ROLES OF MUSIC

Music provokes feelings. They may be feelings of excitement, calmness or sadness. Music is the
organization of sounds and beats to express or generate feeling. People who organize these
sounds are called musician .They organize these so that they can be appreciated by the listeners.
Sounds which are not pleasant to listen to, like the dragging of chairs and tables along the floor
are called noise .Music has different roles .Each musician has a special way in which they
express a sound to pass a message to their listeners.

THE SOCIAL ROLES OF MUSIC

 Historical events are recorded though music. This is done though the playing of
musical instruments, performing traditional dancing and making costumes. Thus,
music helps to retain information about our culture.
 Music helps people to learn new ideas though singing songs fromdifferent people
and countries. This way we gather knowledge about our surroundings as well as
foreign lands.
 Music teaches respect for authority. Though music we can learn good morals.
 Music educates people about everyday problems such as rented accommodation,
government corruption and financial scandal.
 Music is a form of communication.
 Music offers entertainment for people to relax.
 Music consoles the bereaved. Throughout the period of mourning people sing
songs to comfort the bereaved family.
 Doctors usually play soothing music in their waiting rooms as this is believed to
allow patients to be calmer before they go in for an examination.
 Music is used as a means of expressing love.

RELIGIOUS ROLE OF MUSIC

 Music sets a conducive mood to worship. In church people sing to praise

and worship god. It is believed that people sing in ritual ceremonies until
they hear from the ancestors .
 Music unites and inspires the congregation or gathering though singing
together .songs that invite everyone’s participation enhance the experience
of the service.
 Music is used to give encouragement and advice. In some communities
when boys and girls leaves puberty and enter adult life, they go through
an initiation process that is marked by music. This music passes lessons on
acceptable and unacceptable behavior for the initiates.
 During sowing and harvesting ceremonies people sing songs of hope and
thanks to god who they believe gave the good harvest.

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THE POLITICAL ROLE OF MUSIC

 Music is used in times of crisis, like in the political arena to encourage the faith hearted
and bring hope.
 People sing to celebrate a political party’s victory or praise of their leaders.
 Music is used as a vehicle for change or creating awareness of imminent change.
 Music can be used to develop unity among people .when they sing and dance together
they develop one sense of purpose.
 Music helps to remind and advice the people of a country about what they ought to do in
nation building.
 Music is used to encourage people to respect their leaders.
 Music can be used to make leaders aware of everyday suffering of people.
 Music can be used as a tool of protest against governments that are authoritarian.
 Music can be used to sympathize with the oppressed
 Music is used to celebrate the diversity and independence of nations as well as freedom
of expressions.

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES ASSOCIATED WITH MUSIC

There are a wide range of job in the music world. You need to posses very good theoretical
and practical knowledge if you are to make music career. Like any other career you also need to
be competitive, high disciplined and persistent. You need to practice your musical instrument
consistently .If you are to succeed in a music career you need to have the right training in the
area you choose in order to qualify. The following are some career you may consider in music.

Singer

Singing involves the use of the voice either in a group or chorus. A solo is one voice on its own.
A song with two voices is known as a duet, four voices are known as quartet. Singing can be
accompanied with musical instruments. Voices which are unaccompanied is called accapella.
Opera singers train for many years to prepare their voices.

Producer

Musical albums are made by producers. The producer designs the musical albums together with
the singer. The producer oversees and ensures that the album is released on time.

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Teacher

Some people study music to a diploma, degree and post graduate level. Some specialize in
aspects of theory or practical or both. Some people specialize in music in Teacher Training
colleges. Such people can teach music in schools or colleges or give private lessons at home. In
schools, music specialists are responsible for the music of the institution. Some of these teachers
are musicians because they can play musical instruments and compose music.

Journalist

Newspapers and magazines carry music reviews, interviews with prominent musicians and news
about the music world. Some journalists specialize in musical journalism.

Concert promoter

A promoter organize musical events such as road shows, concerts in order to sell the music to the
public.

OTHER CAREERS IN MUSIC INCLUDE;

Songwriter, choir master, community musician, instrumentalist in military bands, music

therapist, orchestral musician, organist composer.

ELEMENTS OF MUSIC

The Music we hear every day is made up of elements that characterize it. All styles of music use
the same basic elements of music. They are; rhythm, tempo, pitch, timber, melody, harmony,
intonation and texture.

RHYTHM

Rhythm is the placement of the sound in time. Rhythm is simply the arrangement or pattern of
beats. It includes the different length of notes and rests, the way in which certain notes are
accented while others are stressed less heavily, and the way in which we group notes into regular
patterns.

TEMPO

Tempo is the speed at which at which music is or should be played. It is measured in beats per
minute and it is written at the start of a piece of music. There are two ways to specify a tempo.
Metronome markings and verbal descriptions which are more relative and subjective. When
music is sad, the tempo is slow and when there is an excitement it becomes fast.

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PITCH

The word pitch refers to the highness or lowness of sound. The pitch of a note is measured by the
number of vibrations that take place in a second. The lower the note the fewer and slower the
vibrations and the higher the note more and faster the vibrations.

TIMBRE

Timbre refers to the quality of sound. If a guitar and trumpet play the same note for the same
length or time at the same loudness you can still be easily distinguish between the two sound
because a guitar sound different from a trumpet.

MELODY

Melody is a well ordered succession of single sound. A cohesive series of pitches played or sung
individually and forms a clearly recognizable tune in a larger arrangement of notes.

HARMONY

Harmony is defined as the simultaneous sounding of pitches and its primary function is to
provide accompaniment or background for a melody. It is the effect created when more than one
note are played at the same time.

INTONATION

Intonation means playing or singing in tune. The pattern will rise and fall in the level of the voice
which often adds meaning to what is being said.

TEXTURE :The way in which many instruments and voices go together in tune or the way in
which melody and harmony go together.

MUSIC PRESERVATION

To preserve means to keep something safe for future use, hence music preservation means
storing music in a safe place for future use.

Importance of preserving music

• For future use or reference e.g. national anthem.

• It is a source of income, if kept safely it can be used to earn some money through selling.

• For educational purpose so that the coming generation can be able to learn about our
music.

• Preserve our culture. Our culture heritage is important to be kept for the coming
generation to learn.

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WAYS OF PRESERVING MUSIC

There are mainly three ways of preserving music being,

A. Recording

B. Writing

C. Natural/oral transmission

A. RECORDING

Recording means storing music in audio and visual systems. These include;

(i) tapes (ii)radio cassettes (iii)compact disc(cd)

(v) phanograhic discs(records)

Advantages

(i)It is the latest technology.

(ii)It is covered by copy right, so that the owner of the music can take legal action.

(iii)Music preserved this way last longer than in any other methods

Disadvantages

(i)It is expensive.

(ii)Some people continue to steal other people’s music.

(iii)The mechanism used for storing music might be damaged by heat, scratching, cracking. too
much dust and faulty musical systems.

(v)System used in this method are very sensitive, eg computers are easily damaged by viruses,
tapes, cd scratches easily.

[Link]

Music writing use the system of notation. Music writing is done in books called scores or
manuscripts and also in computers.

Advantages

(i)It has been used for long time but still proves to be good.

(ii)Those who access this method build their music reading and writing skills.

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(iii)It lasts longer.

(v)It cannot be easily distorted/presented in a wrong way.

Disadvantages

(i)Ink used in writing does not stay for a very long time, it expires and react with paper.

(ii)Some people steal other people’s music by photocopying it.

C. NATURAL SYSTEM

The natural preservation of music is when music is taught by word of mouth and those who are
taught Store it in their minds and carry it to other people/generation. This system is the
most convenient yet not very –reliable.

Advantages

(i)It is the cheapest method.

(ii)It is available for everybody.

(iii)Everybody has access to knowing it.

Disadvantages

(i)People can easily forget.

(ii)Information can get distorted as it is communicated from generation to generation.

However these systems may work together in order to compromise [Link] a song may be
written, taped and taught by oral so that one can sing and enjoy reading and hear music at the
same time.

THE SCIENCE OF MUSICAL SOUND

What is meant by vibration?

It is the act of vibrating or the state of being vibrated or in vibrating motion to and from
(oscillation) as of a pendulum or musical string.

What are sound waves?

Sound is made up of particles. When they push together they form sound waves. In order for
sound to exist, particles must be present and the particles must have a source which starts
them to vibrate passing their vibrations outwards and in successive waves. In a vacuum
sound cannot be produced nor transferred.

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Sound wave is characterized by:

 Frequency
 Period
 Intensity
 Direction
 Wavelength
 Amplitude
 Speed
(A)FREQUENCY
Frequency is measured in hertz(Hz).A human ear can detect frequencies as low as 20 Hz
and as high as 20 [Link] pitch of a note can be altered by making the vibrations
faster or slower. For example; a string of a guitar can be made to vibrate faster in three
ways:
 Shortening the string
 Tightening the string
 Using a thin string

The shorter the string the higher the pitch, the longer the string the lower the
pitch.
The tighter the string the higher the pitch, the looser the string the lower the
pitch.
The thinner the string the higher the pitch, the thicker the string the lower the
pitch.
(B)AMPLITUDE
This is how loud the sound is, a loud sound has a high
amplitude.
(C)WAVELENGTH
The distance from one compression or rarefaction to the next is a complete wave
and this distance is called wavelength.

HOW SOUND TRAVELS

Sound travels as a wave. It is produced when an object vibrates eg if you hit a drum or cymbal, it
vibrates. This will cause sound waves travel away from the cymbal towards you. The wave
travel by forcing the particles of air surroundings the cymbals to vibrate back and forth colliding
with each other in the same direction as the wave is travelling. Such a wave is called longitudinal
wave, characterized by vibrations moving in the same direction as the wave.

Sound can travel as long as there is something for it to travel through called medium. It can be
gas (air)liquid(water) or solid(metal).When sound travel through the air it normally originate

7
from somewhere in space, like a persons mouth and then the waves travel in spherical ripples.
These ripples are made of air compressed closer together.

DIAGRAM OF A LONGITUDINAL ANDTRANSVERSE WAVE

MUSICAL SOUND

This is a planned set of sound vibrations, it has;

 An identifiable pitch
 A good or pleasing quality of tone
 Repeating pattern or rhythm

DIFFERNCE BETWEEN TONE AND NOISE

TONE

Regular/consistent vibrations produce tone/note. musical sound which has a definite pitch.

NOISE

Irregular/inconsistent vibrations produce noise, but noise can be utilized or organized to make
[Link] clapping hands, drums.

