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LIFE PROCESSES
Viruses show no molecular mouement in them until
they infect a cell, that is why it is not known if they're
aliue or not.

Diffusion isnt enough to get oxygen in multi cellular

organisms as cells may not be in direct contact with the
enuironment, unlike in unicellular.

Nutrition:

Process of obtaining nutrients and transfering it from

outside to inside the body is called nutrition

Nutrients are substances essential for growth &

deuelopment of body.
Enzymes are bio - catalysts which break down food into
simpler substances so that it can be digested.
Autotrophic nutrition is when organisms manufacture
their own food by photosynthesis. For example plants,
blue-green algae.
Euents in photosynthesis:
• Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll
• Conuersion of light energy to chemical
• Splitting of water molecules Into hydrogen and oxygen.
• Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
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LIFE PROCESSES
Amoeba
• Amoeba engulfs food using pseudopodia
(finger Lille projections)
• Temporary food uacoule is formed.
• Complex substances are broken into simpler
substances.
• Nutrients diffuse to into the cytoplasm.
• The waste is then thrown out.

Humans:
Digestion starts in mouth.
Mouth wets food for smooth passage.
• Saliua contains saliuary amylase which
conuerts starch to sugar.
Alimentary canal has muscles that contract
rhythmically to push the food forward.

Digestiue system includes:

Alimentary canal
Glands
• (saliuary glands, liuer, pancreas)
LIFE PROCESSES
Stomach:
• Muscular walls of stomach heep in mixing of food.
• Gastric glands present in walls of stomach release:
• HCL or Hydrochloric acid
• Kills germs
• Creates acidic medium for pepsin
• Pepsin
• Digests protein (partially)
• Mucus
• Protects inner lining of stomach from acids.
• Helps in better mixing of food

Small Intestine:
Between, small intestine & stomach, there is a sphincter
which releases food in small amounts.
Small intestine is longest part of alimentary canal.
Herbiuores haue longer small intestine as they need to
digest cellulose
Carniuores haue shorter small intestine as meat is easy to
digest.

Bile from Liuer:

• stored in gall bladder

Functions:
• Emulsification of fats
• Makes food alkaline for pancreatic enzymes.
• Glues colour to urine & faeces.
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LIFE PROCESSES
The energy released is used to synthesize ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate)
• ATP fuels all actiuities in cells.
• When ATP in broken with water, 30.5 kJ/mol
energy is released.

Plants breathe by diffusion:

• At night, CO2 is eliminated.
• In day, CO2 is used so 02 is eliminated.

Earthworms, Frogs breathe through skin.

Amount of dissolued oxygen is lower in water than

air, so aquatic animals haue much faster rate of
breathing.
Fishes take in water through their mouths, force it
past the gills, where the dissolued oxygen is taken
by blood.
LIFE PROCESSES
Lungs always contain a residual uolume of air so
there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed
and for the carbon dioxide to be released.
Diffusion cant take air to all parts in large
animals, thus there are respiratory pigments.
• Haemoglobin is a respiratory pigment.
If diffusion was happening, it would take 3 years
for oxygen to moue from toes to lungs.
Toobaco causes oral cancer, heart attacks, strobes
etc.
The upper part of respiratory tract is prouided
with small hair like structures called cilia.
• Cilia filter germs, dust & other particles.
Smoking destroys these hair & we inhale germs &
dust.
• This causes infection, cough & euen lung cancer.
Grasshoppers breathe from trachea.
Spiracles are tiny pores on grasshopper bodies
which open into trachea.
LIFE PROCESSES
Excretion
The elimination of harmful metabolic wastes from our
body is called excretion
Excretory system Kidneys:
• Bean shaped.
• Produce urine
• Nitrogenous wastes such as urea or uric acid is
remoued from blood.
• Nephrons are filtration units of kidneys.
• Nephrons are capillary clusters with a cup shaped
end a coiled tube (called
Bowman's capsule)

• Ultrafiltration occurs in Bowman's capsule.

Ureters:
• Tube
• Connects kidneys to urinary bladder

Urinary Bladder:
• Urine is stored here.
• Bladder is muscular therefore it is under neruous
control.
• So we can usually control the urge to urinate.

