOL STACK

Protocol Stack
TCP/IP MODEL
APPLICATION

TRANSPORT

INTERNET
ETHERNET IP TCP HTTP
NETWORK
ACCESS

When a device creates a

message, it is actually using 27

protocols from these

different layers.
 THE TCP/IP MODEL

Layered models help us visualize how the various protocols work together to enable
network communications. A layered model depicts the operation of the protocols
occurring within each layer, as well as the interaction with the layers above and below
it. The layered model has many benefits:
• Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate at a specific layer have
defined information that they act upon and a defined interface to the layers above
and below;
• Fosters competition because products from different vendors can work together;
• Enables technology changes to occur at one level without affecting the other
levels;
• Provides a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities
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 THE TCP/IP MODEL

• The first layered model for internetwork communications was created

in the early 1970s and is referred to as the internet model. It defines
four categories of functions that must occur in order for
communications to be successful.
• The suite TCP/IP protocols that are used for internet communications
follows the structure of this model.
• Because of this, the internet model is commonly referred to as the
TCP/IP model.

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 THE TCP/IP MODEL

TCP/IP Model Layer Description

Application Represents data to the user, plus encoding
and dialog control.
Transport Supports communication between various
devices across diverse networks
Internet Determines the best path through the
network
Network Access Controls the hardware devices and media
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that make up the network
 THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL

There are two basic types of models that we use to describe the functions
that must occur in order for network communications to be successful:
protocol models and reference models.

• Protocol mode: this model closely matches the structure of a particular

protocol suite. A protocol suite includes the set of related protocols
that typically provide all the functionality required for people to
communicate with the data network. The TCP/IP model is a protocol
model because it describes the functions that occur at each layer of
protocols within the TCP/IP suite. 31
 THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL

• Reference mode: this type of model describes the functions that must
be completed at a particular layer, but does not specify exactly how a
function should be accomplished. A reference model is not intended to
provide a sufficient level of detail to define precisely how each protocol
should work at each layer. The primary purpose of a reference model is
to aid in clearer understanding of the functions and processes
necessary for network communications.

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 THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL

The most widely known internetwork reference model was created by

the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) project at the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO). It is used for data network design,
operation specifications, and troubleshooting. This model is commonly
referred to as the OSI model.

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 THE OSI MODEL

OSI Model Layer Description

7- Application The application layer contains protocols used for process-to-process communications
6- Presentation The presentation layer provides for common representatin of the data transferred between
application layer services
5- Session The session layer provides services to the presentation layer to organize its dialogue and to
manage data exchange
4- Transport The transport layer defines services to segment, transfer, and reassemble the data for
individual communications between the end devices
3- Network The network layer provides services to exchange the individual pieces of data over the
network between identified end devices
2- Data Link The data link layer protocols describe methods for exchanging data frames between
devices over a common media
1- Physical The physical layer protocols describe the mechanical, electrical, functional, and procedural34
means to activate, maintain, and de-activate physical connections for a bit transmission to
and from a network device
 OSI MODEL AND TCP/IP MODEL COMPARISON

• The TCP/IP model is a method of visualizing the interactions of the various

protocols that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite. It does not describe general
functions that are necessary for all networking communications. It describes the
networking functions specific to those protocols in use in the TCP/IP protocol suite.
For example, at the network access layer, the TCP/IP protocol suite does not
specify which protocols to use when transmitting over a physical medium, nor the
method of encoding the signals for transmission. OSI Layers 1 and 2 discuss the
necessary procedures to access the media and the physical means to send data
over a network.

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 OSI MODEL AND TCP/IP MODEL COMPARISON

• The protocols that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite can be described in terms of
the OSI reference model. The functions that occur at the internet layer in the TCP/IP
model are contained in the network layer of the OSI Model, as shown in the figure.
The transport layer functionality is the same between both models. However, the
network access layer and the application layer of the TCP/IP model are further
divided in the OSI model to describe discrete functions that must occur at these
layers.