MUSICAL NOTATION

This is the system devised in written music so that it can be read and performed. Notation
systems also tell a performer how to finger in an instrument so as to produce the desired tone.
Musical notation must convey the pitch and the duration of the note.

TYPES OF MUSICAL NOTATIONS

There are many types of musical notation but two are very commonly used. These are staff
notation and sol-fa notation.

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STAFF NOTATION

This is where music is written on lines and spaces. The lines and the spaces are called staff. It
has to have 5 parallel lines and 4 spaces.

Below is a picture of the staff showing the lines and spaces

In music we count the lines and spaces starting from the bottom to the top.

TYPES OF STAFF NOTATION

There are two main types of staff notation.

1. Treble staff notation

The treble clef is also known as the G clef and looks like this:

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 When used on a stave it curls around the 2nd line showing that note to be G.

2. Bass staff notation

The bass clef is also known as the F clef and looks like this:

When used on a stave the dots are either side of the 4th line, showing that note is F. This is how
the bass (or F) clef looks on the staff.

NAMING NOTES ON THE TREBLE STAVE

Notes on the treble staff may be on a line or in a space.

The notes on the lines of the treble staff follow this pattern E - G - B - D - F

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The notes in the spaces of the treble staff follow the pattern above D - F - A - C - E - G. You can
see that the notes in the middle spaces actually spell F A C E with the D below the staff and G
above the staff either side. These notes either side of F-A-C-E are easy to remember because D
is Down below the lines and for G you have to Go above the lines.

NAMING NOTES ON THE BASS STAVE

Notes on the bass staff may be on a line or in a space just like in the treble staff.

The notes on the lines of the bass staff follow this pattern below:
G-B-D-F-A

The spaces of the bass staff follow the pattern above as well, with an added bonus! The bass clef
is also known as the F clef, and the note below the stave is F which makes it easy to remember.
The notes in the spaces of the bass stave are F - A - C - E - G - B. You can see that the notes in
the middle spaces are A C E G with the F below the staff and B above the staff either side.

THE GRAND STAVE

The grand staff is a two-part staff, consisting of the treble staff on top and the bass staff on the
bottom. These staves are connected by a brace, and by barlines throughout the music. . In this
instance, middle C is centered between the two staves, and it can be written on the first ledger
line below the upper staff or the first ledger line above the lower staff.

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BRACE BARLINE
BARLINE

Middle C

Middle C is on a line below the treble staff. It is probably the most recognizable note in all of
music and is the first note most people learn when they start on the piano or keyboard. The line
through the note is part of the 'invisible' line which runs between the treble and bass staves when
using the Grand Staff.

Middle C in the bass clef

Middle C is on a line above the bass staff. This line is part of the 'invisible' line which runs
between the treble and bass staves when using the Grand Staff.

The lines of the grand staff

First we look at the lines in the top stave. This is the treble clef (also called the G clef) stave.

12
These are the first five letters of the pattern E G B D F from the bottom line to the top line. As
long as you know the order of letters and to begin on E, you can always work out a note by
starting from the bottom line and working through the sequence of letters.

The lines on the bottom staff also follow the same sequence of letters, but for the bottom staff we
begin on G. So the lines of the bottom staff are G B D F A

The Spaces

The spaces on both staves also follow the pattern!

The spaces on the top staff begin on F in the sequence and because there are 4 spaces the spaces
are F A C E, so the spaces in the top staff are easy to remember because they spell FACE

The spaces on the bottom staff begin on A in the sequence and because there are 4 spaces the
spaces are A C E G.

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The invisible line/ledge line

There is an invisible line running through the middle of both staves! Although it is made up of
two staves of five lines, the Grand Staff actually has 11 lines. You may have heard of middle
C. Many people assume this is the note in the middle of the piano - well...it depends on how
many keys your piano has as to whether it is or not. Middle C is the closest C to the middle of
the piano, but Middle C is also the note in the middle of the Grand Staff

The staves below shows the notes on the lines and spaces including the invisible middle line
(marked in red).

This shows all the notes on the grand staff from the bottom line of the bass clef to the top line of
the treble clef, including the middle C line. You can now see the letter pattern is followed right
from the bottom to the top.
GBDFACEGBDF

This shows all the notes on the grand staff from the bottom space of the bass clef to the top space
of the treble clef, including the B and D either side of the middle C line. You can now see the
letter pattern is followed right from the bottom to the top.
ACEGBDFACE

Putting the notes on the grand staves

Music notes are slightly squashed circles that are either on a line or in a space.

When a note is on a line,

the line runs through the middle of the note.

When a note is in a space

it is directly in between the lines, touching both. Here are the notes on the lines and spaces.

14
21

This note is on the A line in the bass clef - therefore it is A!

This note is on the B line in the treble clef - therefore it is B!

Ledger Lines

The range of notes used in staff notation sometimes go beyond the treble and bass stave therefore
ledger lines are used.

15
Ledger lines extend above and below the staff, allowing for higher or lower notes to be shown
than would otherwise fit on the staff. These lines follow the same musical alphabet pattern as the
staff does. Think of them as just extra lines and spaces on the end of the staff.

TONIC SOLFA NOTATION

Tonic sol-fa is another system for writing music. Tonic sol-fa notation uses seven letters of the
English alphabet; d r m f s l t d. These alphabet letters are named as syllables.

D= doh, r=ray, m=me, f=fah, s=so, l=lah, t=te, d=doh

Doh is repeated eight steps higher and this is called an octave higher to make a complete scale. A
scale is a series of musical notes moving upwards or downwards with fixed distances between
each note. Example; a set of notes from doh to another doh an octave higher make a scale.
Distances between notes are called intervals.

The syllables represent specific sounds in the ascending and descending order.

drmfsltd

This arrangement is called a modulator Scale. Each sound of the syllable is distinct. Different
combinations of these sounds will therefore produce different melodies. Tonic sol-fa notes form
what is called a major scale. d is the first note in a major scale. It is called the tonic or key note.

Any note that is repeated beyond this scale is shown by an upper stroke( )

Eg d r m f s l t d r m f….

Any note that is repeated below this scale is shown with a lower stroke()

Eg d r m f s l t d r m f s l t d

t is octave lower than t

l is octave higher than l

Notes in tonic sol-fa can be compared to those on staff notation. If d was sounds as a c in staff
notation, the comparison would be as follows.

d r m f s l t d

C D E F G A B C

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MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

Musical instruments are used in performances of musical pieces. A large group of people who
play various musical instruments together are called an orchestra. There are four families of
musical instruments in an orchestra as summarized below in the table.

STRINGED WOODWIND BRASS PERCUSSION

Violin Flute Trumpet Chimes
Viola Piccolo French horn Triangle
Cello Double bassoon Trombone Cymbals
Double bass Oboe tuba Glockenspiel
Clarinet Kettle drums
English horn

THE ORCHESTRA

An orchestra is a large group of musicians playing many kinds of musical instruments. The
standard orchestra usually has about 75 to over 100 players, of this more than half play stringed
instruments, the foundation of orchestra. The diagram below shows the seating plan of modern
orchestra.

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FAMILIES OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

String instruments or stringed instruments are musical instruments that produce sound from
vibrating strings. In most strings instruments, the vibrations are transmitted to the body of the
instrument, which also vibrates, along with the air inside it.
METHOD OF PLAYING TECHNIQUE
(a)Plucking
(b)Bowing
(c)striking

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BRASS INSTRUMENTS

A brass instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound by sympathetic vibration of air in
a tubular resonator in sympathy with the vibration of the player's lips. Brass instruments are also
called labrosones, literally meaning "lip-vibrated instruments".There are several factors involved
in producing different pitches on a brass instrument. Slides, valves, or keys are used to change
vibratory length of tubing while the player's lip tension and air flow serve to select the specific
harmonic produced from the available series.
The term "brass instrument" should be defined by the way the sound is made, as above, and not
by whether the instrument is actually made of brass. Thus one finds brass instruments made of
wood, like the alphorn, and while some woodwind instruments are made of brass, like
the saxophone.

METHOD OF PLAYING TECHNIQUE

(a)Blowing

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 WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Woodwinds are basically defined as hollow tubes, which, when blown on one end, produce a
sound. Most woodwind instruments have keys or finger holes to vary the pitch of the sound, and
different methods may be used to create the basic sound. Different notes are created by
shortening or lengthening the air column inside the instrument. This is usually achieved by
covering certain holes on the instrument, either with keys or fingers.

METHOD OF PLAYING TECHNIQUE

Blowing

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 PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

The easiest definition of a percussion instrument is something that produces a sound through
being struck. Percussion instruments are usually rhythm or accent instruments, although
instruments like bells, xylophone, or glockenspiel can play [Link] instruments
make sound by being hit. Drums have a hollow body that amplifies the noise of a stretched
membrane being hit. Some instruments are shaken, like the maracas. Others resonate when hit,
like bells. Yet others, like cymbals, just plain make a noise when they're hit.

METHOD OF PLAYING TECHNIQUE

(A)HITTING/STRIKING

(B)SHAKING

RHYTHM

Rhythm can be explained as the pattern of sounds beats in music. The beat is that regular pulse
heard in music. It is what you tap with your foot when you respond to what the ear is hearing.
Beats are usually heard in a steady even succession. like a heart beat, the tempo may be slow
when the piece is calm and rapid when the piece is exciting.

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NOTE VALUES

This means the duration of a note/sound. Each beat when clapped or tapped along with music
becomes a note. A note is a single sound of a certain length made by the voice or musical
instrument.

The length of a note depends on how many counts the beat has a shown in the table below.

ENGLISH SYMBOL FRENCH BEATS AMERICAN

NAME TIME NAME NAME
Semibreve Taa-aa-aa-aa 4 Whole note

Minim Taa-aa 2 Half note

crotchet taa 1 Quarter note

Quaver ta-te 1/2 Eighth note

Semiquaver ta-fa-te-fe 1/4 Sixteenth note

Demisemiquaver 1/8 Thirty-second

note

The Rhythm Tree

In order to fully understand note lengths become familiar with the rhythm tree. The rhythm tree
shows how the notes are related to each other.

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NOTES AND RESTS VALUES

One of the most interesting aspect of rhythm is the relationship between sound and silence. The
notated symbols for silence are called rests.

Notes and rests are musical symbols on a staff that designate when to play and when to not play.
Notes on a staff represent what pitch to play and for how long. Rests are musical symbols used to
designate when to pause/silent and not play/sing.

