Chapter 2

Mechanics
2. Mechanics

Learning Contents

1. Basic theories of kinematics

 Displacement, velocity and acceleration as vectors
 Uniform acceleration motion
 Motion under gravity
 Applications in solving projectile problems

2. Force and motions

 Newton’s Second Law
 Momentum and impulse

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2. Mechanics

Intended Learning Outcome

On completion of the chapter, students are expected to be able to:

1. Define displacement, velocity and acceleration using vector quantities
2. Calculate displacement, velocity and acceleration under constant acceleration motion
3. Apply the motion equations to solve the projectile problem
4. Apply the newton second law to solve the motion problem
5. Understand and calculate the linear momentum and linear impulse

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 2. Mechanics
Vector
Vector is any quantity with both magnitude and direction

Vector in One-dimension (1D)

magnitude magnitude
(length of arrow) (length of arrow)

+ve direction -ve direction

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 2. Mechanics
Vector
Vector in two-dimension (2D)
• It is usually convenient to consider motion upward or to the right as
positive (+ve) and motion downward or to the left as negative (-ve)

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 2. Mechanics
Position
Position
• Location relatives to a reference point

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 2. Mechanics
Displacement
Displacement
• Change in position of an object

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 2. Mechanics
Displacement
Displacement
• Change in position of an object

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 2. Mechanics
Distance
Distance
• The travelling distance

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A cyclist rides 3 km west and then turns around and rides 2 km east.
(a) What is her displacement?
(b) What distance does she ride?
(c) What is the magnitude of her displacement?

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A cyclist rides 3 km west and then turns around and rides 2 km east.
(a) What is her displacement?
(b) What distance does she ride?
(c) What is the magnitude of her displacement?

ANS:

2 km -1 km

-3 km

a) Displacement = -1 km
b) Distance = 5 km
c) Magnitude of displacement = 1 km

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 2. Mechanics
Speed Vs Velocity
Speed
• Scalar (No Direction)

• average

Velocity
• Vector

•
• Unit (m/s)

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
You drive to a store and return home in half an hour. If your car’s
odometer shows the total distance traveled was 6 km, determine:
a) Average Speed
b) Average Velocity

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
You drive to a store and return home in half an hour. If your car’s
odometer shows the total distance traveled was 6 km, determine:
a) Average Speed
b) Average Velocity

ANS:

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 6
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = = = 12 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 0.5

Total Displacement 0
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = =0
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 0.5

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 2. Mechanics
Visualizing the motion of an object in a graph

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 2. Mechanics
Acceleration
Acceleration
• Vector

• average acceleration

• Units (𝑚/s )

Deceleration
• The object is slowing down
• The acceleration vector is opposite in direction to the velocity vector

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 2. Mechanics
Acceleration
In case A,
• The car is speeding up as it moves toward to the right. It therefore has
positive acceleration in our coordinate system.

In case B,
• The car is slowing down as it moves toward the right. Therefore, it has
negative acceleration in our coordinate system, because its acceleration
is toward the left. The car is also decelerating: the direction of its
acceleration is opposite to its direction of motion.

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 2. Mechanics
Acceleration
In case C,
• This car is moving toward the left, but slowing down over time. Therefore,
its acceleration is positive in our coordinate system because it is toward
the right. However, the car is decelerating because its acceleration is
opposite to its motion.

In case D,
• This car is speeding up as it moves toward the left. It has negative
acceleration because it is accelerating toward the left. However, because
its acceleration is in the same direction as its motion, it is speeding up
(not decelerating).

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A racehorse coming out of the gate accelerates from rest to a velocity of
15.0 m/s due west in 1.80 s. What is its average acceleration?

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A racehorse coming out of the gate accelerates from rest to a velocity of
15.0 m/s due west in 1.80 s. What is its average acceleration?

ANS:

−15 − 0
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = −8.33 m/𝑠
1.8 − 0

𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔

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 2. Mechanics
Visualizing the acceleration motion of an object in a
graph

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A train accelerates from rest to 30.0 km/h in the first 20.0 s of its motion.
After that, it keeps in constant speed for 20.0 s. Finally, the train uses
another 8.0 s to stop.
a) What is the average acceleration while speeding up?
b) What is the average acceleration while slowing down?

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A train accelerates from rest to 30.0 km/h in the first 20.0 s of its motion.
After that, it keeps in constant speed for 20.0 s. Finally, the train uses
another 8.0 s to stop.
a) What is the average acceleration while speeding up?
b) What is the average acceleration while slowing down?
ANS:

1000
30 − 0
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑝 = 3600 = 0.417 m/𝑠
20

1000
0 − 30
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 3600 = −1.04 m/𝑠
8

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 2. Mechanics
Motion Equations for CONSTANT ACCELERATION in
One Dimension
Notation:

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 2. Mechanics
Motion Equations for CONSTANT ACCELERATION in
One Dimension
From the definition of velocity, From mathematics,

Δ𝑥 𝑣+𝑣
𝑣̅ = 𝑣̅ =
Δt 2
𝑥−𝑥
𝑣̅ = Remarks: 𝑡 = 0
𝑡−𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑣̅ 𝑡

Final displacement

Initial displacement

Average velocity Final Time

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A jogger runs down a straight stretch of road with an average velocity of
4.00 m/s for 2.00 min. What is his final position, taking his initial position
to be zero?