Urethra:
• Eliminates urine.
LIFE PROCESSES
An artificial kidney is used to remoue
nitrogenous wastes from body through
dialysis.
• In a healthy adult, initial filtrate is 180L
daily• Volume excreted in 1-2L as it is
reabsorbed.
Plants get rid of excess waste by
• •
transp1rat1on.
Plante store metabolic wastes in leaues
which fall.
Plants also store wastes in resins & gums,
especially in old xylem
Plants also excrete in soil around them.

Transportation
Blood is a fluid connectiue tissue
Plasma transports food, carbon dioxide &
nitrogenous wastes. RBCS (Red Wood
Corpuscle) transport oxygen.
LIFE PROCESSES
Heart

Heart has 4 different chambers to preuent mixing of 01

rich blood with CO2 rich blood.
Double Circulation:
• Oxygen rich blood comes to left atrium.
• Blood goes to left uentricle & blood is pumped to the
body. De-oxygenated blood comes to right atrium.
• Blood is transferred to right uentricle which sends it
to lungs for oxygenation.
• Since uentricles haue to pump blood to all organs it
has thicker walls than atria.

Animals like amphibians & reptiles haue 3 chambered

hearts, they may allow little bit of ruining of
oxygenated & deoxygenated blood. Their body
temperature depends on the atmosphere.
Fish has 2-chambered hearts, as bloods in pumped to the
gills, oxygenated there & passed to the rest of the body.
(One cycle)
Force that blood exerts against the wall of a uessel is
called blood pressure.
LIFE PROCESSES
Blood pressure in artery during contractions is called
Systolic pressure.
Normal 120 mm of Hg
Blood pressure in artery during relaxation is diastolic
pressure.
Normal 80 mm of Hg

Blood pressure is measured with sphygmomanometer.

High blood pressure is called hypertension
• leads to rupture of artery & internal bleeding.

Arteries take blood from heart to different parts, they

haue thick elastic walls as more slood pressure.

Veins haue ualues to ensure blood doesnt flow back.

How is blood distributed

• On reaching a tissue, artery diuides itself into small
uessels, to reach cells.
• Smallest uessels haue walls 1 cell thick and are
called capillaries.
• Exchange of material takes place across this wall.
• Capiillaries join up and emerge as ueins.
Platelet cells help in clotting of blood.
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LIFE PROCESSES
Transportation in Plants
• Soil is the nearest & richest source of row materials.
• Xylem moues water & minerals obtained from sand.
• Phloem transports products of photosynthesis to other
parts of plants.
• Euaporotion of water from the cells of leaf create a
suction which pulls water from the
xylem cells of roots

Transpiration:
• Eliminates excess water.
• Helps in transportation of water.
• Helps in temperature regulation.

Transport of products of photosynthesis in called

translocation. Phloem also transports amino acids.

Transport of food of photosynthesis from one part to

another

How does Phloem moue food

• Translocation takes place in sieue tubes with the help of
adjacent companion cells both in upward & downward
directions.
• Osmotic pressure of phloem is increased causing water to
moue in it.
• This allows phloem to moue food

Potassium Hydroxide absorbs CO2

Glucose, amino acid & salts are reabsorbed in kidney
LIFE PROCESSES
Parameters of re-absorption:
• Amount of urea in nitrogenous waste in the body.
• Amount of water in the body, excess causes harm.
Two water conducting tissues in plants are xylem uessels
& xylem tracheids.
Water enters xylem:-
• At the roots, cells in contact with the soil actiuely take
up •ions.
• This creates difference in concentration of ions, so water
moues up.

Since plants do not moue & haue large proportion of dead

cells in many tissues Thus, plants haue low energy needs.

FORMCQS
Yeast, mushroom & bread mould break food outside the
body and then absorbs
Hippocampus, Exocoetus and Anabas haue single
circulation.
Pisces doesnt pump blood to different parts of body
Oxygen liberated during photosynthesis is from water.
Mouement of molecules in cells takes place as diffusion,
osmosis etc.
Most plants absorb niitrogen as nitrates, nitrites and urea.
Pyruuate is conuerted into lactic and in cytoplasm.
Fishes can only respire with dissolued oxygen, so they die
without water. Putting uasline on leaues of plants will
make it die as stomata can't take CO2.
LIFE PROCESSES
Adaptations of leafs for photosynthesis:
• Surface of leaf should be flat to allow
greater exposur,e of light.
• Presence of chlorophyll to trap sunlight.
• Presence of stomata on the leaues surface for
easy transiparation.
• Numerous stomata for more carbon dioxide.
Aduantages of hauing 4-chambered heart:
• clear diuision of labour among chambers.
• Segregation of oxygenated & deoxygenated.
• Efficiency of heart will increase.
Manuring and rainfall increases
photosynthesis
Cuscuta, ticks and leches are parasites liue on
or inside another body to obtain food. They
will harm host body.