Below is a table which displays whole, half, quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes and rests, along
with how long each one lasts, measured in beats.

23
Counting Note and Rest Values

Whole Notes and Whole Rests:

Whole notes and rests are easy to count because they last for four beats.

Here is an example of a whole note and the count that it receives.

24
Here is an example of a whole rest and the count that it receives.

Half Note and Half Rests:

Half notes and rests each last for two beats.

Here is an example of half notes and the count that they receive.

Here is an example of half notes and rests in context on the staff.

Quarter Notes and Quarter Rests:

Quarter notes and rests last for one beat.

Here is an example of quarter notes and the count that they receive.

Here is an example of quarter notes and rests in context on the staff.

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Eighth Notes and Eighth Rests:

Eighth notes and rests only last for one half of a beat. When you are counting the rhythm of
eighth notes, the usual way is to say the word "and" between each beat. This subdivides each
beat by two, and makes it easier to count the eighth notes evenly.

Like this:

One-and-two-and-three-and-four-and.
This manner of subdividing works the same for eighth rests, as well as eighth notes.

Here is an example of eighth notes and how to count them.

Here is an example of eighth notes and rests in context with other notes on the staff.

Sixteenth Notes and Sixteenth Rests:

Sixteenth notes and rests only last for one fourth of a beat. When you are counting the rhythm of
sixteenth notes, the usual way is to say "e-and-a" between each beat. This subdivides each beat
by four, and makes it easier to count the sixteenth notes and rests evenly.

Like this:

One e-and-a, Two e-and-a, Three e-and-a, Four e-and-a.

Here is an example of sixteenth notes and how to count them.

26
Here is an example of sixteenth notes and rests in context with other notes on the staff.

Triplets and Dotted Notes & Rests

Triplets:

A triplet is taking 3 notes of the same value and playing them evenly over the space of time
usually given to 2 notes of that same value.

Example 1:
A quarter-note triplet would be three quarter notes played in an even timing over 2 beats (the
time usually given to only 2 quarter notes).

Example 2:
A half-note triplet would be three half notes played in an even timing over 4 beats (the time
usually given to only 2 half notes).

Triplets are easy to recognize on the staff because they will have a horizontal bracket with the
number "3" grouping the three notes, rests or a combination of both.

Examples of triplets:

Half-Note Triplets:

Quarter-Note Triplets:

27
Eighth-Note Triplets:

Sixteenth-Note Triplets:

Dotted Notes & Rests:

Often, when reading music, you'll come across a note immediately followed by a small dot. The
dot signifies that the preceding note is equal to the sum of it's own value, plus half it's value. In
simple words dot beside a note increases its duration by half its original value. For example, half
notes, in 4/4 time, are worth 2 beats. When a dot is placed next to the half note, the duration is
increased by one (one being half of the original duration of two) and the resulting duration is
three beats. The curved line in the picture above is a tie. Ties connect notes that are the same
pitch together to create a sustained note.

Not only can notes have a dot, but also rests may be dotted as well. The dot signifies the same
thing for a rest as it does for the note. A dotted rest would equal the sum of it's own value, plus
half it's value.

Example 1:

A dotted half note would equal three beats; the sum of it's value (two beats) plus half it's value
(one beat).

Example 2:
A dotted quarter note would equal one and a half beats; the sum of it's value (one beat) plus half
it's value (half of a beat).

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Examples of Dotted Notes & Rests:

A Dotted Half Note:

A Dotted Quarter Note:

A Dotted Quarter Rest:

TIME SIGNATURE

The time signature (also known as meter signature metre signature,or measure signature is a
notational convention used in Western musical notation to specify how many beats (pulses) are
to be contained in each bar and which note value is to be given one beat. In a musical score, the
time signature appears at the beginning of the piece, as a time symbol or stacked numerals, such
as or 3/4 (readcommon time and three four time, respectively), immediately following the key
signature or immediately following the clef symbol if the key signature is empty.

The figure at the bottom shows the kind of note to receive the beat which is the crotchet note.

= 3 crotchet beats in a bar

= 2 crotchet beats in a bar

29
Time signatures are categorized in two ways: Simple and compound.

[Link] Time Signature

Simple time signatures can be stated in 3 ways:

(a)Simple duple time (simple time signatures with two beats in a bar)

(b) Simple triple time(simple time signatures with three beats in a bar)

c) simple quadruple time(simple time signatures with four beats in a bar)

[Link] Time Signature

In compound meter, subdivisions of the main beat (the upper number) split into three, not two,
equal parts, so that a dotted note (half again longer than a regular note) becomes the beat unit.
Compound time signatures are named as if they were simple time signatures, in which the one-
third part of the beat unit is the beat, so the top number is commonly 6, 9 or 12 (multiples of 3).
The lower number is most commonly an 8 (an eighth-note):

Compound Time Signature can be stated in three ways:

(a) Compound duple(compound time signatures with two compound beats in a bar)

(b) Compound triple (compound time signatures with three compound beats in a bar)

(c) compound quadruple(compound time signatures in a bar)

Simple Time Signatures may be tabulated in the following way.

30
 Compound time signatures may be tabulated in the following way;

Compound duple Compound triple Compound quadruple

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SIMPLE AND COMPOUND TIME SIGNATURE

 In simple time, the top number indicates the number of beats in a bar while the bottom
number indicates the note value that represent one beat.
 In compound time the top number indicates the subdivisions of the main beat, the main
beat is represented by a dotted note. The bottom number indicates the note value.
 In simple time beats divide into twos, while in compound time beats divide into threes.

PULSE MEASURE

Pulse is a steady beat in music to which one can clap or tap. The beats vary from song to song.
The beats can fall into regular beats of two, three or four. The first count of each group is an
accent ie it is given more emphasis by being stronger than others. This is shown by symbol
above or below the beat as shown in the diagram below. The diagrams below show how notes
are grouped into two, three and four.

Two pulse measure(2 beats in a bar)

31
 Three pulse measure(3 beats in a bar)

Four pulse measure

Six pulse measure

TEMPO

Tempo is an Italian word which means movement. It is the speed at which music is played.
Music which is fast or increasing in speed generate feelings of excitement while slow music
generate feelings of sadness.

Below are some of the Italian words for tempo and their English equivalents

ITALIAN NAME MEANING

Adagio slow

Allegro fast/quick

Andante at a walking pace

Grave slowly

Presto very fast

Vivace lively

32
Moderato at a medium speed

Lento slow

Andantino moderately slow

Allegretto moderately fast

Largo broadly

Rit= ritardando, ritenuto decreasing speed, becoming slower

Rall= rallentando becoming slower

Accel=accelerando gradually becoming fast

Metronome marking specifies the speed at which music is to be performed. Eg d=C.60,means

60 crotchet beat in a minute.

INTERVALS

An interval in music is a distance in pitch from one note to another. It is the relationship between
the pitches of two notes. Eg the relationship between C and D, or B and G.

The name of the interval is determined by the number of the letters from the bottom to the top
note. Both notes should be included in the count. There are two main types of intervals,

1. Harmonic interval
2. Melodic interval

Harmonic Interval

We can measure the distance between two notes which are played together at the same time, like
these:

The distance between these notes is called a "harmonic" interval. Harmonic intervals are only
possible on some instruments like piano, guitar, and marimba where two or more notes can be
played at the same time.

Melodic Interval

Or we can measure two notes which are played separately, like these:

33
The distance between these notes is called a "melodic" interval. Melodic intervals are also known
as liner intervals. In this case the notes sound successfully that is one after the other.

We use the same method to measure both kinds of interval.

Measuring Intervals

When we measure an interval, we always start counting from the lower note. We then count
upwards to the higher note.

Here, we start counting on the lower note, which is C. We count upwards to the higher note, E.
This gives us C, D and E. We counted three notes, so this interval is called a third.

If we count four notes, the interval is a fourth, and so on, until we reach eight. If we count eight
notes the interval is called an "octave". If the note is exactly the same, it's called a "unison".

In Music Theory, all the intervals you have to calculate will start on the tonic (1st note) of the
scale. Here are the intervals built from a tonic C or scale of C major:

What you have just learned above are the intervals related to the major scale. When applied on
any major scale can be created using these intervals and half step rules.

IDENTIFY INTERVALS BY QUALITY AND NUMBER

Each music interval has a quality, depending on whether it is a 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th etc.

The three interval qualities explained on this page are:

34
Perfect Intervals
Major Intervals
Minor Intervals

An interval containing eight pitch positions (from A to A or from G to G) is called an octave. An

interval from one pitch to the exact same pitch is called a unison. The diagram below shows a C
major scale. The intervals are marked.

Perfect Intervals

If an interval is a unison (1st), 4th, 5th or Octave (8th) it is called a perfect interval. Both
notes in a Perfect interval are in the major scale. The example below shows the interval of a
Perfect 5th.

One of the features of perfect intervals is the fact that if you invert them (turn them upside down)
they remain perfect.

Perfect Intervals can also be raised or lowered by a semitone to become augmented or

diminished, but for the moment all intervals of a Unison, 4th, 5th or octave are perfect intervals.
A unison, 4th, 5th or octave can never be major or minor.

Major intervals and Minor intervals

2nds, 3rds, 6ths and 7ths are either major or minor intervals. Again, it is possible to have
other types of these intervals, but at the moment we are focusing on major and minor intervals.
As you move on to more complex music theory, you will find that 2nds, 3rds, 6ths and 7ths can
also be augmented or diminished, but never perfect. However, for now they are major or minor.
Major intervals are labeled with a large "M."

35
 Major intervals are those which are part of the major scale. The major scale should always be
your starting point when working out an interval. There are 2 example below. The first showing
a major 6th interval in the key of C major, the second showing a major 3rd interval in the key of
E major.

Minor intervals are one semitone smaller than major intervals. Minor intervals should always be
worked out from the major scale. Find the major interval and lower the top note by one semitone
to give the minor interval. This is because the notes in minor intervals don't always come in
minor scales. E.g. Although the minor 3rd comes in the minor scale, this isn't always the case.
The minor second isn't part of the minor scale. This is why it is important to remember to work
out intervals from the major scale, not think of them as part of the minor scale. There are 2
examples below. The first shows a minor 7th in the key of G major, the second shows a minor
2nd in the key of D major. Minor intervals are labeled with a small "m."

 Perfect Intervals have only one basic form. The first (or prime), fourth, fifth and eighth (or
octave) are all perfect intervals. When you lower a perfect interval by a semitone it
becomes diminished interval and when you raise it a half step it becomes augmented interval.