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A jogger runs down a straight stretch of road with an average velocity of
4.00 m/s for 2.00 min. What is his final position, taking his initial position
to be zero?

ANS:

𝑥 = 0;
𝑣̅ = 4.00 m/s;
𝑡 = 2 𝑚𝑖𝑛;

𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑣̅ 𝑡
= 0 + 4 2 × 60
= 480 𝑚

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 2. Mechanics
Motion Equations for CONSTANT ACCELERATION in
One Dimension
From the definition of acceleration,

Δ𝑥
𝑎=
Δt
𝑣−𝑣
𝑎= Remarks: 𝑡 = 0
𝑡−𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑎𝑡

Final velocity

Initial velocity

Average acceleration Final Time

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
An airplane lands with an initial velocity of 70.0 m/s and then
decelerates at 1.50 m/s for 40.0 s. What is its final velocity?

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
An airplane lands with an initial velocity of 70.0 m/s and then
decelerates at 1.50 m/s for 40.0 s. What is its final velocity?

ANS:

𝑣 = 70.0 m/s;
𝑎 = −1.5 m/𝑠 ;
𝑡 = 40.0 𝑠;

𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑎𝑡
= 70.0 + −1.5 40
= 10.0 m/s

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 2. Mechanics
Motion Equations for CONSTANT ACCELERATION in
One Dimension
From the equation,

𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑎𝑡
Adding 𝑣 in both sides and divide the whole equation by 2,
𝑣+𝑣 𝑣 + 𝑣 + 𝑎𝑡
=
2 2
1
𝑣̅ = 𝑣 + 𝑎𝑡
2
Substitute the above expression into 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑣̅ 𝑡
𝑥−𝑥 1
= 𝑣 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑡 2
1
𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Dragsters can achieve average accelerations of 26.0 m/s . Suppose such
a dragster accelerates from rest at this rate for 5.56 s. How far does it
travel in this time?

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Dragsters can achieve average accelerations of 26.0 m/s . Suppose such
a dragster accelerates from rest at this rate for 5.56 s. How far does it
travel in this time?
ANS:

𝑣 = 0 m/s;
𝑎 = 26.0 m/𝑠 ;
𝑡 = 5.56 𝑠;

1
𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2
1
= 0 + 0 5.56 + 26 5.56
2
= 402 𝑚

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 2. Mechanics
Motion Equations for CONSTANT ACCELERATION in
One Dimension
From the equation,

𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑣−𝑣
𝑡=
𝑎
Substitute the above expression and 𝑣̅ = into 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑣̅ 𝑡

𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑣̅ 𝑡
𝑣+𝑣 𝑣−𝑣
𝑥 =𝑥 +( )( )
2 𝑎
2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥 ) = (𝑣 + 𝑣 )(𝑣 − 𝑣 )
2𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥 =𝑣 −𝑣

𝑣 − 𝑣 = 2𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥
𝑣 = 𝑣 + 2𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Dragsters can achieve average accelerations of 26.0 m/s . Suppose such
a dragster uses 402 m to accelerates from rest at this rate for 5.56 s.
What is the final velocity of a dragster?

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Dragsters can achieve average accelerations of 26.0 m/s . Suppose such
a dragster uses 402 m to accelerates from rest at this rate for 5.56 s.
What is the final velocity of a dragster?
ANS:

𝑣 = 0 m/s;
𝑎 = 26.0 m/𝑠 ;
𝑡 = 5.56 𝑠;
𝑥 = 402 𝑚

𝑣 = 𝑣 + 2𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥
𝑣 = 0 + 2 26 402 − 0
𝑣 = 20904
𝑣 = 145 m/s

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 2. Mechanics
Motion Equations for CONSTANT ACCELERATION in
One Dimension
Summary of kinematic equations (constant acceleration)

𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑣̅ 𝑡
𝑣 +𝑣
𝑣̅ =
2
𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑎𝑡
1
𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2
𝑣 = 𝑣 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥 )

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
On dry concrete, a car can decelerate at a rate of 7.00 m/s , whereas on
wet concrete it can decelerate at only 5.00 m/s . Find the distances
necessary to stop a car moving at 30.0 m/s (a) on dry concrete and (b)
on wet concrete. (c) Repeat both calculations, finding the displacement
from the point where the driver sees a traffic light turn red, taking into
account his reaction time of 0.500 s to get his foot on the brake.

