2-3

Case Study: Climatic Variation and Salmon

Salmon are
anadromous: They
return to streams
Organisms and their from the ocean to
environment spawn.

Chapters 2-5
Figure 2.1 A Seasonal Opportunity

Figure 2.2 Changes in Salmon Harvests over Time

Case Study: Climatic Variation and Salmon

Hare and Francis (1994) showed that

climatic variation in the Pacific Ocean
also influenced the abundance of
salmon.
Mantua et al. (1997) found a relationship
between salmon production and sea
surface temperatures.

1
Introduction Climate

The physical environment ultimately Concept 2.1: Climate is the most fundamental
determines where organisms can live, characteristic of the physical environment.
and the resources that are available to
them. Weather: Current
conditions—temperature, precipitation,
Thus, understanding the physical
humidity, cloud cover.
environment is key to understanding all
ecological phenomena. Climate: Long-term description of weather,
based on averages and variation
measured over decades.

Figure 2.3 Widespread Mortality in Piñon Pines

Climate

Climate determines the geographic

distribution of organisms.
Climate is characterized by average
conditions, but extreme conditions are
also important to organisms as they
contribute to mortality.

2
 Figure 2.5 Latitudinal Differences in Solar Radiation at Earth’s Surface
Climate

The sun is the ultimate source of energy

that drives the global climate.
Energy gains from solar radiation must be
offset by energy losses if Earth’s
temperature is to remain the same.

Figure 2.7 Equatorial Heating and Atmospheric Circulation Cells Figure 2.8 Global Atmospheric Circulation Cells and Climatic Zones

3
 Figure 2.14 Global Average Annual Temperatures (Part 1)
Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulation

The three cells result in the three major

climatic zones in each hemisphere:
Tropical, temperate, and polar zones.

Figure 2.14 Global Average Annual Temperatures (Part 2)

Global Climatic Patterns

Air temperatures on land show greater

seasonal variation than those over the
oceans.
Elevation also influences temperature.
Colder climates at higher elevations
result from lower air pressure and
density with increasing elevation. As a
result, the heat capacity of the air also
decreases.

4
Figure 2.15 Annual Seasonal Temperature Variation Figure 2.16 Average Annual Terrestrial Precipitation

Figure 2.18 The Rain-Shadow Effect (Part 1)

Regional Climatic Influences

Slope aspect (direction the slope faces)

can influence regional climate.
North-south trending mountain ranges
create a rain shadow: The slope facing
the prevailing winds (windward) receives
high precipitation, while the leeward
slope gets little precipitation.
The rain shadow effect influences
vegetation.

5
Figure 2.18 The Rain-Shadow Effect (Part 2)
Regional Climatic Influences

Evapotranspiration is the sum of water

loss through transpiration by plants and
evaporation from the soil.
Evapotranspiration transfers energy (as
latent heat) and water into the
atmosphere, thereby affecting air
temperature and moisture.

Regional Climatic Influences Regional Climatic Influences

Loss or alteration of vegetation can affect Decreased evapotranspiration results in

climate. less moisture in the atmosphere and less
precipitation.
Deforestation increases the albedo of the
land surface, lowering the absorption of Deforestation in the tropics can lead to
solar radiation and resulting in less warmer, dryer regional climate.
heating.
The lower heat gain is offset by less
cooling by evapotranspiration, due to
loss of leaf area.

6
Figure 2.19 The Effects of Deforestation Illustrate the Influence of Vegetation on Climate
From environment to biology

Next:
What do these large-scale environmental
changes have to do biology differences?

Recall:
The physical environment ultimately determines
where organisms can live, and the resources
that are available to them.

Introduction Introduction

Living things are found on every part of the The biosphere is the zone of life on
Earth, from the highest mountains to the Earth.
deepest oceans.
It lies between the lithosphere—Earth’s
Bacteria and archaea are found everywhere, surface crust and upper mantle, and the
even on dust high in the atmosphere. troposphere—the lowest layer of the
atmosphere.
But most organisms occur within a thin
veneer of Earth’s surface, from the tops of Biological communities can be
trees to the surface soil layers, and within categorized at multiple scales of
200 meters of the surface of the oceans. varying complexity.

7
Terrestrial Biomes Terrestrial Biomes

Terrestrial biomes are characterized by the

dominant growth forms of vegetation. Biomes are based on similarities in the
morphological responses of organisms
to the physical environment.
Biomes are large biological Terrestrial biomes are classified by the
communities shaped by the physical growth form of the most abundant
environment, particularly climatic plants.
variation.