DIMINISHED INTERVALS

The word diminished means to decrease, therefore Diminished intervals are created when a
perfect or minor interval is made one half step smaller and the interval number is not changed.
Diminished intervals are labeled with a "d," the abbreviations "dim" or "deg," or a "°." For

36
 example, if the perfect fifth from C to G above were changed to a C to Gb, the interval would
become a diminished fifth, or °5.

AUGMENTED INTERVALS

The word augmented means to increase. Augmented intervals are when a major or perfect
interval is made one half step larger, and the interval number does not change. Augmented
intervals are labeled with an "A," the abbreviation "Aug.," or a "+." For example, above, if the
P5 from C to G were changed to a C to G#, it would become an augmented fifth, or +5.

The diagram below shows examples of both augmented and diminished interval.

RECODER

The recorder is one of the common musical instrument used mostly in schools. It is made up of
plastic though in the past they were made of wood or ivory. The recorder used in schools is the
descant (soprano) recorder. An ensemble of recorder is called consort.

37
PARTS OF THE RECORDER

The recorder has seven holes on the top side and one on the bottom (0). Holes 6 and 7 are usually
doubled, which is recommended but not necessary.

The Left hand is used for the top holes(1,2 and 3). The little finger on the left hand is never
used. The right hand is used for the remaining holes with the thumb supporting the instrument
from beneath.

38
PROPER HANDLING AND CARE OF THE RECORDER

a. Use a soft cloth when cleaning air passage/recorder

b. Always avoid dropping the recorder
c. Do not chew the mouth piece of the recorder
d. Disinfect the recorder occasionally before and after
e. Do not share the recorder

CORRECT PLAYING TECHNIQUES

• Always breathe gently into the mouth piece. Breath in through your nose and then
breathe out as if you are singing.

• It's easy : whisper "do" or "to" on every tone you play. This is called tonguing.

• When it comes to quality of sound, there's no better advice. Also, a gentle stream of air is
required on the lower notes.

• Leaks in the recorder causes it to squeak, so make sure you close all the holes to be
closed when playing the recorder.

39
NOTES ON THE RECORDER

RECORDER FINGERING CHART

40
The Keyboard

The Keyboard is arranged so that the pitch goes left to right, low to high. The keys on keyboard
instruments are arranged in a reoccurring pattern. The black keys are arranged in groups of two
and three between the white keys.

This pattern continues up and down the keyboard.

The note names of the white keys are:

This key pattern repeats on the keyboard so that the note names of the white keys keep repeating:
CDEFGAB-CDEFGAB-CDEFGAB and so on.

41
 Sharps and Flats:

If we take a white key, D for example, and we go up (to the right) to the adjacent black key we
are now on the note D-sharp. If we go down (to the left) to the adjacent black key from D we end
up on the note D-flat. This is how we determine the names of the black keys and therefore all
black keys will be a sharp or flat note. The diagram below describes that:

You may have noticed that black keys can have more than one note name. For example C-sharp
and D-flat are on the same black key but which name we should use depends upon context, such
as the Key Signature.

Half-steps and Whole-steps:

A Half-step is the distance of two adjacent notes, such as D to D-sharp, E to F, or A-flat to G. (A

half-step is also known as a minor second.)

A Whole-step is the distance of two Half-steps, such as C to D, E to F-sharp, or B-flat to A-flat.

(A whole-step is also known as a Major second.)

42
Basic Piano Keyboard Layout

Here's a simple diagram of the piano keyboard layout. As you may have noticed, this pattern of
keys repeats itself up and down the piano keyboard, which should help you feel better about
learning to play! Yes, you'll need to learn to play with both hands and multiple fingers, but it's
best to break the keyboard down into its most basic components and learn them one at a time.

What About The Black Keys?

First, a bit of music theory...

A "half step" is the smallest unit of measure on the piano keyboard. The distance from C to the
black key just to its right is a half step, as is the distance from E to F. Got it?

The black keys are represented by sharps (#) and flats (b) applied to the "white key" notes. A
sharp sign raises the pitch one half step - either to the black key just to the right (as in C# or D#)
or, if there is no black key, to the next white key (as in E#, which is actually F).

A flat sign lowers the pitch one half step, to the nearest black key (as in Db or Eb) or white key
(as in Fb, which is actually E).

Here's a diagram that should help explain things:

43
The below picture shows the numbers given to each finger for playing the keyboard.

The Major Scale

A scale in music is a series of eight (8) notes with a fixed interval differing in pitch.

C Major Scale

C major doesn't have any sharps and flats (because it uses only the white notes on the piano
keyboard). All major scales are built with the same pattern: T-T-S-T-T-T-S (T=Tone and
S=Semitone). A major scale may be divided into two halves, each with the same pattern T-T-ST-
T and each half is called a TETRACHORD. The two tetrachords are joined by a tone.

Here's the scale of C major again for you:

44
And here's a picture of the piano keyboard, to help you remember the layout of notes:

G Major Scale

Let's look at G major next. We'll construct the scale using the T-T-S-T-T-T-S pattern that we've
just learnt.
We'll start by putting the first G on the stave. We're using the treble clef, but it works just the
same way in the bass clef.

The next note we need, as you can see from the pattern above, is a tone higher than G. The note
which is a tone higher than G is A, (because we can squeeze a G sharp/A flat between them). So
A is our next note:

The third note is, again, a tone up. From A, the next tone up is B, (we can squeeze A sharp/B flat
in between them).

Next we meet our first semitone - C. (There is nothing we can squeeze in between B and C).

45
Hopefully by now you've got the idea, so here are the rest of the notes of the G major scale:

G major has one sharp - F sharp. You might be wondering why we choose F sharp and not G flat,
since they are the same note on the piano. When we write a scale, we use each letter of the
alphabet once only, except for the first and last notes which must have the same letter. G major
must start and end on G, so we've already used up that letter. We haven't used F though, so we
can use that, and make F sharp.

D Major Scale

Let's look at D major next:

The scale of D major has two sharps - F sharp and C sharp.

F Major Scale

Below is an example of the F major ascending scale, using the treble clef:

The F major scale doesn't have any sharps, but it has one flat - B flat.

Ascending and Descending Scales

Scales can be written going up or going down. Scales which go up are called "ascending", and
scales which go down are "descending". When writing a descending scale, the pattern of tones
and semitones is reversed, so instead of being T-T-S-T-T-T-S, it is S-T-T-T-S-T-T.

46
Here's an example of the F major descending scale, using the bass clef.

Degrees of the Scale

In music theory, the first and last notes in any scale are called the "TONIC". The other notes
can be referred to by number.

In C major, the second note in the scale is D, so D is the 2nd degree of the scale of C major.

In most cases we always use the ascending scale to work out the degrees of a scale.

Every scale has seven degrees, because there are seven different notes. The distance of eight
notes, from low C to top/upper C for example, is called an "OCTAVE".

Here's a summary of the degrees of the scales and they technical names. In music the degree of
major scales are identified using roman numerals.

Degrees 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th

of major
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
scales

Technical
Leading
names of Tonic Supertonic Mediant Subdominant Dominant Submediant Tonic
note
major

C Major C D E F G A B C

G Major G A B C D E F# G

D Major D E F# G A B C# D

F Major F G A Bb C D E F

A major
A B C# D# E F# G A

Bb major Bb C D Eb F G A Bb

F# major F# G# A# B C# D# E# F#

E major E F# G# A B C# D# E

47
Minor Scales

Minor scales sound different from major scales because they are based on a different pattern of
intervals. Just as it did in major scales, starting the minor scale pattern on a different note will
give you a different key signature, a different set of sharps or flats. The scale that is created by
playing all the notes in a minor key signature is known as natural minor scale. To create a
natural minor scale, start on the tonic note and go up the scale using the interval pattern: T-ST-T-
T-ST-T-T. there are three (3) types of minor scales and are:

1. Natural minor scale

2. Harmonic minor scale
3. Melodic minor scale

Natural Minor Scale intervals

Below are examples of natural minor scales

48
Harmonic minor scales

The harmonic minor scale raises the seventh note of the scale by one half step, whether you are
going up or down the scale.

Examples of harmonic minor scales ascending.

MELODIC MINOR SCALE

In the melodic minor scale, the sixth and seventh notes of the scale are each raised by one half
step when going up the scale, but return to the natural keys when going down the scale.
Melodies in minor keys often use this particular pattern of accidentals.

49
Examples of melodic minor scales ascending.

Relative Minor and Major Keys

Each minor key shares a key signature with a major key. A minor key is called the relative minor
of the major key that has the same key signature. Even though they have the same key signature,
a minor key and its relative major sound very different.

Comparing Major and Minor Scale Patterns

.

50
 Figure 5: The C major and C minor scales start on the same
note, but have different key signatures. C minor and E flat
major start on different notes, but have the same key signature.
C minor is the relative minor of E flat major.

TRANSCRIPTION

It means writing down music in a different notation from the original one,ie writing music from
staff notation to tonic sol-fa notation and from tonic solfa notation to staff notation. Transcription
is important as music written in staff notation can be sang easily when transcribed in to tonic
sol-fa and music written in tonic sol-fa can be easily played on musical instrument when
transcribe into staff notation. There are two musical elements to be considered when
transcribing which are rhythm and pitch.

TRANSPOSITION

In music transposition refers to the process, or operation, of moving a collection of notes up or

down in pitch by a constant interval.
It can also be define as re-writing a given piece in a key which is different from that of the
original. Transposition is useful in music as a melody can be lowered or raised to suit a specific
voice range or certain instrument.

51
The role of music in daily life in Botswana

Music is part of the world that we live and work [Link] music is part of our cultural heritage
but we are exposed to music of foreign origin brought to us through the radio,Tv,Cds,internet
and other sources.

Music is used for many [Link] functional uses of music may be classified as music for
ceremonial events or spontaneous music.

Ceremonial events:birth,pubety,marriage,death,religious festivals.

Spontaneous events:games,stories,lullabies,recreation,everyday events.

Wedding ceremony(mokete)

On the last day of the wedding the bride would be taken to the groom’s place. A ceremony
would take place to welcome her. In this ceremony, people would sing the songs that has a
message for the bride.A good example is ‘Ausi o tsile go di bona tsotlhe,O itshoke rona re tsere
dikgomo’. The role of this song is to send the message to the bride that there are lot of
challenges in marriage and she must not give up easily because her parents have taken lobola.