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
On dry concrete, a car can decelerate at a rate of 7.00 m/s , whereas on
wet concrete it can decelerate at only 5.00 m/s . Find the distances
necessary to stop a car moving at 30.0 m/s (a) on dry concrete and (b)
on wet concrete. (c) Repeat both calculations, finding the displacement
from the point where the driver sees a traffic light turn red, taking into
account his reaction time of 0.500 s to get his foot on the brake.
ANS:

𝑣 = 30 m/s;
𝑎 = −7.00 m/𝑠 ;
𝑎 = −5.00 m/𝑠 ;
𝑣 = 0 m/s;

On Dry concrete: On Wet concrete:

From 𝑣 = 𝑣 + 2𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥 From 𝑣 = 𝑣 + 2𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥

0 = 30 + 2 −7 𝑥 − 0 0 = 30 + 2 −5 𝑥 − 0
𝑥 = 64.3 𝑚 𝑥 = 90.0 𝑚

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
ANS:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑥 +𝑥

𝑥 = 𝑣 𝑡 = 30 0.5 = 15 𝑚

On Dry concrete:
Total braking distance = 15 + 64.3 = 79.3 m

On Wet concrete:
Total braking distance = 15 + 90 = 105 m

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Suppose a car merges into freeway traffic on a 200-m-long ramp. If its
initial velocity is 10.0 m/s and it accelerates at 2.00 m/s , how long does
it take to travel the 200 m up the ramp?

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Suppose a car merges into freeway traffic on a 200-m-long ramp. If its
initial velocity is 10.0 m/s and it accelerates at 2.00 m/s , how long does
it take to travel the 200 m up the ramp?
ANS:

𝑥 = 200 𝑚
𝑣 = 10.0 m/s
𝑎 = 2.00 m/s

From 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡

1
200 = 0 + 10𝑡 + 2 𝑡
2
𝑡 + 10𝑡 − 200 = 0
−10 ± 10 − 4 1 −200
𝑡=
2 1
𝑡 = 10 𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = −20 𝑠 (𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)

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 2. Mechanics
Motion Under Gravity
Gravity
• The force of gravity causes objects to fall toward the center of Earth.
• The acceleration of free-falling objects is called the acceleration due to
gravity.
• The acceleration due to gravity is CONSTANT.
• The g values are varies from 9.78 m/s to 9.83 m/s on the earth.
• The average value for g is 9.81 m/s

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 2. Mechanics
Motion Under Gravity
One Dimensional Motion Involving Gravity
• The acceleration due to gravity is g.
• The direction of acceleration due to gravity is always pointing to the
center of Earth, therefore, 𝑎 = −𝑔

The kinematic equations for Objects in Free-Fall where Acceleration = -g

𝑣 = 𝑣 − 𝑔𝑡
1
𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡
2
𝑣 = 𝑣 − 2𝑔(𝑦 − 𝑦 )

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A person standing on the edge of a high cliff
throws a rock straight up with an initial velocity of
13.0 m/s. The rock misses the edge of the cliff as it
falls back to earth. Calculate the position and
velocity of the rock 1.00 s, 2.00 s, and 3.00 s after
it is thrown, neglecting the effects of air resistance.

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A person standing on the edge of a high cliff throws a rock straight up
with an initial velocity of 13.0 m/s. The rock misses the edge of the cliff
as it falls back to earth. Calculate the position and velocity of the rock
1.00 s, 2.00 s, and 3.00 s after it is thrown, neglecting the effects of air
resistance.
ANS:

𝑣 = 13.0 m/s
𝑎 = −9.81 m/s
𝑦 = 0 (𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)

Position Function: Velocity Function:

1
𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2 𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑎𝑡
1
𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑣 − 𝑔𝑡
2
1 𝑣 = 13 − 9.81𝑡
𝑦 = (0) + (13)𝑡 − (9.81)𝑡
2
1
𝑦 = 13𝑡 − (9.81)𝑡
2
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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A person standing on the edge of a high cliff throws a rock straight up
with an initial velocity of 13.0 m/s. The rock misses the edge of the cliff
as it falls back to earth. Calculate the position and velocity of the rock
1.00 s, 2.00 s, and 3.00 s after it is thrown, neglecting the effects of air
resistance.
ANS:

Time Position Velocity Acceleration

1 𝑣 = 13 − 9.81𝑡
𝑦 = 13𝑡 − (9.81)𝑡
2
1.00 s 8.10 m 3.20 m/s -9.81 m/s

2.00 s 6.40 m -6.60 m/s -9.81 m/s

3.00 s -5.10 m -16.4 m/s -9.81 m/s

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 2. Mechanics
Example:

1
𝑦 = 13𝑡 − (9.81)𝑡 𝑣 = 13 − 9.81𝑡
2

𝑎 = −9.81

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
What will be the velocity at the position 5.10 m
below the starting point if the person on the cliff
throws the rock straight down?