• Inhaling - Ribs come out and diaphragm

moues down.
• Exhaling - Ribs, go inward & diaphragm moues
up.
Control and Co-ordination.

• All information from our environment in detected by the specialised tips of nerve cells.
These receptors are usually located in organs, such as the inner ear, the nose, tongue etc.

Gustatory receptors detect laste.

Olfactory receptors detect smell.
Photoreceptors are in eye.

How does information travel?

● Acquired info sets off a chemical reaction creating an impulse.
● Nerve impulse is an electrical impulse transmitted along a nerve fibre.
● This impulse travels from dendrite to cell body.
● At the end of axon, impulse sets off release of some chemicals.
● These chemicals travel synapse & same thing happens.
● Synapse is where tw o meerve cell meet, one dendrite & nerve ending.

Reflex Arcs
The process of detection of an input in our body by sense organs and responding to it by an
output action is called a reflex arc.
The path through which signals are transmitted from a receptor to a muscle or a gland is
called the reflex arc.

Reflex arc are formed in the spinal cord, but information still goes on to reach the brain.
All nerves meet in spinal cord before reaching brain.

Sequence of reflex arc:

Receptor a sensory neuron a spinal cord Motor neuron → Muscle

Steps of reflex arc:

● Sensory neuron picks signal from stimulus and carries to spinal cord.
● Spinal cord proceeds the signals and sends message through motor neuron.
● Motor neuron transmits signals to effector muscle.

• Brain is the main co-ordinating centre of the body.

CNS (Central Nervous System) is formed by brain & spinal cord.

They receive info from all part of body and integrate it.

PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) faciliates communication between CNS & other parts of
body.
Consists of:
● Cranial nerves from brain.
● Spinal nerves from spine.

Parts of Brain:
Fore brain
● Main thinking part.
● Recieves sensory impulses from various receptors.

Hind brain
● Medulla: Involuntary actions like vomitting
● Cerebellum : Voluntary actions , maintaining posture
● Pons : Respiration

Neuron is structural & functional unit of human nervous system.

Brain is protected by skull or cranium.

Inside skull there are numerous fluids which provide further shock absorption.

Mimosa Pudica is touch me not plant. (chuii mui)

Two types of movements in plants:

Dependent on growth
Independent of growth

How do plants detect touch?

● Movement happens at a different place from point of touch.
● Plants also use electrical chemical means to convey info.
● Plant cells change shape by changing amount of water in them, they swell or shrink.

Tendrils
● Some plants like peas climb other plants or fences by means of tendrils which are
sensitive to touch.
● When tendrils make contact, part of tendril in contact doesnt grow as rapidly as part
away from it
● This causes the tendrils away from contact to circle around and cling

Tropic means directional

● Directional growth movement of a plant due to an external stimulus is called
tropic.
● Shoots are positively phototropic [Bend towards light]
● Roots are negatively phototropic IBend away from light]
● Pollen tubes grow towards ovules (chemotropic]

Electrical Impulse Limitations

● Reach only those cells connected to nervous tissue.
● Cells cant continually create and transmit impulses
● Thus chemical communication is prominent.

Phytohormones
These are chemical substances produced in plants which regulate growth, development, cell
division
example Auxin, cytokinin too.

Auxins
● When growing plants detect light, a hormone called auxin helps the cells grow longer.
● It is synthesized at shoot lip.
● Auxin diffuses towards shady side of shoot.
● Stimulates was to grow longer on shady light.
● Thus plant appears to bend towards light.

Gibberellins
● Help in growth of stem.

Cytokinins
● Promote cell division
● Present mostly in fruits & seeds as rapid cell division is required in these parts

ABA OR Abscisic acid:

● Inhibits growth
● Effect is wilting of leaves

Endocrine system

1. Thyroxin - Thyroid gland

● Regulates metabolism for body growth
● Iodine in essential for synthesis of this
● Incase of iodine deficiency, we suffer from goitre.
● Swollen neck is a symptom.