Recreational music

Dikhwaere: This mostly take place during festive season. When friends and relatives meet. They
would enjoy watching dikhwaere singing while relaxed enjoying braai and beer. Songs of such
event carry out message about what is happening in the society or community. A good example
is ‘Bana ba segompieno ba rata feshene’.

52
 Children’s game songs

These are the songs that children would sing while playing.A good example is ‘MmaJane’When
children of different wards meet at night and sing the game songs in the [Link] this game
song MmaJane does not want to reveal the truth about Jane’s death,She kept telling Jane’s
friends different stories like she is washing the plate,she went to the shops,she is playing etc
until she finally tell them the truth.

Ancestral worship ceremony(healing)

In the ancestral worship,families and relatives gathered together led by sangoma to request help
from ancestors for healing [Link] order for sangoma to communicate with the ancestors
certain songs has to be sang to help sangoma to communicate with the dead.A good example is
‘Fatshe le a falala badimo romelang kotlhao’,This song help to link communication between the
dead and life ones.

Initiation ceremony(bogwera and bojale)

Ngwale:When a young girl reach pubety,before she could get married she will have to go
through this event (ngwale).In this ceremony a group of women would surround this girl and
singing the songs that has a message of advice.A song like (Mmamodisana wa mangana o
phakeletse metsi o jeleng)The role of this song is to pass message to the young girl that to stop
running after young boys as she may get pregnant before she get married.

Letsema or molaletsa(working song)

This is a ceremony where by people are invited to carry out a certain job such as
ploughing,weeding,fencing a field without being paid but given food and beer [Link] these
people are busy working they would sing songs that they believe would give them strength and
power,a good example is Mmammati mpelegele ngwana ke yoo ke a lema ke lema kele [Link]
they sing this song they will enjoy the work and not feel the hardwork,this will help them to
finish the job quickly.

53
 INDIGENOUS MUSIC OF BOTSWANA

Botswana is made up of many different ethnic groups. Indigenous music is part of these group’s
culture and the culture of Botswana as a nation. Botswana ‘s music include popular and folk
[Link] traditional songs and dances reflect a way of life of particular ethnic group.

CATEGORIES OF INDIGENOUS MUSIC OF BOTSWANA

CEREMONIAL MUSIC

This music is performed in connection with the celebration of of passage,fulfilling social and
spiritual needs,worship, rain making.

RECREATIONAL MUSIC

Music here is mainly used for entertainment.

STYLES OF RECREATIONAL AND CEREMONIAL MUSIC

Traditional dance styles are no longer confined to their area of origin. Media has lead to the
spread of these styles all over the country therefore they and up being used for other purpose.

RECREATINAL CEREMONIAL

-Setepa -Dikoma
-Dikhwaere -Hosanna
-Ndazula -Tsutsube

ARTIST LOCALITY FAMOUS SONG

Ratsie setlhako serowe Are chencheng

Setampore Molepolole Re Batswana

Jonny Kobedi Mochudi KAGISO

Ranamane CKGR Tsamkoo

Sheleng Serowe Sheleng

Speech Madimabe Lethakang Sebodu ke nnenekwane

Matlapeng

George Swabi Serowe Ba ga mmangwato

Andries Bok Werda

54
GROUPS

 Dintsu tsa Malwelwe -Group ya Dihosana

 Bana baga Malema -Maphoi
 Bomme Baga Mmathethe -Dinare tsa Tsetsebjwe
 Zebras tsa Mathathane -Basadi ba Mmashoro

INFLUENCE OF INDIGENOUS ARTISTS\GROUP ON MODERN

TRADITIONAL MUSIC
RHYTHM
Modern traditional music almost use the same rhythm as traditional music e,g Max-Koba
LYRICS
Modern traditional music uses most of the words from folk music eg Tshipidi-Machesa
group
ATTIRE
Modern traditional musicians put on clothes that are more traditional during their
performances.

INDIGENOUS INSTRUMENTS

Some traditional instruments used by indigenous artist and groups eg sagaba are seen
used by modern artists in their performances.
ORGANOLOGY OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

(A)SETINKANE[THUMBPIANO]DENGO,MBIRA

MATERIALS USED
 Flat piece of wood
 Flat strips of iron sheet

55
 PLAYING TECHNIQUE

It is made up of a flat piece of wood with tones of pieces of iron sticking out. These
pieces of iron are of different lengths thus creating different pitches. Iron pieces are
plucked using thumbs to make them vibrate and produce sound.

(B)SEGABA[STRING GUITAR]

MATERIALS USED
 A long wire
 Wooden peg
 Oil tin(lekopokopo)
 Boditse(cowtail)
 Bow

HOW IT IS MADE

A string is attached to a piece of wood using a wooden peg on one end with a tin on the
other. The peg is used to adjust the string. The oil tin is used as a resonator
[amplifier].Boditse fro cow tail is attached to the bow and gum from a tree(borokhu) is
used to make boditse stick together and increases friction against the string causing it to
vibrate and produce sound.

PLAYING TECHNIQUE
The bow is moved against the string in different area applying tension or reducing it.

56
[Link] OR TRADITIONAL DRUM

The instrument is used as an accompaniment to traditional song and dances of

Bakalaka,Bayei,and Hambukushu [Link] helps to reinforce the rhythm of dance and
help the hand [Link] sizes are normally used to give different pitched sound
combinations.
HOW IT IS MADE
The hollow object is covered with animal skin and the wooden pegs and leather, strings
are used to tighten the animal skin to the hollow object.
HOW IT IS PLAYED AND HOW IT PRODUCE SONUND
It is played by hitting the membrane/skin with sticks or hands which vibrates sending the
vibrations to the hollow part where sound is amplified and resonated. The inside of
hollow object is normally not smooth, it is left rough to aid the sound production and the
harmonics of the instrument.

INDIGENOUS INSTRUMENTS
[Link]-String instruments; segaba ,nkokwane, lengope, seburuburu
[Link]-Those that produce sound when they are hit or shaken e.g matlhowa,
setinkane,shakers
[Link]-These have a hallow part with a membrane stretches over it
to make sound. e.g moropa
[Link]-Those that make sound when air is blown into or across them. e.g
lonaka, letlhaka

STYLE ASSOCIATED WITH INDIGENOUS INSTRUMENTS OF BOTSWANA

-Ndazula -moropa ,matlhoa
-Setapa -matlhoa ,phala
-Borankana-phala,matlhoa,morupa
-Phathisi-phala

57
 -Mmamarutwe-phala,lonaka,matlhoa
-Tsutsube-matlhoa,marimba,Quru
Hosana-matlhoa morupa

STYLE PLACE ATTIRE INSTRUMENTS ROLE OF ROLE OF

OF OF MEN WOMEN
DANCE ORIGIN MEN WOMEN
Tsutsube Kgalagadi Leather Dipepe Voice,rattles,hand dance Dance,sing,
clothing beads clapping hand
metseto clapping
Setapa Ngwaketse Mengato, Dipped, Voice,rattles,whistl Sing,dance, Sing,ululate,
metseto beads e,hand clapping blow clap hands
whistle
phathisi kweneng Tattered Leather Voice,whistle,hand Sing,dance, Sing,ululate,
trouser, clothing, clapping blow clap hands
phathisi beads whistle
Mmamar Balete Ditshega, Dipepe, Voice,rattles,drums Sing,dance, Sing,dance,
utlwe region mengato beads ,whistle play drums ululate
Dikoma Kgatleng mekobolo shwaul Voice,horn Sing,blow ululate
region horn,dance
Woso, Kalanga Black skirts Beads, Drums,rattles,voice Sing,dance Sing,danclap
ndazula region white tops hands

POPULAR MUSIC OF BOTSWANA

This refers to a number of musical genres having wide appeal and is distributed to a large
audiences through music industry, it is mainly performed for recreational purpose. Most popular
music still comes from South Africa, US, Europe or elsewhere in Africa. however lately there
has been a significant rise in the effort of native musicians to produce their own songs and tunes
instead of purchasing foreign releases.

GENRES(STYLES) OF POP MUSIC OF BOTSWANA

 Gospel
 Jazz
 Choral
 Kwasa kwasa
 Kwaito
 Traditional pop
 House
 Rap
 Rhythm and Blues(RnB)
 Hip Hop

58
  Afro pop
 Disco
 Motswako
 Reggae

[Link] MUSIC

It is music that is written to express either personal,spiritual,or communal belief

regarding Christian [Link] music is composed for many purposes including aesthetic
pleasure,religious or ceremonial purposes and as an entertainment product for the
[Link] a theme gospel music is praise worship or thanks to god.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOSPEL MUSIC
LYRICS
Gospel music lyrics are simple and clear to communicate the message of God’s love and
forgiveness expressed through the death of Christ on the cross.
INSTRUMENTS
Some instruments commonly used in gospel music are
piano,organ,guitar,drums,tambourine,keyboard,violin and brass horn.
GOSPEL RHYTHM
Black gospel is very rhythmic and involves frequent clapping to the beat of the song.
Repetitious lyrics and rhythm patterns are often employed to make memorization of the
lyrical content easier.
GOSPEL PERFORMERS
Gospel music is presented by a variety of performers,a soloist is often deployed to deliver
a gospel song, Duets,trios,quartets and choir also perform gospel.
POPULAR GOSPEL ARTISTS/GROUPS
Phempheretlhe,MMereki Marakakgoro,Juda Bosa,Mpho Nakedi,Tebby,Kabelo
Eric,Tshepho Lesole,Kesebonye Sereto,Vusi,Matheke Leteane,Joel Keitumele,etc.

B. JAZZ MUSIC

It is a musical style that originated at the beginning of 20th century in black communities
in the Southern United [Link] was born out of a mix of African and European music
traditions,Present day jazz also incorporate American popular music.
CHARACTERISTICS OF JAZZ MUSIC
 Performers improvise within the conventions of their chosen style.
 Repeated chord progression.
 Written scores are used as a guide.
 Accents in unexpected places.(syncopation)
POPULAR JAZZ ARTISTS
Socca Moruakgomo,Tsilo Baitsile(late),Lista Boleseng,Malombo Mmereki,Puna
Gabasiane,Nnunu Ramogotsi,Street jazz band,Duncan [Link].

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[Link] MUSIC

Kwaito is a music genre that emerged in Johannesburg,S.A during the [Link] is derived from
the Afrikaaans word ‘Kwaai’which means [Link] features African sounds and [Link] often
contains catchy melodic and percussive loop samples,deep bass lines and vocals,generally male
shouted or chanted rather than sung or [Link] music is associated with the black youth of
post apartheid in SouthAfrica.