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
What will be the velocity at the position 5.10 m
below the starting point if the person on the cliff
throws the rock straight down?

ANS:

𝑣 = −13.0 m/s
𝑎 = −9.81 m/s
𝑦 = 0 (𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
𝑦 = −5.10 𝑚

𝑣 = 𝑣 + 2𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑦 )
𝑣 = −13 + 2(−9.81)(−5.10)
𝑣 = ± 269.1
𝑣 = +16.4 m/s (rejected) or −16.4 m/s

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A ball is at rest and falls 1.0000 m in 0.45173 s. Assuming the ball is
not affected by air resistance, what is the precise acceleration due to
gravity at this location?

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A ball is at rest and falls 1.0000 m in 0.45173 s. Assuming the ball is
not affected by air resistance, what is the precise acceleration due to
gravity at this location?

ANS:

𝑣 = 0 m/s
𝑎 = ? ? m/s
𝑦 = 0 (𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
𝑦 = −1.0000 𝑚

1
𝑠 = 𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2
1
−1.000 = (0)(0.45173) + 𝑎(0.45173)
2
1
−1.000 = (0)(0.45173) + (𝑎)(0.45173)
2
𝑎 = −9.801 m/s

The precise acceleration due to gravity at this location is -9.801 m/s

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 2. Mechanics
Two Dimensional Kinematics
The independence of Perpendicular Motions
• The horizontal and vertical components of two-dimensional motion are
independent of each other. Any motion in the horizontal direction does not
affect motion in the vertical direction, and vice versa.

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 2. Mechanics
Two Dimensional Kinematics
Vectors in Two Dimensions
• A vector is a quantity that has magnitude and direction. Displacement,
velocity, acceleration, and force are all vectors.
• In 2D, we specify the direction of a vector relative to some reference
frame (i.e., coordinate system), using an arrow having length proportional
to the vector’s magnitude and pointing in the direction of the vector.

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 2. Mechanics
Two Dimensional Kinematics
Vectors Addition: Head-to-tail method

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Use the graphical technique for adding vectors to find the total
displacement of a person who walks the following three paths
(displacements) on a flat field. First, she walks 25.0 m in a direction
49.0° north of east. Then she walks 23.0 m heading 15.0° north of east.
Finally, she turns and walks 32.0 m in direction 68.0° south of east.

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Use the graphical technique for adding vectors to find the total
displacement of a person who walks the following three paths
(displacements) on a flat field. First, she walks 25.0 m in a direction
49.0° north of east. Then she walks 23.0 m heading 15.0° north of east.
Finally, she turns and walks 32.0 m in direction 68.0° south of east.

ANS:

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Use the graphical technique for adding vectors to find the total
displacement of a person who walks the following three paths
(displacements) on a flat field. First, she walks 25.0 m in a direction
49.0° north of east. Then she walks 23.0 m heading 15.0° north of east.
Finally, she turns and walks 32.0 m in direction 68.0° south of east.

ANS:

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Use the graphical technique for adding vectors to find the total
displacement of a person who walks the following three paths
(displacements) on a flat field. First, she walks 25.0 m in a direction
49.0° north of east. Then she walks 23.0 m heading 15.0° north of east.
Finally, she turns and walks 32.0 m in direction 68.0° south of east.

ANS:

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 2. Mechanics
Two Dimensional Kinematics
Vectors Subtraction:
• The negative of a vector B is defined to be –B.
• Graphically the negative of any vector has the same magnitude but the
opposite direction.

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A woman sailing a boat at night is following directions to a dock. The
instructions read to first sail 27.5 m in a direction 66.0° north of east
from her current location, and then travel 30.0 m in a direction 112°
north of east. If the woman makes a mistake and travels in the
opposite direction for the second leg of the trip, where will she end
up? Compare this location with the location of the dock.

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A woman sailing a boat at night is following directions to a dock. The
instructions read to first sail 27.5 m in a direction 66.0° north of east
from her current location, and then travel 30.0 m in a direction 112°
north of east. If the woman makes a mistake and travels in the
opposite direction for the second leg of the trip, where will she end
up? Compare this location with the location of the dock.

ANS:

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A woman sailing a boat at night is following directions to a dock. The
instructions read to first sail 27.5 m in a direction 66.0° north of east
from her current location, and then travel 30.0 m in a direction 112°
north of east. If the woman makes a mistake and travels in the
opposite direction for the second leg of the trip, where will she end
up? Compare this location with the location of the dock.

ANS:

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A woman sailing a boat at night is following directions to a dock. The
instructions read to first sail 27.5 m in a direction 66.0° north of east
from her current location, and then travel 30.0 m in a direction 112°
north of east. If the woman makes a mistake and travels in the
opposite direction for the second leg of the trip, where will she end
up? Compare this location with the location of the dock.

