Human Anatomy and Physiology
Unit II
(Digestive systems)
Digestive system
Anatomy of GI Tract with special reference to anatomy and functions of stomach,
( Acid production in the stomach, regulation of acid production through
parasympathetic nervous system, pepsin role in protein digestion) small intestine
and large intestine, anatomy and functions of salivary glands, pancreas and liver,
movements of GIT, digestion and absorption of nutrients and disorders of GIT.
• Energetics
Formation and role of ATP, Creatinine Phosphate and BMR.
• The gastrointestinal tract (or alimentary canal) is an
organ system within humans and other animals which
takes in food, digests, absorb nutrients, and expels the
remaining waste as feces.
• The major organs of the digestive system
Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestine,
Large Intestine, Rectum.
Key Players & Mechanisms
Parietal Cells: Secrete HCl using H+/K+-ATPase pumps, activated by histamine,
acetylcholine, and gastrin.
Chief Cells: Secrete pepsinogen, which becomes active pepsin in the acidic
environment.
G Cells (Antrum): Produce gastrin, stimulated by food (especially protein), which
triggers histamine release.
ECL Cells: Release histamine, a potent stimulator of parietal cells.
D Cells: Release somatostatin, which inhibits gastrin release (negative
feedback).
Vagus Nerve (Parasympathetic): Stimulates secretion via acetylcholine (ACh)
during the cephalic (anticipation) and gastric (meal presence) phases.
•Mechanism of Gastric Acid formation and Secretion:
• Gastric Acid is formed by combining carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid.
• The hydrogen ion of carbonic acid is transported into the stomach lumen while the resultant
bicarbonate ion is transported into the bloodstream.
• This bicarbonate ion is later transported into the lumen of the duodenum where it is used to
neutralize the previously generated gastric acid.
•Molecular Mechanism:
• CO2 within parietal cells is converted, by carbonic anhydrase, to H2CO3, which immediately
splits into H+ and HCO3-.
• The generated H+ ion is actively transported into the lumen of the oxyntic gland using an HK
ATPase on the cell membrane.
• The generated HCO3- ion is passively transported into the blood in exchange for a chloride ion.
•Regulation
• Three stimuli directly affect stomach acid secretion by parietal cells.
• Acetylcholine: Acetylcholine is released by parasympathetic fibers in the vagus nerve
through “Muscarinic Receptors” present on the parietal cell membrane.
• Histamine: Histamine is released by enterochromaffin-like cells (ECLs) which lie directly
adjacent to parietal cells in the oxyntic gland
• Gastrin: Gastrin is released by G Cells present in the pyloric glands of the stomach.
•Potentiation of Acid Secretion:
• The vagus nerve helps coordinate these three stimuli so that they act in group.
• These three chemical stimuli acting on the parietal cells have synergistic effects on stomach
acid production.
• This means that more stomach acid is secreted by parietal cells when stimulated by all three
molecules simultaneously.
• Hence, pharmacological inhibition of just one stimulus can help reduce stomach acid
secretion
[Link] Phase:
•This phase is initiated by the sensory experience of seeing and eating food and contributes
about 20% of total acid secretion.
•stomach acid secretion in this phase is mainly induced by central activation of the vagus
nerve.
[Link] Phase:
• This phase is initiated by entry of food into the stomach and contributes about 70% of total
acid secretion.
• During the gastric phase a vagal reflex initiated by distension of the stomach further
increases vagus nerve stimulation.
• In addition, local production of food metabolites, especially proteins and amino acids,
directly induce gastrin release from G Cells.
[Link] Phase:
• This phase is initiated by entry of food into the duodenum and contributes about 10% of
total acid secretion.
• It is not fully clear how this phase is regulated but may be due to small amounts of gastrin
secretion by the duodenal small intestine mucosa.
•Inhibition of Gastric Acid Secretion:
• Several stimuli act to prevent over-secretion of stomach acid which can be damaging both
to the stomach as well as the duodenum..
• Many of the inhibitory stimuli originate in duodenum and jejunum and act to inhibit
secretion of stomach acid.
• They include,
1. Presence of nutrients.
2. Acid-mediated irritation of the small intestine mucosa.
3. Gastrin Inhibitory Peptide.
4. Somatostatin
Intestines (Anatomy)
Small intestine is a long, narrow, folded or coiled tube extending from
the stomach to the large intestine; it is the region where most digestion and
absorption of food occurs.
Intestine Anatomy
➢ The small intestine, also known as the small bowel, is approximately 20
feet long, and its diameter is approximately one inch. Its primary
function is to absorb the majority of the water and nutrients that we take
in from the outside world in the form of food and drink.
➢ The duodenum, jejunum, and ileum are the three sections of the small
intestine, which are separated by the tissue that borders them. The
jejunum is responsible for the majority of the absorption that occurs.
➢ The large intestine, also known as the large bowel, is approximately 5
feet long and has a diameter of approximately 3 inches. It does this by
absorbing water from waste, both digested and undigested.
➢ Although absorption is quite low at this stage in comparison to the
absorption that occurs in the small intestine. The remainder is
processed into faeces, which travels into the rectum and remains there
as long as a signal for the need to defecate is not received.
Structure of the Small Intestine
• It is seven metres long.
• It is divided into three parts:
➢The duodenum
➢The jejunum
➢The ileum
• The walls has four layers:
➢A muscular layer
➢A layer containing blood vessels,
lymph vessels, and nerves.
➢A submucous layer,
➢A mucous layer.
• The inner wall is covered in villi, tiny hair-like projections
which increase the surface area for absorption.
• Each villi contains blood vessels and lymph vessels.
Functions of The Small Intestine
Digestion
Pancreatic juice is secreted into the duodenum and contains the following
enzymes:
➢Trypsin: converts proteins into shorter chains.
➢Lipase: converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
➢Amylase: converts starch into disaccharides.
Bile: emulsifies fats (breaks them into smaller droplets).
Intestinal Juices have the following enzymes:
➢Maltase, sucrase, lactase: change disaccharides into
monosaccharides.
➢Peptidase: changes polypeptides into amino acids.
Absorption
Digested food is absorbed through the villi walls.
➢ Fats, fatty acids and glycerol are passed into the lymph system.
➢ Amino acids and sugars pass along the portal vein to the liver.
Large Intestine
It deals with waste.
It is about 1.5m long.
It consists of the following:
➢The caecum: a small pouch; the
ileum empties its contents into the
caecum through the ileo-caecal valve.
➢The colon: ascending, transverse,
descending colon.
➢The appendix: narrow tube attached
to the caecum.
➢The rectum.
➢The anus
Functions of The Large Intestine
• Whatever remains of the food, is passed into the
large intestine
• To reabsorb water and vitamins left in digestive
waste.
• It secretes mucus to help the movement of faeces.
• Short term storage of faeces in the rectum.
• Many bacteria live in the large intestine, they are
harmless in the colon and may be useful e.g.
produce Vitamin K.
• Defecation: peristalsis pushes waste along the
colon and then it is passed out of the body.