Figure 3.3 Plant Growth Forms (Part 1)

Terrestrial Biomes

Characteristics of the leaves may be used:

• Deciduousness—seasonal shedding of
leaves.
• Thickness.
• Succulence—development of fleshy water
storage tissues.

8
Figure 3.3 Plant Growth Forms (Part 2) Figure 3.4 Biomes Vary with Mean Annual Temperature and Precipitation

Figure 3.5 A Global Biome Distributions Are Affected by Human Activities

Terrestrial Biomes

Human activities influence the

distribution of biomes.
Land use change: Conversion of land
to agriculture, logging, resource
extraction, urban development.
The potential and actual distributions of
biomes are markedly different.

9
Figure 3.5 B Global Biome Distributions Are Affected by Human Activities Figure 3.5 C Global Biome Distributions Are Affected by Human Activities

10
Terrestrial Biomes Terrestrial Biomes

Tropical Rainforests: Tropical rainforests are disappearing

rapidly due to logging and conversion
• Between 10° N and S. to pasture and croplands.
• Annual precipitation > 200 cm. About half of the tropical rainforest
• No seasonal changes. biome has been altered.
• High biomass, high diversity—about Recovery of rainforests is uncertain;
50% of Earth’s species. soils are often nutrient-poor, and
• Broadleaved evergreen and recovery of nutrient supplies may take
a very long time.
deciduous trees.

Figure 3.6 Tropical Deforestation

11
 Terrestrial Biomes

Tropical Seasonal Forests and

Savannas:
• From 10° to the Tropics of Capricorn
(23.5°S) and Cancer (23.5°N).
• Wet and dry seasons.
• Shorter trees, deciduous in dry seasons,
more grasses and shrubs.

Terrestrial Biomes Terrestrial Biomes

This biome includes a complex of tree- Fires promote establishment of savannas;

dominated systems: some are set by humans.

• Tropical dry forests. In Africa, large herds of

herbivores—wildebeests, zebras,
• Thorn woodlands—trees have heavy elephants, and antelopes—also
thorns to protect from herbivores. influence the balance of grass and
trees.
• Tropical savannas—grasses with
intermixed trees and shrubs. On the Orinoco River floodplain,
seasonal flooding promotes savannas.

12
Terrestrial Biomes Terrestrial Biomes

Hot Subtropical Deserts: Plants with succulent stems can store

water in their tissues.
• Associated with high pressure zones
around 30° N and S. Desert plants also include drought-
• High temperatures, low water availability. deciduous shrubs, grasses, and short-
• Sparse vegetation and animal populations lived annual plants that are active only
-but may have high diversity. after a rain.
• Many plants exhibit stem
succulence—cacti in the Western
Hemisphere, euphorbs in the Eastern
Hemisphere.

13
Figure 3.7 Convergence in the Forms of Desert Plants
Terrestrial Biomes

North America Asia

Humans have used deserts for
agriculture and livestock grazing.
Agriculture depends on irrigation, and
results in soil salinization.
Long-term droughts in association with
unsustainable grazing can result in
desertification—loss of plant cover
and soil erosion.

14
Terrestrial Biomes Terrestrial Biomes

Temperate Grasslands: Grasses grow more roots than stems and

leaves, to cope with dry conditions.
• Between 30° and 50° latitude.
This results in accumulation of organic
• Seasonal temperature variation—warm, matter and high soil fertility.
moist summers and cold, dry winters.
Most of the fertile grasslands of central
• Grasses dominate; maintained by North America and Eurasia have been
frequent fires and large herbivores such converted to agriculture.
as bison.

15
Terrestrial Biomes Terrestrial Biomes

Temperate Shrublands and Woodlands: Evergreen leaves allow plants to be

• Wet season in winter; hot, dry summers. active during cooler, wetter periods.
• Mediterranean-type climates—west coasts of the
Americas, Africa, Australia, and Europe, between Also lowers nutrient requirements—they
30°–40° N and S. do not have to develop new leaves
• Vegetation is evergreen shrubs and trees. every year.
• Fire is a common feature.
Sclerophyllous leaves—tough and
leathery—deter herbivores and prevent
wilting.

Terrestrial Biomes

Fires important.
After fires, some shrubs sprout from
underground storage organs, others
produce seeds that sprout and grow
quickly after fire.
Without regular fires at 30–40-year
intervals, some shrublands may be
replaced by forests.