2. Growth hormone - Pituatary gland

● Stimulates growth in all organs
● Deficiency leads to dwarfism
● Hypothalamus releases growth hormone releasing factor which stimulates pituatary
gland to release growth hormone.

3. Testosterone - Testes
● Development of male sex organs

4. Oestrogen - Ovary
● Development of female sex organs
● Regulates menstrual cycle.

5. Insulin - Pancreas
● Regulates blood sugar level

6. Adrenaline - Adrenal gland.

● Readies organism for situations when it might be in danger.
 ● Adrenaline is suited directly into blood & carried to different parts of body.
● The target organ is heart, it beats faster & supplies more oxygen to muscles.
● Blood to digestive system & skin is reduced.
● Blood in diverted to skeletal muscles.
● Breathing rate increases due to contraction of diaphragms & rib muscles.

Chemotropism
● Directional growth of plant in response to chemical stimulus.

Glucagon
● Released from pancreas which converts glycogen into glucose.

Spinal cord in protected by vertebral column.

Haemoglobin shortage consequences:

● Causes anemia
● Affects O2 supplying capacity of blood.
● less O2 is transported

Spinal cord originates from medulla.

Insufficient insulin causes diabetes.

Nervous & Endocrine systems control & regulate the life processes.

Nerve ending is also called axon terminal.

Cerebrum is responsible for sensory processing.

Hypothalamus controls sleep and wake cycle.

Nervous and hormonal system together perform control & coordination in body.

Blinking of eyes is reflex action.

Pituatary gland is unpaired.

• Reproduction •

DNA - Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid

• Different organisms use different methods of reproduction, depending on their body design.

Asexual reproduction [one parent]

• Fission

- 1) Parent cell splits into two daughter cells in any plane (ameoba) or in specific plame
(Leishmania) This is called binary fission. (one copy of DNA is formed)

- 2) Parent cell divides into multiple daughter cells (plasmodium). This is called
multiple fission. (multiple copy of DNA)

2. Fragmentation: In multicellular organisms with simple body design, body breaks into
pieces or fragments which may grow to form a organism. (happens in Spirogyra)

3. Regeneration: Multicellular organisms with cell differentiation, when cut in small pieces
may regrow into complete organism with the help of special cells. (Planaria & hydra)

4. Budding:
A bud is grown in the body, which can
detach and form a complete organism
(Yeast & hydra)

5. Vegetative Propagation: Many plants give rise to new plants with their vegetative parts
such as roots, stems, leaves.

~ Advantages of Vegetative Propagation:

- Used in layering & grafting of sugarcane, grapes etc
- Bear flowers & fruits earlier than plants grown from seeds.
- All plants have same characteristic to parent plant.
- Buds produced in the notches along the leaf margin of Bryophyllum fall on the soil
and develop into new plants.

6. Spore Formation: Takes place in sporangia (spore sacs). They're thick walled, so they
survive in harsh conditions & grow into complete organisms.
Seen in rhizopus which is the thread like structures on bread moulds.

7. Tissue Culture: Use of small tissues or cells from growing tip of a plant to produce a new
plant in artificial conditions.
↳ Group of cells. called callus is formed.

Sexual Reproduction
During sexual reproduction, two germ cells fuse to form zygote, giving rise to a new
individual. These are produced by a special cell division called meiosis which results in
halfing of chromosomes number. Number is restored after fusion.

• Male gamete is motile germ cell

• Female gamete is germ cell containing food.

Plant Reproduction

• Stamen is male reproductive part.

• Pistil is female reproductive part.

Pistil
● Ovary is Swollen bottom part. Itontains ovules which contain egg cells.
● Style: Middle elongated part
It joins stigma & ovary for fertilisation.
● Stigma: Terminal part
it attracts pollen and it may be sticky

• Pollen is formed in anther.

• Pollination → Fertilisation → Germination.

Self pollination is when transfer of pollen is in same flower or different flower of same plant.
● Advantage : Preserves parental characters
● Disadvantage: leads to expression of genetic defects.

Cross pollination is when pollen is transferred to answer plant (with agents).

● Advantage: more variation
● Disadvantage: Depends on external agents

Cross pollination is better as results in evolution.

After pollen lands, it travels through style to reach ovary (then fertilisation occurs)

After fertilisation:
● Zygote goes under divisions.
● As a result, embryo is formed.
● Ovule develops a thick coat.
● Ovary ripens to form fruits.
● Petals, sepall, stomen, style dry and fall off.