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OSI MODEL AND TCP/IP MODEL COMPARISON

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 OSI MODEL AND TCP/IP MODEL COMPARISON
 The key similarities are in the transport and network layers; however, the two models differ in
how they relate to the layers above and below each layer:
 OSI Layer 3, the network layer, maps directly to the TCP/IP internet layer. This layer is used to
describe protocols that address and route messages through an internetwork.
 OSI Layer 4, the transport layer, maps directly to the TCP/IP transport layer. This layer describes
general services and functions that provide ordered and reliable delivery of data between source
and destination hosts.
 The TCP/IP application layer includes several protocols that provide specific functionality to a
variety of end user applications. The OSI model Layers 5, 6, and 7 are used as references for
application software developers and vendors to produce applications that operate on networks.
 Both the TCP/IP and OSI models are commonly used when referring to protocols at various layers.
Because the OSI model separates the data link layer from the physical layer, it is commonly used
when referring to these lower layers. 38
Q1: WHICH PROTOCOL IS RESPONSIBLE FOR
GUARANTEEING RELIABLE DELIVERY?
A- IP
B- Ethernet
C- HTTP
D- TCP

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Q2: WHICH PROTOCOL IS USED BY ROUTERS TO
FORWARD MESSAGES?
A- HTTP
B- TCP
C- Ethernet
D- IP

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Q2: WHICH PROTOCOL IS USED BY ROUTERS TO
FORWARD MESSAGES?
A- HTTP
B- TCP
C- Ethernet
D- IP

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Q3: WHICH TWO LAYERS OF THE OSI MODEL MAPS DIRECTLY AS THE
SINGLE NETWORK ACCESS LAYER IN THE TCP/IP MODEL (CHOOSE
TWO)
A- presentation
B- application
C- session
D- transport
E- physical
F- network
G- data link
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Q4: IP ADDRESSING OCCURS AT WHAT LAYER OF THE OSI MODEL?

A- network
B- presentation
C- session
D- data link
E- transport
F- physical
G- application
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 COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES SUMMARY

Communication protocol:
 Protocols are required for computers to properly communicate across the network. These include message format,
message size, timing, encoding, encapsulation, and message patterns.
 Message format - When a message is sent, it must use a specific format or structure.
 Message size - The rules that govern the size of the pieces communicated across the network are very strict. They
can also be different, depending on the channel used.
 Timing - Timing determines the speed at which the bits are transmitted across the network. It also affects when an
individual host can send data and the total amount of data that can be sent in any one transmission.
 Encoding - Messages sent across the network are first converted into bits by the sending host. Each bit is encoded
into a pattern of sounds, light waves, or electrical impulses depending on the network media over which the bits
are transmitted.
 Encapsulation - Each message transmitted on a network must include a header that contains addressing
information that identifies the source and destination hosts. Encapsulation is the process of adding this information
to the pieces of data that make up the message.
 Message pattern - Some messages require an acknowledgment before the next message can be sent. This type of
request/response pattern is a common aspect of many networking protocols. However, there are other types of
44

messages that may be simply streamed across the network, without concern as to whether they reach their
destination.
 COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES SUMMARY

Communication Standards:
 Topologies allow us to see the networking using representation of end devices and intermediary
devices. How does a device see a network? Think of a device in a bubble. The only thing a device
sees is its own addressing information. How does the device know it is on the same network as
another device? The answer is network protocols. Most network communications are broken up
into smaller data units, or packets.
 A standard is a set of rules that determines how something must be done. Networking and
internet standards ensure that all devices connecting to the network implement the same set of
rules or protocols in the same manner. Using standards, it is possible for different types of devices
to send information to each other over the internet.
 An internet standard is the end result of a comprehensive cycle of discussion, problem solving,
and testing. These different standards are developed, published, and maintained by a variety of
organizations. When a new standard is proposed, each stage of the development and approval
process is recorded in a numbered RFC document so that the evolution of the standard is tracked.
RFCs for internet standards are published and managed by the IETF. 45
 COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES SUMMARY