CHARACTERISTICS OF KWAITO MUSIC

 Content in most cases is about township life.

 Performers interact with audiences through verbal responses.
 Tempo is faster.
 Instrumentally kwaito music is easily recognized for its use of slowed down house music
beats with kick drum emphasizing each beat in the 4 time signature.

POPULAR KWAITO ARTISTS

Eskimos,Mapetla,Skazzo,MMP family,

[Link] KWASA

This is a dance rhythm from Democratic Republic of [Link] is an African type of Rhumba.
The Dance was created by Pepe Kalle, popularized by Kanda Bongo Man. The dance focuses on
the movement of hips and buttocks back and forth.

CHARACTERISTICS OF KWASKWASA MUSIC

 It has a slower rhythm than the original type

 The timeline of the music is normally the trissllo 123 123 123 123.
 Structure of song is normally two sections one slow one fast.
 The second section is normally fast and more danceable with minimal lyrical content.
 The music has guitar dominance with atlest three guitars in each ensemble.
 The drum kit has to keep the rhythm and pulse moving
 Simple routine focusing more on erotic movement of hips and buttocks.

POPULAR KWASAKWASA ARTISTS

Fraco and Afro Musica,Jeff Matheatau,Chris Manto 7,Alfredo Mos,Tumza etc.

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[Link] HOP MUSIC

This music originated in New York in the early [Link] consist of a stylized rhythmic music that
commonly accompanies rapping a rhythmic speech that is chanted.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HIP HOP

 The back track for rap is made from songs called samples
 The culture include MCs graffiti, scratching, beatboxing
 Rappers may perform poetry which have written ahead of time or improvise rhymes on
spot.
POPULAR HIP HOP ARTISTS
Mister Doe, Scar, Zeus,Third mind, Stagga, Mosako, Apollo Diablo, VS.

[Link] and Blues(RnB)

It is popular music genre combining jazz gospel and blues influenced by African Americans
artists.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RnB

 Use of electric or amplified instruments

 Integration of country, gospel and city blues styles
 Steady singing along music that makes social commentary and love issues.

POPULAR RnB ARTIST

Samantha Mogwe

[Link] AND ROLL MUSIC

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCK AND ROLL

 Has strong rhythm that encourages listener to dance

 Highly electric and ranges from simple ballads to song with complicated guitar solos.
 High dominance of electric guitar
 It can be divided into lots of categories as heavy metal and soft rock.

POPULAR ROCK AND ROLL ARTISTS

Metal orizon,Nosy road, Wrust

[Link] POP

CHARACTERISTICS OF AFRO POP

 It is music for happy ceremonies like weddings and has strong communal sense

61
  Cyclic in structure and has a lead singer and chorus creating an existing antiphonal
structure.
 The lead singer has to be a very good singer to express emotions and feelings very well.

POPULAR AFRO POP ARTISTS

Mr Tag, Lizibo, Astley Gops, Kalahari, Bro Sam

[Link] MUSIC

It is a genre of electric music that originated in American city of Chicago in the early [Link] is
generated by samples from the synthesizers.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HOUSE MUSIC

 It has a strong bassline and fast kick drum on every beat played on the drum machine
 It is a dance created music by DJs by mixing different tunes and rhythms to keep dancers
on the floor
 It is up-tempo music for dancing.

POPULAR HOUSE ARTISTS

Dj sly, Dj Spinz, Team Distant, Gouveia, LaTimmy, Dj Oats, Fondo Fire etc.

[Link]

Motswako is a Southern African genre of hip hop most popular in Botswana. The genre first
originated in Botswana in the mid 1990s when a rapper called Mr T (Tebogo Mapine, now
popularly known as Nomadic) created a demo of the genre which received rave reviews in radio
stations. It consists of a mix of rap lyrics in both the local language (Setswana) and English
layered on a steady beat. Other languages used include Zulu, French and Afrikaans as per the
rapper's origin. The genre gained popularity in the late nineties as acts like HHP and
Baphixilestarted rapping in Setswana, resulting in an increased fellowship from the local
population.

POPULAR MOTSWAKO ARTISTS

ATI, Dramaboi,

J. Reggae

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The word "reggae" was coined around 1960 in Jamaica to identify a "ragged" style of dance
music, that still had its roots in New Orleans rhythm'n'blues.

Reggae music was mainly popularized by Bob Marley, first as the co-leader of the Wailers, the
band that promoted the image of the urban guerrilla with Rude Boy (1966) and that cut the first
album of reggae music, Best Of The Wailers (1970);

CHARACTERISTICS OF REGGAE MUSIC

 Extremely electric and drawn from African religious music.

 Words relate news,social gossip and political commentary.
 It has heavy bassline

POPULAR REGGAE ARTISTS

Bob marley, Peter Tosh and Luckey Dube

AFRICAN MUSIC

African music reflects African culture, It is part of religious, social and political activities

THE SOCIAL ROLE OF MUSIC IN AFRICA

 To celebrate the birth of a child

 To teach about culture
 To gather knowledge about our surrounding
 To console the bereaved

THE RELIGIOUS ROLE OF MUSIC IN AFRICA

 To cure the sick

 To bring rain
 During initiation school
 To reflect the beliefs of the community

THE POLITICAL ROLE OF MUSIC IN AFRICA

 To celebrate a political party victory

 To praise leaders and discredit opposition
 To celebrate independence of people and freedom of expression
 To protest against authoritarian governments

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 CHARACTERISTICSOF AFRICAN MUSIC
 Melodies are usually short, simple and repetitive.
 Singers or instruments can change the melody at will (improvisation)
 Several voices sing different melodies at the same time
 Clapping hands and stamping feet is common way of making music.
 Drums are the most used percussion instruments.
 Call and response patterns are familiar
 It is communal, ie every one participates
 It has polyrhythmic texture
 Use of ostinato ie chords repeated continually
 Percussion based, drums and bells
 Syncopated rhythms

CHIMURENGA MUSIC
Chimurenga music is a Zimbabwean popular music genre coined and popularized by Thomas
Mapfumo. Chimurenga is a Shona language word for liberation. The word's modern
interpretation has been extended to describe a struggle for human rights, political dignity
and social justice. Mapfumo developed a style of music based on traditional Shona music, but
played with modern electric instrumentation, with lyrics characterized by social and political
commentary.

MBAQANGA MUSIC

Mbaqanga is a style of South African music with rural Zulu roots that continues to influence
musicians worldwide today. The style originated in the early [Link] Zulu, the
term mbaqanga means an everyday cornmeal porridge. Mbaqanga aficionados were mostly
plebeian, metropolitan African jazz enthusiasts. Many of them were not permitted to establish
themselves in the city, but they were unable to sustain themselves in the rural
country. Mbaqanga gave them a staple form of musical and spiritual sustenance; it was their
"musical daily bread." One of the most mbaqanga singer was Simon ‘Mahlathini’’Nkabinde.
One of the earliest innovators of mbaqanga was the Makgona Tsohle Band, a group comprising
five domestic workers from Pretoria – Marks Mankwane (lead guitar), Joseph Makwela (bass
guitar), Vivian Ngubane (rhythm guitar), Lucky Monama (drums) and West Nkosi (saxophone).

Mbaqanga was fully replaced as the dominant music genre in the 1980s by a new urban genre
called ‘bubblegum.’ An Afro-dance pop, Bubblegum was mainly influenced by mbaqanga and
other popular African styles. With the introduction of television in 1976, this musical genre was
promoted as music across all ethnic groups. Characterized as a representation of a move towards
music that was more urban than traditional, the Bubblegum genre had many successful
musicians, including Chico Twala, Yvonne Chaka Chaka and Brenda Fassie. The derivation of
mbaqanga into bubblegum contributed enormously towards the development of kwaito.

64
PROMINENT AFRICAN MUSICAL GROUPS AND MUSICIANS

Oliver Mtukuzi from Zimbabwe, Soweto Gospel Choir in South Africa, Youssouu N’Dour from
Senegal. King Sunny Ade from Nigeria, Machesa Group from Botswana, Manu Dibango from
Cameroon. Lucky Dube from South Africa, Brenda Fassie from South Africa.

Simon "Mahlathini" Nkabinde,

FORM

This is the overall structure or shape of music. It involves the set order of musical idea,
balancing, arranging a musical piece.

THERE ARE 3 BASIC TECHNIQUES OF FORM.

[Link]-

[Link]-

[Link]-

Form involves sectional or episodes in different ways;

[i]Strophic form-A-A-A-A-A-A

[ii]Binary form-A-A

[iii]Ternary form-A-B-A

[iv]Rondo form A-B-A2 C-A3

[v]Variation form A-A1-A2-A3-A4

IMPORTANCE OF FORM IN MUSIC

-Repetition creates sense of unity

-Melody stays in the memory when repeated many times

-Contrast provides variety, forward motion, change of mood.

-Variation provide change in music ideas e.g a melody mighty be done many times but
different accompaniment

-Melody may stay the same while rhythmic pattern changes.

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TEXTURE

Texture is the way in which many voices and instruments go together in a tune. It is the
relationship between instruments and voices or how melody and harmony go together. Some
pieces of music present a rather dense sound, rich and smoothly flowing. Other pieces may
have a thinner, sparser sound, sometimes producing an effect which is spiky. There are three
basic ways of presenting texture;

A. Monophonic texture: A single melodic line without supporting harmonies.

B. Polyphonic texture: Two or more melodic lines at the same time.
C. Homophonic texture: A single line melody against chordal accompaniment.

CHORD

A chord is when two or more notes are played or sung together. Chords can be played on the
guitar ,piano, organ and other instruments which are able to make more than one note at a time.
Chords are used to harmonize a melody.

TRIAD

It is a chord which consists of three notes.

A triad consists of a root,3rd and a 5th Triads are built on each degree of the major and minor
scale, e.g in C major triads are constructed below;

They take their name from the degrees of the scale on which they are based, The triad on the
tonic is the tonic triad, on the dominant is dominant triad and so on. They are referred to by
roman numerals; i ,ii, iii, iv ,v, vi, vii, viii. The Tonic, Subdominant, Dominant; (I), (IV), and (V)

66
are known as PRIMARY triads, this is because they can be used to accompany most melodies.
The remaining (ii,[Link],vii) triads are called secondary triads.