Conversion of embryo into seedling is called germination

Human Reproduction

• Puberty is the time of adolescence when reproductive tissues begin to mature.

Differences in boys & girls at time of adolescence:

Girls:
 ● Breaste enlarge
● Hips become broader
● Menstrual cycle start
● Hair in armpit and genital area

Boys
● Body becomes muscular
● Hair on face, genital, armpit
● Penis can enlarge and erect.

• Sperm formation requires a lower body temperature than normal.

Male Reproductive System

(urinogenetal as both urine and sperm comes out from this same passage)

● Testes: Release testosterone and produces sperms

● Prostate gland / seminal vesicles : Production of fluid to provide fluid medium for
sperms.
● Vas deferens: Delivers sperms from testes to urethra.
● Scrotum : Provides the right temperature for the sperms. Testes is inside scrotum.
● Urethra: Responsible for expulsion of sperms and empties urine from the bladder.

Testes ➩ Vas Deferens ➩ Urethra ➩ Cervix ➩ Uterus ➩Oviduct

Female Reproductive system

● Ovary: Production of eggs (ova). Production of estrogen

● Oviduct/Fallopian Tube: Site of fertilisation and carries eggs to womb from ovaries.
● ↳ Ova are released from ovary in to the fallopian tube which leads it into uterus.
● The ovum gets fertilised in the fallopian tube, where sperms travel to fertilise the egg
from cervix to fallopian tube.

● Uterus: Embryo gets implanted in uterus and its development till child birth takes
place in uterus.
● Vagina: Site of entry of sperm.

• Placenta:
For implantation of foetus, a special tissue called placenta is developed from the maternal
uterine wall. It is disc shaped, in the uterine wall with villi on embryo's side & large blood
spaces on maternal side.

Functions :
● Provides large surface area for gluvose and O2 to pass from mothers blood to
embryo
● Removes embryonal metabolic wastes.

Reproduction Process
● Sperms enter through vagina and reach oviduct to encounter the egg.
 ● The zygote formed, starts dividing to form an embryo.
● Embryo is planted in the lining of uterus and it becomes foetus.
● The lining thickens and is richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo.
● The development usually takes 9 months & the child is born.

Menstrual Cycle
If fertilisation doesnt take place, the lining of uterus slowly breaks and comes out through
vagina as blood and mucous. - - - This cycle happens every month and usually lasts for 2-8
days.
- The flow of blood & mucous and is called menstruation.

Methods to prevent unwanted pregnancy:

Mechanical
● Condom- A cover worn on the penis at the time of intercourse.
● Diaphragm : Covering worn by females.
● Copper-T: Intra- uterine device which prevents fertilisation. (implanted in uterus)
- Copper-T doesn't stop STDS as it doesnt provide a barrier against mixing of body
fluids from two individuals therefore acts only as contraceptive but doesnt protect
from STDS.

Chemical:
● Oral pills- OCPS or Oral Contraceptive Pills are used in females which alter hormonal
level.

Surgical [Permanent]

● Vasectomy: Portion of vas deferens is cut.

● Tubectomy: Portion of oviduct is cut.

Reasons for contraceptives :

● Help in spacing two children.
● Help in maintaining mother's & child's health.
● Less mortality among new borns.
● Better Care & healthier society.
● Prevention of STDs.
● Reducing cases of maternal mortality.
● More productivity & better economic status of society.

• STDs
Bacterial - Syphilis, gonorrhoea
Viral- AIDS, Warts

These infectious diseases are spread by sexual contact with infected person.
● Fluid discharge, burning sensation while urination are symptoms.
➩ Mustard seeds have biggerchance of self- pollination out of mustard, papaya, hibiscus
and watermelon.

Male gamete:
● Produced in large numbers.
● Smaller
● Have tails
● Are motile
● Are of Two types
● Produced a lot at a time

Female gamete:
● Larger
● Dont have tail
● Aren't motile
● Only of one type
● Produced one at a time

Chromosones are maintained:

● This has been achieved by having special lineages of cells in specialised organs
which have only half the no. of chromosomes and thus half the amount of DNA.
● When germ cells from two individualS combine, it results in re-establishment nof the
no. of chromosomes and DNA content in new generation.

Banana reproduces asexually.