ANS:

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 2. Mechanics
Two Dimensional Kinematics
Analytical methods of vector addition and subtraction

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Add the vector A to the vector B shown in following figure, using
perpendicular components along the x- and y-axes. The x- and y-axes
are along the east-west and north-south directions, respectively.
Vector A represents the first leg of a walk in which a person walks
53.0 m in a direction 20.0° north of east. Vector B represents the
second leg, a displacement of 34.0 m in a direction 63.0° north of east.

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Add the vector A to the vector B shown in following figure, using
perpendicular components along the x- and y-axes. The x- and y-axes
are along the east-west and north-south directions, respectively.
Vector A represents the first leg of a walk in which a person walks
53.0 m in a direction 20.0° north of east. Vector B represents the
second leg, a displacement of 34.0 m in a direction 63.0° north of east.

ANS:

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Add the vector A to the vector B shown in following figure, using
perpendicular components along the x- and y-axes. The x- and y-axes
are along the east-west and north-south directions, respectively.
Vector A represents the first leg of a walk in which a person walks
53.0 m in a direction 20.0° north of east. Vector B represents the
second leg, a displacement of 34.0 m in a direction 63.0° north of east.

ANS:

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 2. Mechanics
Projectile Motion
Projectile motion is the motion of an object thrown or projected into the air,
subject to only the acceleration of gravity. The object is called a projectile,
and its path is called its trajectory.

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 2. Mechanics
Projectile Motion
Review of kinematic Equations (constant acceleration, a)

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 2. Mechanics
Projectile Motion
Equation for Projectile Motion

In x-direction In y-direction

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 2. Mechanics
Projectile Motion

(a) We analyze two-dimensional projectile

motion by breaking it into two
independent one-dimensional motions
along the vertical and horizontal axes.
(b) The horizontal motion is simple, because
ax = 0 and vx is thus constant.
(c) The velocity in the vertical direction
begins to decrease as the object rises; at
its highest point, the vertical velocity is
zero. As the object falls towards the
Earth again, the vertical velocity increases
again in magnitude but points in the
opposite direction to the initial vertical
velocity.
(d) The x - and y -motions are recombined
to give the total velocity at any given
point on the trajectory.

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
During a fireworks display, a shell is shot into the air with an initial
speed of 70.0 m/s at an angle of 75.0° above the horizontal, as
illustrated in figure. The fuse is timed to ignite the shell just as it
reaches its highest point above the ground. (a) Calculate the height at
which the shell explodes. (b) How much time passed between the
launch of the shell and the explosion? (c) What is the horizontal
displacement of the shell when it explodes?

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
During a fireworks display, a shell is shot into the air with an initial
speed of 70.0 m/s at an angle of 75.0° above the horizontal, as
illustrated in figure. The fuse is timed to ignite the shell just as it
reaches its highest point above the ground. (a) Calculate the height at
which the shell explodes. (b) How much time passed between the
launch of the shell and the explosion? (c) What is the horizontal
displacement of the shell when it explodes?
ANS:
𝑣 = 70 sin 75° = 67.6 m/s
𝑎 = −9.81 m/s
𝑣 = 0 m/s (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑣 − 𝑢 = 2𝑎𝑠,
0 − 67.6 = 2 −9.81 𝑠
𝑠 = 232.9 𝑚

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 2. Mechanics
Example:

ANS:
𝑣 = 70 sin 75° = 67.6 m/s
𝑎 = −9.81 m/s
𝑣 = 0 m/s (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑠 = 𝑣 +𝑣 𝑡,
2
1
232.9 = 67.6 + 0 𝑡
2
𝑡 = 6.89𝑠

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑠 = 𝑣 𝑡
𝑠 = 70 cos 75° 6.89
= 124.83 𝑚

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Kilauea in Hawaii is the world’s most continuously active volcano. Very
active volcanoes characteristically eject red-hot rocks and lava rather
than smoke and ash. Suppose a large rock is ejected from the volcano
with a speed of 25.0 m/s and at an angle 35.0° above the horizontal,
as shown in Figure. The rock strikes the side of the volcano at an
altitude 20.0m lower than its starting point. (a) Calculate the time it
takes the rock to follow this path. (b) What are the magnitude and
direction of the rock’s velocity at impact?

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Initial State:
𝑣 = 25 cos 35° ; 𝑣 = 25 sin 35°

For the rock goes from reference point to -20m :

𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
1
−20 = 25 sin 35° 𝑡 + −9.81 𝑡
2
4.905𝑡 − 14.34𝑡 − 20 = 0

𝑡 = 3.95𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = −1.03 (𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)

The rock uses 3.95s to travel from reference point to -20m

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
𝑣 = 25 cos 35° = 20.48 m/s

𝑣 = 25 sin 35° + −9.81 (3.95)

= −24.41 m/s

𝑣 = 𝑣 +𝑣 = 20.48 + −24.41 = 31.86 m/s

24.41
𝜃 = tan (− )
20.48
= −50.0°

20.48 m/s
𝜃
−24.41 m/s

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 2. Mechanics
Projectile Motion

Trajectories of projectiles on level ground.