QUALITY OF TRIADS

Triads can be identified as major, minor, diminished and augmented depending on quality of the
intervals between the root and the 3rd and the 3rd and the 5th .The diagram below shows examples
of major, minor, diminished and augmented.

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Articulation marks-

These are signs and terms which indicate how notes should be sung or articulated, either
separated from each other or joined smoothly together.

Staccato - a dot over or under the notes and it means to play the note very short and
detatched.

Accent - Means to hit the note harder and louder.

Marcato - Almost a combination of staccato and accent, provides a sharp sound.

Tenuto - Hold the note for its full value.

Sforzando - A sudden, strong accent.

Fermata - Hold the note longer than its full value, approximately twice its value, or until
conducted to stop.

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Ties and Slurs

Ties and slurs connect two or more notes together. Ties connect notes of the same pitch, forming
essentialy one longer note. Slurs smoothly connect notes of different pitch. This means to play
the notes without breaks. The first set of notes above exhibit a tie. The second show a slur.

Repeats

These are the begin and end repeat signs. When you reach the second, go back to the first and
repeat the music. These are often accompanied by first, second and even third endings.

This is a directional marking. It means 'Del Signo'. When you see this in music, you must go to
the sign (below). This marking may also be accompanied by 'al coda' or 'al fine'. These mean 'Go
to the sign, from there go to the coda' and 'Go to the sign, from there go to the end' respectively.
Essentially these are big repeat signs.

This is the sign. From here you play to the coda or the end or wherever the Dal Segno directs
you.

69
This is the coda sign. It marks when to go to the special ending, or coda. Usually you won't go to
the coda until after a D.S. al coda

TRIPLET

A line that joins three notes that fit into the time of two notes of the same type or value.

RINFORZANDO [rf] a reinforcement

LEGATO-smoothly

GENERAL TERMS

A – At, to by, in ,for Poco a poco-Little by little

Arco – with the bow [string music] Tutti – All

Assai – very Tenuto – Held

Ben – Well Spirito – Spirit

Con – with Non-Not

Da Capo [D.C] From the beginning Molto-Much

Dal segno [D.S] From the sign

Fine – The end

Pizzicato – [pizz] Plucked [in string music]

Ma – But

Meno – Less

TYPES OF VOICES AND THEIR COMBINATIONS

VOICE PRODUCTION

70
The act of production musical sounds with the voice is called singing .the human voice produces
sound in the following way;

[Link] pressure from the lungs creates a steady flow of air through the trachea ,larynx and
pharynx.

2 .The vocal folds in the larynx vibrate creating frequent changes in air pressure .These
fluctuation are known as sound waves.

[Link] in the vocal chords changes these waves to produce sound. The quality of the
sound is affected by the position and shape of the lips, jaw, tongue, soft palate and other
speech organs.

[Link] mouth and nose opening send out the sound.

CLASSIFYING SINGING VOICES

In choral music ,singers voices are divided on the basis of vocal range. The are four main
vocal parts being.

{!}Soprano

{2}Alto

[3]Tenor

[4]Bass

[A]SOPRANO

This is the highest human voice. It is usually assigned to women and young girls. This voice
extend to two octaves starting from middle C to A above the treble clef as shown in the
illustration below . In the modern choir sopranos are usually the largest group to balance the
voices.

B]ALTO

It is also called contralto. It is the deepest female singing voice. The voice ranges from F below
middle C to D or E on the 4 line of the treble clef stave.

C]TENOR

This is the highest male voice. It ranges from C in the bass stave to G in the treble stave.

D]BASS

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It is the lowest vocal range of the human voice .It ranges from E[ledger line] below bass stave to
middle C.

All these different voices are used in large choirs. Most choral music is composed for S.A.T.B.

CORRECT POSTURE WHILE SINGING

It is very important for a singer to pay attention to the body position when singing. This allows
for clear airway and steady support for the voice.

When standing the shoulders should be straight, relaxed and parallel to the chest.

The feet should be planted firmly on the floor not to be closed or far apart one slightly ahead of
the other.

The back should be straight and firm

The arms should be relaxed

The neck should not be turned.

BREATH CONTROL

It is the ability to breathe in and out appropriately during singing.

Diaphragmatic breathing allows the singer to support a strong voice that can reach high and low
notes.

IMPORTANCE OF BREATH CONTROL

It allows the singer to project the voice with power.

It allows the singer to control the voice without cracks or waves.

It allows the singer to prevent vocal strain from singing in the throat.

It reduces stress that can accumulate in the shoulders and neck.

GOOD VOICE PRODUCTION

Sit or stand upright so that you can control your breathing easily

Avoid a lot of movement while singing

Have enough breath reserved to sing long and sustained notes

Sing with an open throat ,mouth and nasal cavities

Pronounce all words clearly ie good diction

72
Before singing one should avoid sugary foods, shouting and colds winds as this can cause horse
voice.

DYNAMICS

Dynamics refers to the change in music volume or amplitude. Dynamic signs direct the
performer to be soft or loud. These dynamics are Italian and abbreviated but have been
translated to English. Below are some of them;

This symbol is pianissimo, it means play very softly.

This symbol is piano, it means play softly.

This symbol is mezzo piano, it means play moderately soft.

This symbol is mezzo forte, it means play moderately loud.

This symbol is forte, it means play loudly.

This symbol is fortissimo, it means play very loudly.

Also abbreviated Cresc. or written in as crescendo. This sign is the crescendo sign, it means
gradually become louder.

73
Also abbreviated as Decresc. or written as decrescendo, dim., or diminuendo. This sign is
decrescendo, it means gradually become softer.

_______________________________________________

Some dynamics describe the mood of the song being played. They are also in Italian.

ITALIAN TERM MEANING

mesto sad
giocoso playfully
dolce sweetly
dolore sorrowfully
grazioso gracefully
patetico With deep feeling

CHORAL MUSIC IN BOTSWANA

Choral music is an ensemble of voices singing with the help of a conductor. Musical instruments
can be added to blend the music.

COMPOSERS OF CHORAL MUSIC IN BOTSWANA

(a)Kgalemang Tumediso Motsete (late)_National Anthem, A sedi ja lona le phatsime

(b)Raleigh Riecks Morake (late)__Dintlenyane tsa Batswana,seromamowa sa Botswana

(c)Luka Disho -Seretse Khama,

(d)Gomolemo Motswaledi(late)Re Batswana album by K.T.M choir

(e) Sebigi Pilane -Thapelo

(f)Lazarus Gadienewe-Pina Thoo

74
Conductors of choral music

(a)Reggie Kopi

(b)Luka Disho

(c)David Slater

(d)P. Phetwe

CHORAL CHOIRS IN BOTSWANA

(a)K.T.M. choir

(b)Sedibeng choir

(c)Gaborone Youth Singers

(d) Ramotswa Choral

CHORAL ACTIVITIES IN BOTSWANA

President day celebrations,Association of Botswana Schools Performing Arts (ABOSPA) festival

RENAISSANCE PERIOD[1450-1600]

Renaissance means ‘re-birth’ in music history

PROMINENT COMPOSERS AND THEIR MONUMENTAL WORKS

COMPOSER NATIONALITY
YEAR OF BIRTH MONUMENTAL
DEATH WORK
Josquin English 1440-1521 El giillo
William Byrd English 1543-1623 Three masses
Giovanni Palastrina Italian 1525-1594 Missa papae Marcelli
Thomas Morley English 1557-1602 Sing we and chant it
Thomas weelks English 1576-1623 Hosanna to the son of
David
Thomas Tallis English 1505-1585 Lamentation of
jeremiah
INSTRUMENTS OF RENAISSANCE MUSIC

Lute, Viols, Trumpet, Racket , Sackbut, Tambourine, Kettle drum, Side drum, Tabour,
crumhorn

75
CHARACTERISTICS OF RENAISSANCE

 Music was still based on modes but with some accidentals creeping in.
 Blending rather than contrasting in musical texture.
 Polyphonic texture richer and fuller in fuller four or more voice parts, Bass voice now
added below tenor.
 Vocal music dominated which was mostly sacred[religious].
 Music was mostly accapela[without instrument accompaniment].
 Use of imitation especially in church music.

INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC OF RENAISSANCE

a. CAZONA ; 16 and 17 century instrumental composition which developed from the

flute and keyboard arrangement.
b. TOCCATA; touched keyboard, harpsichord piece in which players ‘touch’ was
displayed through rapidity and delicacy.
c. COSORTS; An old spelling of ‘concert’ meaning a concerted performance by
anybody of performers e.g A whole consorts was one in which all the instruments
were of one family and a broken consort is the on which there was a mixture of
instruments.
d. FANTASIA; Instrumental composition
e. RICERCAR; Search out ’the possibilities of treating melodic ideas with much
imitation.

VOCAL MUSIC OF THE RENAISSANCE

a. MADRIGAL; Vocal composition of Italian origin for several voices usually

unaccompanied
b. FOTOLLA; A type of unaccompanied in Italian choral form.
c. COUNTERPOINT; The unique ability of music to say two things at once
comprehensibly.
d. VILLACICO; Choral composition generally on subject of Christmas.
e. CHANSON; Type of a song for several voices for one voice accompaniment.
f. LIED; A German solo vocal without accompaniment. The music is sang using poems.

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BAROQUE ERA [1600-1750]
It describes the period of music history from the birth of opera and oratorio to the dearth
of Bach.
PROMINENT COMPOSERS AND THEIR MONUMENTAL WORKS
COMPOSER NATIOLITY YEAR OF BIRTH MONUMENTAL
AND DEARTH WORKS
Johan Sebatian German 1685-1750
Bach
George Friedric German 1685-1759 Messiah
Handel
Arcangelo Corelli Italian 1653-1713 Concerto grossi
Claudio Montervedi Italian 1567-1643
Henry Purcell English 1659-1695 Dido, The fairy
queen
Antonio Vivaldi Italian 1678-1741 Four season

CHARACTERISTICS OF BAROQUE MUSIC

 Polyphonic texture; two or more melodies of equal importance heard at the same
time.
 Bass continuo or figured bass become the foundation for most types the Baroque
music.
 Terraced dynamics i.e sudden change in volume of music.
 Modes replaced by major- minor key system
 String based orchestra i.e string instruments dominated.
 One mood persisted throughout the entire piece.
 Orchestra not balanced i.e not all the sections were presented.
 The orchestra was small in number about 30-40 people.