Gametes ➩ Zygote ➩ Embryo ➩ Seedling

Rapid spread of bread mould is due to

• Large number of spores
• Availability of moisture and nutrients in bread.

• Length of pollen tube depends on the distance b/w upper surface of stigma and lower part
of style.

• Water does not provide required energy to yeast for reproduction, while sugar does provide
energy , hence it multiplies in sugar.

Crossing over occurs during meiosis, thus there is more variation. (Discussed in chapter 9)

Chromosomes in body remains constant as mitosis occurs in a human body and im mitosis
chromosome numbers are not halved. Meosis only occurs for gamete formation

No formation of gametes in asexual reproduction.

 ● HEREDITY

-Parental generations provides information for basic body design, acompanied with small
changes.

-Lowest part of ear is called earlobe.

-Gregor Johann Mendel studied at university of Vienna.

-Mendel used garden pea or pisum sativum.

-The trait which is expressed in F1 Generation, in heterozygous condition is the dominant

trait. The one which remains hidden, is a recessive trait.

-F1 generation is the result of cross between two pure individuals of contrasting characters.
• Hence, it will have one chromosome from either parent, making it heterozygous.

- Cellular DNA is the information for making protein. This section of DNA which provides
information is called gene.

- Snails can change their sex. It isnt dependent on genes.

Creation of variation promotes survival:

•Depending on nature of variation, different individuals will have different advantages.

F1 generation- Law of Dominance :

In heterozygous organisms, a character is represented by two contrasting factors. one which
is expressed is called dominant Law of dominance says only one dominant trait is enough
for its expression.

F2 generation: Law of independent assortment:

In F2 generation, 4 gametes are forming showing that law of independent assortment works.
• Traits get randomly re-arranged in the offspring producing new combinations.

Law of paired factor :

A character is represented in organism by atleast 2 traits.

Blood group O is recessive.

Blood group A & B are dominant.
↳ Blood group is only represented. in homozygous.

How is sex of child obtained?

Ans. Human beings have 22 pairs of autosomes which are same in both genders. and one
pair of sex chromosome. This is XX in females
and XY in males.
This shows that females produce all similar gametes, carrying X chromosome. While males
produce 2 gametes, X 50% and Y 50%
• Male determines the sex of the child. But it is based on luck and males can't choose their
gametes.
• When XX is formed, female is produced. When XY is formed, male is produced.

- Organisms have two sets of genes for each trait, one inherited from each parent.
• During formation of gamete, one set of these gene passes to the germ cell. Thus germ
cells have only one set of genes.
• Genes are located on the chromosmes, the chromosomes are present in pairs.
• During gamete formation, one chromosome of the pair is passed onto each gamete.

- Asexual reproduction has less variations because variations are only there
because of errors in DNA copying. While in sexual there are two parents causing variation.

Outcomes of mendel's experiments

• Both parents contribute equally to progeny.
• Traits may be dominant or recessive.
• Dominant trait in expressed in both hetero and homozygous.
• Recessive are only expressed in homozygous.
• Traits are independent of each other.

- Chromosomes are long DNA strands, present in nucleus, carrying genes which code for a
trait.

Basic event in reproduction?

Ans. DNA copying is basic event.
• Cells use chemical reactions to create a Dna copy.
• Additional cellular apparatus is created.
• Each separated DNA has its own cellular apparatus for maintaining life processes.

Speciation with example:

• Lets say originally, beetles were red. Some variation caused a beetle to be green. Because
it can camouflage better, green beetles were naturally selected as it has an advantage. Then
these will grow in number.
• Suppose a few green beetles move to a different environment. Then the population would
vary greatly from original red beetles. At some point, these two will not be able to interbreed
due to accumulation of variation.
• Due to natural selection and genetic drift, a new species is formed.

Mendel's experiment :
• Mendel used garden pea plants with contrasting characters like:
• Yellow or green seeds
• Tall or short
• Violet or white flowers.
• He crossed plants with contrasting characters and studied progeny of F1 and F2
generation.
• By crossing tall & short, he found that all plants in F1 generation were tall. This led Mendel
to propose law of paired factor, or that two copies of factor controlling traits are in each
organism.
• But when F1 were crossed for second generation
75% were tall, 25% were short.
• Tall pure parent was represented by TT
• Dwarf parent was represented tt,
• F1 had all Tt, hybrid tall.
• F2 had 25% TT, 50%. Tt, 25% tt.

