16.

4 Sexual Reproduction in Humans

1. Identify on diagrams and state the functions 1. Describe the roles of testosterone and
of the following parts of the male oestrogen in the development and
reproductive regulation of secondary sexual
system: testes, scrotum, sperm ducts, characteristics during puberty
prostate gland, urethra and penis 2. Describe the menstrual cycle in terms of
2. Identify on diagrams and state the functions changes in the ovaries and in the lining of
of the following parts of the female the uterus
reproductive system: ovaries, oviducts, 3. Describe the sites of production of
uterus, cervix and vagina oestrogen and progesterone in the
3. Describe fertilisation as the fusion of the menstrual cycle and in pregnancy
nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and a 4. Explain the role of hormones in controlling
female gamete (egg cell) the menstrual cycle and pregnancy, limited
4. Explain the adaptive features of sperm, to FSH, LH, progesterone and oestrogen
limited to: flagellum, mitochondria and
enzymes in the acrosome
5. Explain the adaptive features of egg cells,
limited to: energy stores and the jelly coat
that changes at fertilisation 1. Describe a sexually transmitted infection
6. Compare male and female gametes in terms (STI) as an infection that is transmitted
of: size, structure, motility and numbers through sexual contact
7. State that in early development, the zygote 2. State that human immunodeficiency virus
forms an embryo which is a ball of cells that (HIV) is a pathogen that causes an STI
implants into the lining of the uterus 3. State that HIV infection may lead to AIDS
8. Identify on diagrams and state the functions 4. Describe the methods of transmission of
of the following in the development of the HIV
fetus: umbilical cord, placenta, amniotic sac 5. Explain how the spread of STIs is
and amniotic fluid
controlled
9. Describe the function of the placenta and
umbilical cord in relation to the exchange of
dissolved nutrients, gases and excretory
products between the blood of the mother
and the blood of the fetus
10. State that some pathogens and toxins can
pass across the placenta and affect the fetus

Irushadhiyya School / Grade-10 Biology / Notes on reproduc;on 1

 16.4 : Sexual Reproduction in Humans
The Male Reproductive System

Figure 2: The male reproductive organs

Functions of the male reproductive system

part Structure Function(s)
Testes Compact structure, each consists of Produces sperms and also produces male
(sing: hundreds of tiny tubules. sex hormone, testosterones.
testis)
Scrotum Pouch of skin containing the testes Hold the testes and provide the optimum
which are located outside the body temperature for sperm productions.
at a temperature slightly lower than
body temperature.
Epididymis A coiled tube formed by combining Stores sperm temporarily.
seminiferous tubules leading to the
sperm duct.
Sperm They join with one another and with Carries sperm from epididymis to urethra
duct (vas the tube bringing urine at a position during ejaculation.
deferens) just under the bladder.
Each sperm duct bears a seminal
vesicle for sperm storage.
Prostate About the size of a golf ball. Manufactures and adds to the sperms, a
gland Surrounds the junction between the nutrient fluid (seminal fluid) in which the
sperm duct and the tube from the sperms are able to swim.
bladder. Sperm + seminal fluid = semen.
Urethra Tube that carries both urine and Carries both urine and semen along the
semen. penis to be released from the body.
Penis Contains a spongy tissue which fills Penis is the organ for introducing sperms
with blood to make the penis firm. into vagina.

Irushadhiyya School / Grade-10 Biology / Notes on reproduc;on 2

 The Female Reproductive System

Figure 1: The female reproductive organs

Functions of the female reproductive system

Part Structure Function (s)
Ovaries Female gonads. There are two ovaries lying in Make and release the female
the lower abdomen. gametes (ova)
The female release an ovum every 4 weeks from
alternative ovaries.
Oviducts Tubes that are lined with cilia, which together Carries ova away from the
with little muscular contraction helps to move the ovaries
ova. About one-third of the oviduct,
fertilisation takes place.
Uterus Pear-shaped organ lying behind and slightly Receives, accommodates,
above the bladder into which the oviduct open. nourishes and protects the
Consists of a thick muscular wall and a nutritive embryo and foetus during
blood filled inner lining (uterus lining). pregnancy.
Powerful muscular contraction
expels the baby during birth.
Cervix The narrow region where the uterus meet the It supplies mucus to the
vagina. vagina.
Vagina Thin walled passage leading from the cervix to Receives the penis during
the vulva. sexual intercourse.
Consists of a muscular wall and an inner lining of At the end of pregnancy it acts
mucus secreting cells. as the birth canal.