16
Terrestrial Biomes

Temperate Deciduous Forests:

• Occur at 30° to 50° N, on continental
edges, in areas with rainfall to support
tree growth.
• Leaves are dropped during winter.
• Oaks, maples, and beeches occur
everywhere in this biome.
• Species diversity lower than tropical
rainforests.

17
 Figure 3.8 Temperate Rainforest in Tasmania
Terrestrial Biomes

Temperate Evergreen Forests:

• At 30° to 50° N and S, in coastal and
maritime zones.
• Lower diversity than tropical and
deciduous forests.
• Leaves tend to be acidic, and soils
nutrient-poor.
• Temperate rainforests receive 50–400
cm rain per year.

Terrestrial Biomes

Evergreen trees are used for wood and

paper pulp, thus this biome has been
logged extensively.
Very little old-growth temperate
evergreen forest remains.
In some areas, planting of non-native
species and uniformly aged stands has
resulted in very different ecological
conditions.

18
 Terrestrial Biomes

Boreal Forests (Taiga):

• Between 50° and 65° N.
• Long, severe winters.
• Permafrost (subsurface soil that
remains frozen year-round) impedes
drainage and causes soils to be
saturated.
• Trees are conifers—pines, spruces,
larches.

Figure 3.9 Fire in the Boreal Forest

Terrestrial Biomes

Cold, wet conditions in boreal soils limits

decomposition, so soils have high
organic matter.
In summer droughts, forest fires can be
set by lightning, and burn both trees
and soil.
In low-lying areas, extensive peat bogs
form.

19
 Figure 3.10 Soil Polygons and Pingo
Terrestrial Biomes

Tundra:
• Above 65° latitude, mostly in the Arctic.
• Cold temperatures, low precipitation.
• Short summer with long days.
• Vegetation is sedges, forbs, grasses,
low-growing shrubs, lichens, and
mosses.
• Permafrost is widespread.

20
Terrestrial Biomes Terrestrial Biomes

The Arctic has experienced significant On mountains, temperature and

climate change during the late 20th and precipitation change with elevation,
early 21st centuries, with warming resulting in bands of biotic assemblages
almost double the global average. similar to biomes.
There are also smaller scale variations
associated with slope aspect, proximity
to streams, and prevailing winds.

Figure 3.11 Mountain Biological Zones

Freshwater Biological Zones

Biological zones in freshwater systems are

associated with the velocity, depth,
temperature, clarity, and chemistry of the
water.

Freshwater streams and lakes are a key

connection between terrestrial and
marine ecosystems.
They process inputs of chemical elements
and energy from terrestrial systems and
transport them to the oceans.

21
 Figure 3.13 Stream Orders
Freshwater Biological Zones

Land surfaces are partly shaped by the

erosional power of water flowing
downhill.
Streams and rivers are lotic (flowing
water) systems.
The smallest streams at high elevation are
first-order streams. These converge to
form second-order streams. The large
rivers are sixth-order streams or greater.

Figure 3.14 Spatial Zonation of a Stream

Freshwater Biological Zones

Benthic organisms are bottom

dwellers, and include many kinds
of invertebrates.
Some feed on detritus (dead
organic matter), others are
predators.
Some live in the hyporheic
zone—the substratum below and
adjacent to the stream, where there
is water movement from the stream
or from groundwater.

22
Freshwater Biological Zones Freshwater Biological Zones

Human effects on streams include Non-native species, including sport

pollution, sediment inputs, and fishes, have lowered biodiversity in
introduced species. streams and lakes.
Streams have always been used for Construction of dams tremendously
disposal of sewage and industrial alters the physical and biological
wastes. These can often reach levels properties of streams, converting them
toxic to organisms. to “stillwater” systems.

Freshwater Biological Zones Freshwater Biological Zones

Biological assemblages are determined by

depth and degree of light penetration.
Lakes and still waters (lentic) occur where
depressions in the landscape fill with water. Pelagic zone: Open water; dominated by
plankton (small and microscopic
Lakes can be formed by glacial processes, organisms suspended in the water).
from river oxbows, in volcanic craters, in
tectonic basins, or by animal activities, Photosynthetic plankton (phytoplankton)
including humans and beavers. are limited to the upper layers through
which light penetrates (photic zone).