(a) The greater the initial speed v0 , the
greater the range for a given initial
angle.
(b) The effect of initial angle θ0 on the
range of a projectile with a given
initial speed. Note that the range is
the same for 15º and 75º , although
the maximum heights of those paths
are different.

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 2. Mechanics
Force
Push

Pull

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 2. Mechanics
Newton’s First Law of Motion:
A body at rest remains at rest, or, if in motion, remains in motion at a constant
velocity unless acted on by a net external force.

The property of a body to remain at rest or to remain in motion with constant

velocity is called inertia.

The inertia of an object is measured by mass.

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 2. Mechanics
Newton’s second Law of Motion:
The acceleration of a system is directly proportional to and in the same
direction as the net external force acting on the system, and inversely
proportional to its mass.

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 2. Mechanics
Newton’s second Law of Motion:
The same force exerted on systems of different masses produces different
accelerations.
(a) A basketball player pushes on a basketball to make a pass. (The effect
of gravity on the ball is ignored.)
(b) The same player exerts an identical force on a stalled SUV and produc
es a far smaller acceleration (even if friction is negligible).
(c) The free-body diagrams are identical, permitting direct comparison of
the two situations. A series of patterns for the free-body diagram will
emerge as you do more problems.

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 2. Mechanics
Force
Units of Force

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 is used to define the units of force in terms of the three basic units
for mass, length, and time. The SI unit of force is called the newton (N) and is
force needed to accelerate a 1-kg system at the rate of 1 m/s . That is, since
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎,

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 2. Mechanics
Force
Weight and the Gravitational Force

This is the equation for weight – the gravitational force on a mass m:

𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔

Since 𝑔 = 9.81 m/s on the Earth, the weight of a 1.0 kg object on

Earth is 9.8 N

𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔 = 1.0 𝑘𝑔 9.81 m/s = 9.81 𝑁

When the net external force on an object is its weight only, we say
that it is in free-fall.

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Suppose that the net external force (push minus friction) exerted on a
lawn mower is 51N parallel to the ground. The mass of the mower is
24 kg. What is its acceleration?

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Suppose that the net external force (push minus friction) exerted on a
lawn mower is 51N parallel to the ground. The mass of the mower is
24 kg. What is its acceleration?

ANS:
From Newton’s Second Law,
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

51 = 24 𝑎
𝑎 = 2.1 m/s

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Prior to manned space flights, rocket sleds were used to test aircraft,
missile equipment, and physiological effects on human subjects at
high speeds. They consisted of a platform that was mounted on one
or two rails and propelled by several rockets. Calculate the magnitude
of force exerted by each rocket, called its thrust T, for the four-rocket
propulsion system shown in figure. The sled’s initial acceleration is
49 m/s , the mass of the system is 2100 kg, and the force of friction
opposing the motion is known to be 650 N.

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
m = 2100 kg
𝑎 = 49 m/s
𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 = 650 𝑁

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
4𝑇 − 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
4𝑇 − 650 = 2100 49
𝑇 = 2.5 × 10 𝑁

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 2. Mechanics
Newton’s Third Law of Motion:
Whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the first body
experiences a force that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to
the force that it exerts.

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A physics professor pushes a cart of demonstration equipment to a
lecture hall, as seen in figure. Her mass is 65.0 kg, the cart’s is 12.0 kg,
and the equipment’s is 7.0 kg. Calculate the acceleration produced
when the professor exerts a backward force of 150 N on the floor. All
forces opposing the motion, such as friction on the cart’s wheels and
air resistance, total 24.0 N.

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
From system 1,

𝐹 =𝐹 − 𝑓 = 150 − 24 = 126 𝑁

𝑚 = 65 + 12 + 7 = 84 𝑘𝑔

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

126
𝑎= = 1.5 m/s
84

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
A physics professor pushes a cart of demonstration equipment to a
lecture hall, as seen in figure. Her mass is 65.0 kg, the cart’s is 12.0 kg,
and the equipment’s is 7.0 kg. Calculate the force the professor exerts
on the cart when the professor exerts a backward force of 150 N on
the floor. All forces opposing the motion, such as friction on the cart’s
wheels and air resistance, total 24.0 N.