Irushadhiyya School / Grade-10 Biology / Notes on reproduc;on 3

 Gametes and Fertilisation

• Fertilisation is the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm cell) and a female
gamete (egg cell).
• It occurs in the oviducts.
• Gametes have adaptations to increase the chances of fertilisation and successful
development of an embryo.

Fertilisation diagram

Adaptations of Gametes

Human gametes

• The human gametes are the egg and the sperm cells

Egg and sperm cell diagram

Comparing sperm and egg cells

Irushadhiyya School / Grade-10 Biology / Notes on reproduc;on 4

 Adaptive features of the gametes

• The gametes are highly specialised cells with adaptive features designed to maximise the
chances of successful reproduction.
• These adaptive features are compared in the table below

Comparison of Male & Female Gametes

Pregnancy & Birth

Pregnancy: growth & development of the fetus

• After fertilisation in the oviduct, the zygote travels towards the uterus
o This takes about 3 days, during which time the zygote will divide several times to
form a ball of cells known as an embryo
• In the uterus, the embryo embeds itself in the thick lining (implantation) and continues to
grow and develop
• The gestation period for humans is 9 months

Irushadhiyya School / Grade-10 Biology / Notes on reproduc;on 5

 o Major development of organs takes place within the first 12 weeks, during which
time the embryo gets nutrients from the mother by diffusion through the uterus
lining
o After this point the organs are all in place, the placenta has formed and the embryo
is now called a fetus
o The remaining gestation time is used by the fetus to grow bigger in size

• The fetus is surrounded by an amniotic sac which contains amniotic fluid (made from the
mother’s blood plasma)
o This protects the fetus during development by cushioning it from bumps to the
mother’s abdomen
• The umbilical cord joins the fetus’s blood supply to the placenta for exchange of nutrients
and removal of waste products

The fetus in the uterus

The Placenta

• During the gestation period the fetus develops and grows by gaining the glucose, amino
acids, fats, water and oxygen it needs from the mother’s blood.
• The bloods run opposite each other, never mixing, in the placenta.
• The fetus’s blood connects to and from the placenta by the umbilical cord.
• The mother’s blood also absorbs the waste from the fetus’s blood in the placenta;
substances. like carbon dioxide and urea are removed from the fetus’s blood so that they
do not build up to dangerous levels.
• Movement of all molecules across the placenta occurs by diffusion due to difference in
concentration gradients.
• The placenta is adapted for this diffusion by having a large surface area and a thin wall for
efficient diffusion.

Toxins and pathogens

• The placenta acts as a barrier to prevent toxins and pathogens getting into the fetus’s
blood.
• Not all toxin molecules or pathogenic organisms (such as viruses, eg rubella) are
stopped from passing through the placenta (this usually depends on the size of the
molecule).

Irushadhiyya School / Grade-10 Biology / Notes on reproduc;on 6

 • This is why pregnant women are advised not to smoke during pregnancy as molecules
like nicotine can pass across the placenta.
• After the baby has been born, the umbilical cord is cut – this does not hurt as there are no
nerves in it, just two blood vessels.
• It is tied off to prevent bleeding and shrivels up and falls off after a few days leaving the
belly button behind.
• The placenta detaches from the uterus wall shortly after birth and is pushed out due to
contractions in the muscular wall of the uterus – known as the afterbirth.

The placenta

16.5: Sexual Hormones in Humans

Secondary Sexual Characteristics

• Primary sexual characteristics are present during development in the uterus and are the
differences in reproductive organs etc between males and females
• Secondary sexual characteristics are the changes that occur during puberty as children
become adolescents
• They are controlled by the release of hormones – oestrogen in girls and testosterone in
boys

Irushadhiyya School / Grade-10 Biology / Notes on reproduc;on 7

Female secondary sexual characteristics

Female Effects of Oestrogen

Male secondary sexual characteristics

Male Effects of Testosterone

• Some changes occur to both boys and girls, including growth of sexual organs and
growth of body hair.
• Emotional changes also occur due to the increased levels of hormones in the body.
• These include more interest in sex and increased mood swings.