23
Figure 3.15 Examples of Lake Plankton
Freshwater Biological Zones

The littoral zone is near shore, where

the photic zone reaches the bottom.
Macrophytes occur in this zone.
In the benthic zone, detritus derived from
the littoral and pelagic zones serves as
an energy source for animals, fungi,
and bacteria. This zone may be cold
and have low oxygen.

Figure 3.16 Marine Biological Zones

Marine Biological Zones

Marine biological zones are determined by

ocean depth, light availability, and the
stability of the bottom substratum.

Oceans cover 71% of Earth’s surface

and contain a rich diversity of unique
biota.
Marine zone are categorized by depth
and relationship to shorelines.

24
Figure 3.17 Estuaries Are Found at the Junction of Rivers and Oceans
Marine Biological Zones

Salinity variation influences organisms

that live in estuaries.
Many fish species spend juvenile stages
there, away from predators that cannot
tolerate salinity change.
Many shellfish and other invertebrates
also live in estuaries.
Estuary

Figure 3.18 Salt Marshes are Characterized by Salt-Tolerant Vascular Plants

Marine Biological Zones

Estuaries are increasingly threatened by

pollution carried in rivers.
Nutrients from agriculture can create
local dead zones (anoxia), and loss of
biodiversity.

Salt marsh

25
Figure 3.19 Salt-Tolerant Evergreen Trees and Shrubs Form Mangrove Forests Figure 3.20 The Rocky Intertidal Zone: Stable Substratum, Changing Conditions

Mangrove
Intertidal

Marine Biological Zones Marine Biological Zones

Sessile organisms are fixed in place, and Coral reefs are restricted to warm,
must have mechanisms to tolerate the shallow water.
daily changes—barnacles, mussels, Corals are related to jellyfish, form large
seaweeds. colonies, and have associated algal
partners.
Mobile animals such as starfish and sea
urchins can move to pools to avoid Many corals extract calcium carbonate
desiccation. from seawater to build a skeleton-like
structure that over time, forms large
reefs.

26
Figure 3.22 A Coral Reef
Marine Biological Zones

Coral reefs develop a complex habitat

that supports a huge diversity of marine
life.
Although coral reefs grow slowly, over
millions of years, corals have
constructed thousands of kilometers of
coastline and many islands.
Rates of production of biomass are some
of the highest in the world.

Figure 3.23 Coral Reefs Can Be Seen from Outer Space

Marine Biological Zones

Warming ocean temperatures can result

in the loss of the algal partners from the
corals, resulting in coral bleaching.
Sediments carried by rivers can cover
and kill the corals.
Future changes in ocean chemistry may
inhibit the ability of corals to form
skeletons.

27
 Figure 3.24 A Kelp Bed
Marine Biological Zones

Kelp beds or forests support a diverse

marine community, including sea
urchins, lobsters, mussels, abalones,
many other seaweeds, and sea otters.
Kelp are several genera of large brown
algae, with leaf-like fronds, stems, and
holdfasts which anchor to solid
substrates.

Figure 3.16 Marine Biological Zones

Marine Biological Zones

The open ocean beyond the continental

shelves is called the pelagic zone.
The photic zone, which supports the
highest densities of organisms, extends
to about 200 m depth.
Below the photic zone, energy is
supplied by falling detritus.

28
 Figure 3.25 Plankton of the Pelagic Zone
Marine Biological Zones

Organisms in the pelagic zone include:

Nekton (swimming organisms capable of
overcoming ocean currents)—fish,
mammals, sea turtles, squid, octopus.
Phytoplankton—green algae, diatoms,
dinoflagellates, and cyanobacteria.
Zooplankton—protists (e.g., ciliates),
crustaceans (e.g., copepods and krill),
and jellyfishes.

Figure 3.26 A Denizen of the Deep Pelagic Zone

Marine Biological Zones

Ocean bottoms (benthic zone) are

sparsely populated, with temperatures
near freezing, and very high pressure.
The sediments are rich in organic matter,
contain bacteria, protists, and sea
worms. Sea stars and sea cucumbers
graze the ocean floor or filter food from
the water.
Bioluminescence is also used by benthic
predators to lure prey.

29
It’s all about energy Introduction

Energy is the most basic requirement for

all organisms.
Without energy inputs, biological
functioning ceases.
Organisms use many mechanisms to
obtain energy.