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
From system 2,

The acceleration of the whole system is 1.5 m/s ,

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹 − 𝑓 = 12 + 7 1.5
𝐹 = 19 1.5 + 24
𝐹 = 52.5 𝑁

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 2. Mechanics
Normal Force

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 2. Mechanics
Normal Force

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 2. Mechanics
Tension

For stationary status,

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 0 = 0
𝐹 =𝑇−𝑤 =0
𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔

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 2. Mechanics
Linear Momentum
Linear Momentum is defined as the product of a system’s mass multiplied by
its velocity.
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 (unit: kg. m/s)

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
(a) Calculate the momentum of a 110-kg football player running
at 8.00 m/s.
(b) Compare the player’s momentum with the momentum of a
hard-thrown 0.410-kg football that has a speed of 25.0 m/s.

ANS:

𝑝 = 110 8 = 880 𝑘𝑔. m/s

𝑝 = 0.41 25 = 10.3 𝑘𝑔. m/s

The ratio of the player’s momentum to that of the ball is

𝑝 880
= = 85.9
𝑝 10.3

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 2. Mechanics
Relation between Force and Momentum

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
During the 2007 French Open, Venus Williams hit the fastest recorded
serve in a primer women’s match, reaching a speed of 58 m/s (209 km/h).
What is the average force exerted on the 0.057-kg tennis ball by Venus
Williams’ racquet, assuming that the ball’s speed just after impact is 58
m/s, that the initial horizontal component of the velocity before impact is
negligible, and the ball remained in contact with the racquet for 5.0 ms
(milliseconds)?

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
During the 2007 French Open, Venus Williams hit the fastest recorded
serve in a primer women’s match, reaching a speed of 58 m/s (209 km/h).
What is the average force exerted on the 0.057-kg tennis ball by Venus
Williams’ racquet, assuming that the ball’s speed just after impact is 58
m/s, that the initial horizontal component of the velocity before impact is
negligible, and the ball remained in contact with the racquet for 5.0 ms
(milliseconds)?

ANS:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚, Δ𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣
Δ𝑝 = 0.057 58 − 0.057 0
Δ𝑝 = 3.306 𝑘𝑔. m/s

Δ𝑝
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 =
Δ𝑡
3.306
𝐹= = 661𝑁
0.005

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 2. Mechanics
Impulse
Change in momentum equals the average net external force multiplied by the
time this force acts.
Δ𝑝 = 𝐹 Δ𝑡

The quantity 𝐹 Δ𝑡 is given the name impulse.

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Two identical billiard balls strike a rigid wall with the same speed, and are
reflected without any change of speed. The first ball strikes perpendicular
to the wall. The second ball strikes the wall at an angle of 30° from the
perpendicular, and bounces off at an angel of 30° from the perpendicular
to the wall.
(a) Determine the direction of the force on the wall due to each ball.
(b) Calculate the ratio of the magnitudes of impulses on the two balls by
the wall

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Two identical billiard balls strike a rigid wall with the same speed, and are
reflected without any change of speed. The first ball strikes perpendicular
to the wall. The second ball strikes the wall at an angle of 30° from the
perpendicular, and bounces off at an angel of 30° from the perpendicular
to the wall.
(a) Determine the direction of the force on the wall due to each ball.
(b) Calculate the ratio of the magnitudes of impulses on the two balls by
the wall

ANS:
The ball strikes perpendicular to the wall:
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑢; 𝑝 = 0
𝑝 = −𝑚𝑢; 𝑝 = 0
The change in momentum:
Δ𝑝 = −𝑚𝑢 − 𝑚𝑢 = −2𝑚𝑢
Δ𝑝 = 0 − 0 = 0

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Two identical billiard balls strike a rigid wall with the same speed, and are
reflected without any change of speed. The first ball strikes perpendicular
to the wall. The second ball strikes the wall at an angle of 30° from the
perpendicular, and bounces off at an angel of 30° from the perpendicular
to the wall.
(a) Determine the direction of the force on the wall due to each ball.
(b) Calculate the ratio of the magnitudes of impulses on the two balls by
the wall

ANS:
The ball strikes the wall at 30°:
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑢 cos 30° ; 𝑝 = −𝑚𝑢 sin 30°
𝑝 = −𝑚𝑢 cos 30° ; 𝑝 = −𝑚𝑢 sin 30°
The change in momentum:
Δ𝑝 = −𝑚𝑢 cos 30° − 𝑚𝑢 cos 30° = −2𝑚𝑢 cos 30°
Δ𝑝 = 0 − 0 = 0

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Two identical billiard balls strike a rigid wall with the same speed, and are
reflected without any change of speed. The first ball strikes perpendicular
to the wall. The second ball strikes the wall at an angle of 30° from the
perpendicular, and bounces off at an angel of 30° from the perpendicular
to the wall.
(a) Determine the direction of the force on the wall due to each ball.
(b) Calculate the ratio of the magnitudes of impulses on the two balls by
the wall

ANS:
The ratio of the magnitudes of the impulses on the two balls:
2𝑚𝑢 2
= = 1.155
2𝑚𝑢 cos 30° 3

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 2. Mechanics
Conservation of momentum
Momentum is an important quantity because it is conserved.