- For every hormone, protein, enzyme. there is a gene.

- Two versions of a character are situated on copies of same chromosome.
- Genes are a specific sequence of bases in DNA molecule.
- A small population is on a greater threat of extinction, because:
• Inbreeding depression - small population give rise to inbreeding and there a less variation.
• Genetic drift - They are more susceptible to genetic drift.

Mendel used pea plants as:

• Pea plants are easy to grow
• They have a short lifespan.
• They have a larger Hover
• Pea plants are self-porinated
• Easily identified characters

- Genes controlling traits segregrate indepently and recombine to form new combination.
- Individual genes exist in 2 forms that may be similas or dissimilar.
Our environment

All the interacting organisms in our area together with the non- living constituents of the
environment form an ecosystem. The ecosystem comprises of two components.
● Biotic components: Plants, animals ete.
● Abiotic components: Rock, wind etc.

All green plants and certain bacteria which can produce food by photosynthesis are called
producers.
- They produce food.

The organisms which consume the food produced either directly from producers or indirectly
from other consumers are called consumers.
- 4 types of consumers:
● Herbivores
● Carnivores
● Omnivores
● Parasites

A series of organisms which feed on one another are said to form a food chain.
- Because each organism is generally eaten by two or more kinds of organisms which
in turn are eaten by several other organisms,so this relationship can be shown as a
series of food chains called food web.

• Trophic Level
These are the various steps or levels in the food chain where transfer of food or energy
takes place.
1. The autotrophs or the producers are at the first trophic level. As they fix up the solar
energy & make it available for consumers.
2. Herbivores or primary consumers generally come on second trophic level.
3. Carnivores occupy the other trophic levels and the last trophic level is generally
occupied by decomposers.
10% Law:
● Green plants capture 1% of energy of the sunlight, that falls on their leaves and
convert it into food energy.
● When green plants are eaten by primary consumers. a great deal of energy is lost as
heat to the environment.
● On average 10% food eaten is turned into its own body and made available for next
level of consumers
● Thus, 10% can be taken as average value, the amount of organic matter present at
each step and reaches the next level of consumers.
● Food chains consist of only 3-4 trophic levels, because the loss of energy at each
level is so great that very little energy remains for the later trophic levels. This is also
the reason for a greater number of organims of lower trophic levels being alive.

Biological Magnification.
● Several pesticides and chemicals are used to protect crops from diseases and pesta.
● Unknowingly, these chemicals are either washed down into the soil or into the water
bodies.
● From the soil, these are absorbed by the plants and animals with water and minerals.
 ● From the water, they are taken up by aquatic plants and animals. As these chemicals
are not degradable, they get accumulated progressively at each trophic level.
● As human beings occupy the top level in any food chain, the maximum concentration
of these chemicals are accumulated in our bodies.
● This is the reason why our food grains and even meat, contain varying amounts of
pesticide residues. The phenomenon is called biological magnification.

Managing
Ozone is a deadly poison, however it forms a gaseous layer in the stratosphere.
It protects the life on earth by absorbing. the UV radiations.
These UV radiations by the sun causes skin cancer, cataract and suppressed immune
system.
The amount of ozone in the atmosphere began to drop sharply in the 1980s. This happened
due CFC(chlorofluorocarbons) which are used as refrigerants and in fire extinguishers.

Enzymes are specific in their action, and specific enzymes are needed for the break down of
a particular substance.
- This is why we don't get energy by eating things like coal.
In the same way, many human-made material like plastic are not broken down by action of
bacteria or saprophytes.

We do not clean ponds and lakes as they are natural ecosystems and have decomposers to
clean. However, aquarium is a man made ecosystem thus it needs to be cleaned regularly.

Producers synthesise carbohydrates from inorganic compounds using radiant energy.

Polythene, detergent, PVC, plastic, bakelite, DOT only contain non- biodegradable stuff.

Common food chain of ecosystem of ponds are:

Phytoplanktons → Small aquatic animals like larvae, shrimps → Fish → Bird

Cloth bags can carry more weight than plastic bags.

Physical or biological world where we live in is called environment.

Food chain is a hypothetical situation, food web is a real life situation.

We should use electrical bikes and bicycles.

Vegetable peels should be placed near trees, which gets decomposed to nutrients.