Sources of Energy Sources of Energy

Organisms obtain energy from sunlight, from

inorganic chemical compounds, or through Autotrophs are organisms that
the consumption of organic compounds. assimilate energy from sunlight
(photosynthesis), or from inorganic
compounds (chemosynthesis).
Energy exists in many forms in the
environment. The energy is converted into chemical
energy stored in the carbon–carbon
• Sunlight is radiant energy. bonds of organic molecules.
• Chemical energy is stored in the
bonds of food molecules.

30
Sources of Energy Autotrophy

Radiant and chemical energy captured by

Heterotrophs obtain their energy by autotrophs is converted into stored energy in
consuming energy-rich organic carbon–carbon bonds.
compounds from other organisms.
This energy ultimately originated with Most autotrophs obtain energy through
organic compounds synthesized by photosynthesis. Sunlight provides
autotrophs. the energy to take up CO2 and
synthesize organic compounds.
Some heterotrophs consume non-living
organic matter.

Heterotrophy Heterotrophy

Heterotrophs consume energy-rich The effort invested in finding and

organic compounds (food) from their obtaining the food also influences how
environment and convert them into much benefit the heterotroph gets
usable chemical energy (ATP), by from consuming it.
glycolysis.
Example: Microorganisms that feed on
The energy gain depends on the soil detritus invest little energy to find
chemistry of the food. food, but the detritus has low energy
content.

31
Heterotrophy Heterotrophy

Living food organisms are more rare,

and they may have defense Multicellular organisms have evolved
mechanisms. specialized tissues and organs for
absorption, digestion, transport, and
Example: A cheetah hunting a gazelle excretion.
invests substantial energy in finding,
chasing, capturing, and killing its prey, Animals have tremendous diversity in
but it obtains an energy-rich meal. morphological and physiological
feeding adaptations, which reflect the
diversity of the foods they consume.

Figure 5.16 Variations on a Theme: Insect Mouthparts Figure 5.17 Variations on a Theme: Bird Bills

32
 Figure 5.18 Crossbill Morphology, Food Preference, and Survival (Part 1)
Heterotrophy

In studies of crossbills, Benkman (1993,

2003) tested the hypothesis that bill
morphology was related to the
morphology of the conifer cones they
ate seeds from.
He showed that speed of seed extraction
from a given cone was associated with
bill depth, and speed of seed husking
was associated with width of the groove
where the seed is held.

Figure 5.18 Crossbill Morphology, Food Preference, and Survival (Part 2)

Heterotrophy

Benkman (2003) concluded that red

crossbills are currently undergoing
evolutionary divergence (speciation)
as a result of selection associated with
available food sources.

33
Heterotrophy Heterotrophy

Food availability can vary significantly Optimal foraging theory proposes that
over time and space. animals will maximize the amount of
energy gained per unit time, energy,
If energy is in short supply, animals in a and risk involved in finding food.
heterogeneous landscape should
invest their time obtaining the highest- It assumes that evolution acts on the
quality food possible, which is the behavior of animals to maximize their
shortest distance away. energy gain.

Figure 5.19 Conceptual Model of Optimal Foraging

Heterotrophy

An animal’s success in acquiring food

increases with the effort it invests; but
at some point, more effort results in no
incremental benefit, and the net
energy obtained begins to decrease.

34
Heterotrophy Heterotrophy

Research on the Eurasian Small mussels provide marginal net

oystercatcher, a shorebird energy benefit; large mussels have
that eats clams and thick shells and are difficult to open
mussels. which increases energy expenditure.
The bird selects prey items of
a size that provides the most
energy per unit effort, even
though this prey is relatively
scarce.

Figure 5.20 Food Size Selection in Oystercatchers

Heterotrophy

Small mussels provide marginal net

energy benefit; large mussels have
thick shells and are difficult to open
which increases energy expenditure.

Is there an optimal size?

35
Heterotrophy Heterotrophy

Northwestern crows (Corvus caurinus) The net energy from large prey items is
forage for shellfish and use gravity to greater, but so is the time spent in
open their shells. handling.
Crows pick up shellfish, fly into the air, Richardson and Verbeek (1986)
and drop them on the rocks to crack estimated the size of clam that
them open. provided most energy benefit, based
on energy content of clams,
abundance of size classes, and time
required for handling.

Figure 5.21 Optimal Food Selection by Clam-Dropping Crows

How could a species take advantage

of larger prey?
1. Evolve new structures (larger
beak).
2. Behavioural changes.

36
37