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 2. Mechanics
Elastic collisions in One Dimension
An elastic collision is one that conserves internal kinetic energy.

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Calculate the velocities of two objects following an elastic collision, given
that:

𝑚 = 0.500 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚 = 3.50 𝑘𝑔, 𝑣 = 4.00 m/s, 𝑣 = 0

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
Calculate the velocities of two objects following an elastic collision, given
that:

𝑚 = 0.500 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚 = 3.50 𝑘𝑔, 𝑣 = 4.00 m/s, 𝑣 = 0

By conservation of momentum,
𝑚 𝑣 +𝑚 𝑣 =𝑚 𝑣 +𝑚 𝑣
0.5 4 + 3.5 0 = 0.5 𝑣 + 3.5 𝑣
2 = 0.5𝑣 + 3.5𝑣
𝑣 = 2(2 − 3.5𝑣 )
𝑣 = 4 − 7𝑣 … … [1]

By conservation of internal kinetic energy,

1 1 1 1
𝑚 𝑣 + 𝑚 𝑣 = 𝑚 𝑣 + 𝑚 𝑣
2 2 2 2
0.5 4 + 3.5 0 = 0.5 𝑣 + 3.5 𝑣
8 = 0.5 𝑣 + 3.5 𝑣 … … [2]

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 2. Mechanics
Example:

Solving [1] & [2],

8 = 0.5 𝑣 + 3.5 𝑣
8 = 0.5 4 − 7𝑣 + 3.5 𝑣
16 = 16 − 56𝑣 + 49𝑣 + 7𝑣
56𝑣 − 56𝑣 = 0
𝑣 56𝑣 − 56 = 0
𝑣 = 0 (𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑) 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 1 m/s

By conservation of internal kinetic energy,

𝑣 = 4 − 7𝑣
𝑣 = 4−7 1
𝑣 = −3 m/s

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 2. Mechanics
Inelastic collisions in One Dimension
An inelastic collision is one in which the internal kinetic energy changes (it is
not conserved).

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
(a) Find the recoil velocity of a 70.0 kg ice hockey goalie, originally at rest,
who catches a 0.150 kg hockey puck slapped at him at a velocity of 35.0
m/s. (b) how much kinetic energy is lost during the collision? Assume
friction between the ice and the puck-goalie system is negligible.

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
(a) Find the recoil velocity of a 70.0 kg ice hockey goalie, originally at rest,
who catches a 0.150 kg hockey puck slapped at him at a velocity of 35.0
m/s. (b) how much kinetic energy is lost during the collision? Assume
friction between the ice and the puck-goalie system is negligible.

By conservation of momentum,
𝑚 𝑣 +𝑚 𝑣 =𝑚 𝑣 +𝑚 𝑣
70 0 + 0.15 35 = (70)𝑣 + (0.15)𝑣′
𝑣 = 7.48 × 10 m/s
The initial KE,
1 1 1 1
𝑚 𝑣 + 𝑚 𝑣 = 70 0 + 0.15 35
2 2 2 2
= 91.875 𝐽

The finial KE,

1 1 1 1
𝑚 𝑣 + 𝑚 𝑣 = 70 7.48 × 10 + 0.15 7.48 × 10
2 2 2 2
= 0.196 𝐽

The lost of KE = 0.196 – 91.875 = -91.7 J

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 2. Mechanics
Example:
In the collision pictured in figure, two carts collide inelastically. Cart 1
carries a spring which is initially compressed. During the collision, the
spring releases its potential energy and converts it to internal kinetic
energy. The mass of cart 1 and the spring is 0.350 kg, and the cart and the
spring together have an initial velocity of 2.00 m/s. Cart 2 has a mass of
0.500 kg and an initial velocity of -0.500 m/s. After the collision, cart 1 is
observed to recoil with a velocity of -4.00 m/s. (a) What is the final velocity
of cart 2? (b) How much energy was released by the spring (assuming all
of it was converted into internal kinetic energy)?

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 2. Mechanics
Example:

By conservation of momentum,
𝑚 𝑣 +𝑚 𝑣 =𝑚 𝑣 +𝑚 𝑣
0.35 2 + 0.5 −0.5 = 0.35 −4 + 0.5 𝑣
𝑣 = 3.70 m/s
The initial KE,
1 1 1 1
𝑚 𝑣 + 𝑚 𝑣 = 0.35 2 + 0.5 −0.5
2 2 2 2
= 0.763 𝐽

The finial KE,

1 1 1 1
𝑚 𝑣 + 𝑚 𝑣 = 0.35 −4 + 0.5 3.7
2 2 2 2
= 6.22 𝐽

The change in KE = 6.22 – 0.763 = 5.46 J (The energy was released by spring)
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