VOCAL MUSIC OF BAROQUE

a. RECITATIVE; Speech like singing used especially in operating and oratorio.
b. ARIA; A lengthy and well developed solo vocal piece in A-B-A Form.
c. ORATORIO; A Form of vocal music based on religious text without energy
or costume.
d. CANTATA; The term varies according to period. A dramatic piece without
costume.
e. OPERA; A dramatic set music with energy and costume and instrumental
accompaniment.

77
INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC OF BAROQUE

a. SONATA; Instrumental composition in several movements.

b. FUGUE; A contrapuntal composition essential based on the ideal of imitation in three or
four voice parts.
c. SUITE; An instrumental music in several movements usually in dance style.
d. CONCERTO; A work in which a solo instrument s is contrasted and blended with the
orchestra.

INSTRUMENTS OF THE BAROQUE

A. Clavichord
B. Organ
C. Harpsichord
D. Violin
E. Lute
F. Double bass
G. Bassoon
H. Flute
I. Oboe
J. Horns
K. Trumpet
L. Timpani
M. Trombone

CLASSICAL MUSIC[1750-1810]

COMPOSER NATIONALITY YEAR OF MONUMENTAL

BIRTH AND WORKS
DEARTH
Wolfgang Austrian 1756-1791 Magic flute
Amadeus Mozart
Ludwig Van German 1770-1827 Symphony no 9,5
Beethoven
Franz Joseph Austrian 1732-1809 The creation
Haydn
Gluck German 1714-1787 Orfeo
Christopher
Willibad

78
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASSICAL MUSIC

 Importance given to instrumental music with main kinds trio, sonata

string quartet, symphony concerto, serenade, divertimentos.
 Music mainly homophonic with lighter clearer texture than Baroque and
less complicated.
 Sonata form as the most important design used to build up the first
movement of most large scales of most large scale works.
 Orchestra increases in size and range
 More variety and contrast with a piece; contrast of keys , tune, rhythm,
dynamics.
 Frequent changes of mood and timbre
 Harpsichord replaced the piano.
 Melodies tend to be shorter than those of the Baroque with clear cut
phrases and cadences.

CLASSICAL ORCHESTRA
 The piano replaced the harpsichord
 The orchestra grow in number and become balanced.
 Standardized orchestra; all sections were now balanced.
 Horns were included, and often trumpets timpani.
 The four woodwind instruments[flute, oboe, clarinet, and
bassoon] were combined in pairs to form a self contained
woodwind section.

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BAROQUE AND CLASSIC MUSIC

DIFFERENCES

The mood of classical music changes, but in Baroque the mood stays the same throughout.

Baroque pieces are longer, classical pieces are shorter.

Baroque texture is polyphonic while classical music texture is homophonic.

SIMILARITIES

Both music is mostly stringed instruments

They both include vocal music.

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MUSIC INDUSTRY

Music as an industry or business sells composition, recording and performance of music. Music
industry involves musicians who compose and perform the music, companies and professionals
who create and sell recorded music.

[Link] AGENTS

These are the people who make the live music happen. Agents work closely with the promoters
and record labels to make sure they get proper exposure. Agents also take care of the
negotiations with promoters and venues when it comes to the payments for performance and
arrangements for thing like backline accommodation. Agents also;

 Agree on performance
 Agree contracts with promoters regarding pay, guest list and equipment
 Arrange tours, financial and logistics requirement

[Link] PROMOTERS

The main job of the promoter is to publicize a concert. They work with agents and in some
cases directly with the bands. They also arrange hotels and backline for the band. They also;

 Arrange for support band

 Setup sound check times and running order of the show
 Everything that the band needs is in place.
 Promotes the up coming gig to the local by posters, radio, tv,
emails, News papers.
 Book a venue for that agreed upon date.

[Link] ADMINISTRATORS

They manage the production departments, Oversees people who are responsible for the
payments of all recording, costs. They also

 Oversee the manufacturing of the DS’S, cassettes.

 Approves recording budget
 Check the production credit information that appears on each release such as
producer, engineer musician publishing, song writer information.

[Link] OF A RECORD COMPANY

1. ARTIST AND REPERTOIRE MANAGER

The departments locate and signs new talent

80
  They work with artist in song selection choice of producers, recording studio
selection.
 Communicate with label’s Business Affairs Department to make sure all paper
work and accounting issues are setup properly.
 Liaison between artist and other departments.

2. PUBLICITY DEPARTMENT

 Arrange for any stories, interviews in local news papers magazine, radio and
TV and online.
 Coordinate the publicity opportunities.

[Link] DEPARTMENT

 Responsible for all marketing plan for every record the label is releasing
 Coordinate the promoting, publicity and sales campaigns that the label is
committed to.

4. ART OR CREATIVE DEPARTMENT

 Supervises all products design[CD, tape Vinyl cover]

 Supervises trade and consumer press advertising, retails sales
posters and other need of the print media.

5. PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT

Oversees the production of music.

[Link] DEPARTMENTS

 Building relationships with store chains and other mass market retailers
 Communicating with regularly with the promotion and publicity
departments at the label.

[Link] DEPARTMENT

Ensures the radio airplay for their company’s new releases

MUSIC TECHNOLOGY

STUDIO EQUIPMENT

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TERMS AND TERNINOLOGY

RECORDING- Capturing a sound signal onto an appropriate storage media such as tape, cd or
hard disk.

EDITING- Modifying a recorded sound track by removing undesirable parts adding effects.

ANALOGUE- A technology which conveys data as electronic singnals of varying frequency eg

broadcast , phone.

DIGITAL- Electronic technology that generate, stores and process data in terms of two state;
positive and non-positive.

SEQUENCE- Music passage or chant consisting of three or more related phrases repeated
several times.

MIX- To blend two or more tracks to create the desire combination.

SAMPLING- The process of talking a short musical phrase from one recording and using it in
another recording.

LOOPING- A process of using a short pieces of sound.

MIDI- [Musical Instrumental Digital Interface] The interface between an electronic musical
instrument and a computer used in composing and editing music.

EQUIPMENT USED IN MUSIC TECHNOLOGY

 Mixer
 Microphone
 Record deck
 Cd player
 Cassette deck
 Keyboard
 Synthesizer
 Sequencer
 Expander
 Monitor amplifier
 Loud speaker
 Sampler
 Drum machine
 Synchronizer
 Computer

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 SOFTWARES USED TO COMPOSE AND RECORD MUSIC

-Cubase
-Fruit loops
-Reason
-sibelius
-Noteworthy

A RECORDING STUDIO

A recording studio is a facility for sound recording and mixing. The space is specially
designed by an acoustician to achieve the desired acoustic properties; low level of
reflection, adequate vibration. The facility consist of a room called a studio where
instrumentalist and vocalists perform and the control room which houses the equipment
for recording, routing and manipulating the sound. There will be smaller rooms called
isolation booths to accommodate loud instruments such as drums or electric guitar to
keep these sound from being audible to the microphone.

LIST OF RECORDING STUDIO PERSONNEL

1. PRODUCER
Oversees the creation of the music ie production of an artist music.
ROLE
 Gathering ideas for the project.
 Selecting songs
 Coaching the artist in the studio
 Controlling the recording sessions

PERSONAL QUALITIES

 Good communication skills

 Good knowledge of and updated about the treands and changes in the
music industry .
 Interacting to different kinds of people
 Has good sense of hearing towards music

REQUIREMENTS

 Needs lifelong love of music

 Musical history
 Musical theory, composition, song writing, training , copyright law, finance and
marketing entrepreneurship

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2. SOUND ENGINEER
Is a technical media professional who operates recording and amplifications machines
and equipment.
ROLE

 Mixes and edits sound mixing boards

 Trouble shoots and makes basic repairs on his\her studio
 Test all equipments to ensure that they are working properly
 Adjust sound quality and volume using sound board
 Keeps records of his\her recordings

PERSONAL QUALITIES

 Must be a good listener

 Excellent hearing to adjust the controls to the desired effect.
 Possess exceptional auditory attention to focus on one sound and
ignoring all others.

REQUIREMENTS

 Understanding various occupational related electronics and

computer
 Knowledge of sound engineering techniques and technology

3. MAINTENANCE ENGINEER

Repairs and maintenance related to electronics mechanical audio testing equipment.

ROLE
 Coordinate the schedule of maintenance service
 Carry regular maintenance, calibration and cable checkin
 Carry out modifications to equipment
 Test equipment before buying

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PERSONAL QUALITIES

 Be able to disassemble equipment

 Diagnose faults and make repairs
 Understand wiring practiced
REQUIREMENTS
 Basic training in a trade certificate in audio electronics
 A degree in electronics

[Link] OPERATOR

Responsible for creatively weaving together audio material created during the production
process.

ROLE

 Manage the machine room and recording equipment

 Label taped accurately
 Make inter format tapes copies
 Make sure that the contents of the types meet the correct technical specifications

PERSONAL QUALITIES

 Advanced IT skills
 Analytical skills
 Precise attention to detail

REQUIREMENT

 Engineering or IT degrees are useful

 Communication skills are key to the entry levels

[Link] PRODUCER

 Working in senior management making executive decisions over the

label’s artists.
 Responsible for the financial and business needs of the project
 Manages the budgeting of the project

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PERSONAL QUALITIES

 Be able to work with a lot of people

 Be able to make quick decisions
 Financial knowledge of investment
 Strong communication skills

REQUIREMENTS

 Bachelor’s degree in film, music management or journalism.

 Work experience in the music industry can lead to this position.

PRIVACY AND COPYRIGHT ISSUES

Music copyright

The copy law was established to protect the creativity of authors, composers, performers original
work in a fixed tangible medium .Anybody who copies, sell, distribute or perform a copyright
work without the permission of the owner is liable to fine in the laws of Botswana .Copyright is
protected under the copyright and Neighboring Right Act[Cap 68;02].Copyright protection
enables composers to make profit from their sales of their music

One way in which artists can make profit from their music is to register with copyright
organization called COSBOTS.

CosBots is a copyright society of Botswana set up for the purpose of the collection and
distribution of royalties for all copyrighted artistic work like poetry, craft, visual arts, pottery,
literal works and the most obvious one---music.
CosBots aims to collect money from people who play or use copyrighted work publicly, like
combi drivers, restaurant owners, bars, radio stations, supermarkets,clubs,hotels

PRIVACY

Taking someone’s work and duplicating it and at times selling it.

It is illegal to copy or buy music which has been pirated, these music is sold in black market
When buying music one should make sure that it is original music.

Anti Piracy
The use of security device called hologram This is a sign that shows that the music is originally,
any CD without that sign is considered pirated.

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