Network Communication Models

 Protocols are the rules that govern communications. Successful communication between hosts requires interaction between a
number of protocols. Protocols include HTTP, TCP, IP, and Ethernet. These protocols are implemented in software and hardware
that are installed on each host and networking device.
 The interaction between the different protocols on a device can be illustrated as a protocol stack. A stack illustrates the protocols
as a layered hierarchy, with each higher-level protocol depending on the services of the protocols shown in the lower levels. The
separation of functions enables each layer in the stack to operate independently of others.
 The suite of TCP/IP protocols that are used for internet communications follows the structure of this model:
 Application - Represents data to the user, plus encoding and dialog control
 Transport -Supports communication between various devices across diverse networks
 Internet - Determines the best path through the network
 Network Access - The hardware devices and media that make up the network.
 A reference model describes the functions that must be completed at a particular layer but does not specify exactly how a function
should be accomplished. The primary purpose of a reference model is to aid in clearer understanding of the functions and
processes necessary for network communications.
 The most widely known internetwork reference model was created by the OSI project at the International ISO. It is used for data
46
network design, operation specifications, and troubleshooting. This model is commonly referred to as the OSI model.
 COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES SUMMARY

OSI Model Layer Description

 7 – Application - The application layer contains protocols used for process-to-process communications.
 6 – Presentation - The presentation layer provides for common representation of the data transferred
between application layer services.
 5 – Session - The session layer provides services to the presentation layer to organize its dialogue and to
manage data exchange.
 4 – Transport - The transport layer defines services to segment, transfer, and reassemble the data for
individual communications between the end devices.
 3 – Network - The network layer provides services to exchange the individual pieces of data over the network
between identified end devices.
 2 - Data Link - The data link layer protocols describe methods for exchanging data frames between devices
over a common media
 1 – Physical - The physical layer protocols describe the mechanical, electrical, functional, and procedural
means to activate, maintain, and de-activate physical connections for a bit transmission to and from 47
a
network device.
Q1: WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF OSI PHYSICAL LAYER?

A- controlling access to media

B- transmititng bits across the local media
C- performing error detection on received frames
D- exchanging frames between node over physical network media

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Q2: WHICH STATEMENT IS CORRECT ABOUT NETWORK PROTOCOLS?

A- network protocols define the type of hardware that is used and how
it is mounted in racks
B- they define how messages are exchanged between the source and
the destination
C- they all function in the network access layer of TCP/IP
D- they are only required for exchange of messages between devices on
remote networks.

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Q3: WHICH THREE ACRONYMS REPRESENT STANDARDS
ORGANIZATIONS?

A- IANA
B- TCP/IP
C- IEEE
D-IETF
E- OSI
F- MAC

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Q4: WHAT NETWORKING TERM DESCRIBES A PARTICULAR SET OF
RULES AT ONE LAYER THAT GOVERN COMMUNICATION AT THAT
LAYER?
A- encapsulation
B- error checking
C- protocol

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Q5: WHICH LAYER OF THE OSI MODEL DEFINES SERVICES TO SEGMENT
AND REASSEMEBLE DATA FOR INDIVIDUAL COMMUNICATIONS
BETWEEN END DEVICES?
A- application
B- presentation
C- session
D- transport
E- network

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Q6: WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF PROTOCOLS IN DATA
COMMUNICATIONS?

A- specifying the bandwidth of the channel or medium for each type of

communication
B- specifying the device operating systems that will support the
communication
C- providing the rules required for a specific type of communication to
occur
D- dictating the content of the message sent during communication

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Q7: WHICH TERM REFERS TO THE SET OF RULES THAT DEFINE HOW A
NETWORK OPERATES?

A- standard
B- protocol
C- model
D- domain

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Q8: WHICH THREE LAYERS OF OSI MODEL MAKE UP THE APPLICATION
LAYER OF THE TCP/IP MODEL?

A- data link
B- network
C- transport
D- session
E- presentation
F- application

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Q9: WHICH ORGANIZATION PUBLISHES AND MANAGES THE REQUEST
FOR COMMENTS (RFC) DOCUMENTS?

A- IEEE
B- ISO
C- IETF
D- TIA/EIA

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Q10: WHICH TWO OSI LAYERS HAVE THE SAME FUNCTIONALITY AS A
SINGLE LAYER OF THE TCP/IP MODEL?

A- data link
B- network
C- physical
D- session
E- transport

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