The Menstrual Cycle

• Starts in early adolescence in girls (around age 12) and is controlled by hormones
• The average menstrual cycle is 28 days long.
• Ovulation (the release of an egg) occurs about halfway through the cycle (day 14) and the
egg then travels down the oviduct to the uterus.
• Failure to fertilize the egg causes menstruation ( commonly called a period) to occur – this
is caused by the breakdown of the thickened lining of the uterus.
• Menstruation lasts around 5 – 7 days and signals the beginning of the next cycle.
• After menstruation finishes, the lining of the uterus starts to thicken again in preparation for
possible implantation in the next cycle.

Irushadhiyya School / Grade-10 Biology / Notes on reproduc;on 8

 Changes in the lining of the uterus during the menstrual cycle

Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle

• The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones released from the ovary and the pituitary
gland in the brain

FSH and LH

Irushadhiyya School / Grade-10 Biology / Notes on reproduc;on 9

 • FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) is released by the pituitary gland and causes an egg to
start maturing in the ovary
• It also stimulates the ovaries to start releasing oestrogen
• The pituitary gland is stimulated to release luteinising hormone (LH) when oestrogen
levels have reached their peak
• LH causes ovulation to occur and also stimulates the ovary to produce progesterone

OESTROGEN AND PROGESTERONE

• Oestrogen levels rise from day 1 to peak just before day 14

• This causes the uterine wall to start thickening and the egg to mature
• The peak in oestrogen occurs just before the egg is released
• Progesterone stays low from day 1 – 14 and starts to rise once ovulation has occurred
• The increasing levels cause the uterine lining to thicken further; a fall in progesterone
levels causes the uterine lining to break down (menstruation / ‘period’)

Irushadhiyya School / Grade-10 Biology / Notes on reproduc;on 10

 Interaction between all four of the menstrual cycle hormones

• The pituitary gland produces FSH which stimulates the development of a follicle in the
ovary.
• An egg develops inside the follicle and the follicle produces the hormone oestrogen.
• Oestrogen causes growth and repair of the lining of the uterus wall and inhibits
production of FSH.
• When oestrogen rises to a high enough level it stimulates the release of LH from the
pituitary gland which causes ovulation (usually around day 14 of the cycle).
• The follicle becomes the corpus luteum and starts producing progesterone.
• Progesterone maintains the uterus lining (the thickness of the uterus wall).
• If the ovum is not fertilized, the corpus luteum breaks down and progesterone levels drop.
• This causes menstruation, where the uterus lining breaks down and is removed through
the vagina – commonly known as having a period.
• If pregnancy does occur the corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone,
preventing the uterus lining from breaking down and aborting the pregnancy.
• It does this until the placenta has developed, at which point it starts secreting progesterone
and continues to do so throughout the pregnancy.

Diagram showing where hormones involved in the menstrual cycle are made and act

Irushadhiyya School / Grade-10 Biology / Notes on reproduc;on 11

 Diagram showing all the changes taking place in the menstrual cycle

oestrogen

16.6: Sexually Transmitted Infections

STIs and HIV / AIDS

• Unprotected sexual intercourse can lead to the transfer of pathogens via exchange of body
fluids
• Infections passed on in this way are known as sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
• An example of an STI is HIV, the virus that usually leads to the development of acquired
immunodeficiency disease (AIDS)
• HIV can also be spread via sharing needles with an infected person, blood transfusions with
infected blood and from mother to fetus through the placenta and mother to baby via
breastfeeding

How HIV Affects the Immune System

• Immediately after infection, people often suffer mild flu-like symptoms

• These symptoms pass and for a period of time infected people might not know they are
infected
• The virus infects a certain type of lymphocyte of the body’s immune system
• Normally lymphocytes seek out and destroy pathogens that enter the body, producing
antibodies that attach to pathogens, enhancing phagocytic activity

Irushadhiyya School / Grade-10 Biology / Notes on reproduc;on 12

 • However HIV avoids being recognized and destroyed by lymphocytes by repeatedly
changing its protein coat
• It then infects a certain type of lymphocyte and uses the cells’ machinery to multiply
• This reduces the number of lymphocytes of the immune system, and also the number
of antibodies that can be made
• This decreases the body’s ability to fight off infections, eventually leading to AIDS
(Acquired immunodeficiency)

How HIV affects lymphocytes

Controlling the Spread of STIs

• The spread of STIs such as HIV are best controlled by:

o Limiting the number of sexual partners an individual has

o Not having unprotected sex, but making sure to always use a condom
o Getting tested if unprotected sex or sex with multiple partners has occurred
o Raising awareness by education programmes

Irushadhiyya School / Grade-10 Biology / Notes on reproduc;on 13