DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS (BCV613D)

Origin and Classification of Aggregates

Most of the properties of an aggregate derive from its parental rock chemical and mineral
composition which affects strength, stiffness, density, pore structure and permeability. Rocks
experience geothermal and weathering processes which can produce granular materials in the
form of natural gravels and sands, these types of aggregates can be used in concrete production
without any modification or additional processes. On the other hand, crushed aggregates,
defined as granular materials produced by human related activities such as blasting, crushing
and so on, have rougher surface and more angular shapes comparing to natural sands. In that
sense, the aggregates can be classified into two main categories: natural and crushed.
In terms of origin, rocks are generally classified as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic based
on how the rocks were formed over long periods of geological time.

All rocks originate as igneous rocks, which are formed through cooling and solidification of
molten materials that are underlying the earth’s crust. If the solidification occurs slowly, the
rocks will be labelled as intrusive rocks (coarse to medium grained) and in case the molten
material forces its way to the surface and crystallize more rapidly the extrusive rocks will be
formed (fine grained).

Sedimentary rocks are formed by chemical and mechanical breakdown of pre-existing rocks in
a process of deposition and cementation of the materials. The layered structure of particles
settlement can result in undesired shapes and flaky grains in the case of aggregates crushed
from such rocks.

Lastly, metamorphic rocks are made of pre-existing igneous or sedimentary rocks when the
original rock is subjected to high pressure and temperature usually at great depth. Hydrothermal
metamorphism can result in the minerals in these rocks being re-formed and recrystallized
which makes them less durable and less stable in some cases, for example the formation of

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 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS (BCV613D)

alkali-reactive silicates. Metamorphic rocks such as Quartzite make important contributions to

the production of concrete aggregates.

In General, aggregates from different origins and types can be used for making concrete while
some are more suitable for a specific application (e.g. porous material for light weight or self-
healing concrete). Moreover, some undesired minerals such as Mica can be found in
metamorphic or igneous rocks as well as sedimentary rocks.

Figure 1. Typical rocks used as aggregate (a) Granite-igneous (b) Sandstone-sedimentary (c)
Quartzite-metamorphic.
Utilizing natural aggregates in mix design leads to better performance of the concrete since
they have smaller surface area (comparing to crushed aggregate of the same size) and also their
relatively spherical shape facilitate the flow inside the aggregate structure. However, the
negative environmental impact of using natural aggregate is of concern which includes and not
limited to atmospheric pollution, water pollution, changes in water course, increase in
settlement, changes in ecosystem, etc.

An alternative to usage of natural aggregates is to crush the rocks to desired size fractions. The
crushing technique has a significant effect on quality and properties of the product. This is
especially important in case of crushed sand due to their influence on properties of concrete in
fresh state as a result of tendency of crushed sands to have elongated flaky shapes. These issues
can be reduced by use of appropriate crushing techniques, removal of chips and fines, choke

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 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS (BCV613D)

and closed-circuit feeding, or other additional processes that improve the quality of the product
by different methods most of which are based on gravity or centrifugal separation.

Classification of Aggregates
There are many options for the classification of aggregates,
 Grain Size
 Density
 Shape
 Geographical Origin

Classification of aggregates based on Grain Size

Based on the grain size, the aggregates are classified into two types.
 Fine Aggregate
 Coarse Aggregate
The fine aggregates are used in concrete as a filler material to fill the voids. The coarse
aggregates are used in concrete to develop the strength of the element.

Classification of aggregates based on density

The aggregates are classified according to the density as
 Lightweight Aggregates
 Normal Weight Aggregates
 Heavy Weight Aggregates
Lightweight Aggregates

 The density of lightweight aggregates ranges between 800 to 1100 Kg/Cum.

 The lightweight aggregates will have a high absorption value compared to other
aggregates. So the slump loss happening in lightweight concrete instantly due to the
absorption.

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 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS (BCV613D)

 The lightweight aggregates are used as a filling material in flooring, deck slab &
insulating the fireline pipes, etc.,

Normal Weight Aggregates

 The normal weight aggregates are such as sand, gravel material, which we regularly
use in construction.
 The normal weight aggregates are used for column, beam & slab concrete. The density
of normal weight aggregates in ranges between 1520 to 1680 Kg/Cum.

Heavy Weight Aggregates

 The heavyweight aggregates are mostly used in construction to protect the radiation
room.
 The main drawback of heavyweight aggregates is it produces very low workability in
concrete. The density of heavyweight aggregates range between 2100 to 2900 Kg/Cum.

Classification of aggregates based on the shape

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 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS (BCV613D)

 Rounded aggregates – You may see the rounded aggregates mostly in the seashore or
riverbank area. It produces high workability & fewer voids in concrete, but mostly it
was not recommended for high strength concrete elements because of its poor
interlocking properties. Primarily it is used lintel concrete and also a filler material.

 Angular aggregates – The angular aggregates are low in workability. But it is mostly
suitable for higher frictional interaction, because of its angularity & it produces high
strength. Due to its angularity, it easily interconnects with other aggregates & fewer
voids are forming in concrete.

 Irregular aggregates – The irregular aggregates will develop strength slightly lower
than the angular aggregates. The irregular shapes are formed due to friction between
the aggregates. The bondage between the aggregates is very low due to its irregular
shape & it develops low workability in concrete.

 Elongated aggregates – In elongated aggregates, the length of the aggregates is higher

than its width. Image Courtesy Payment Interactive

It is having low compressive strength and not recommended for concrete. If we use the
elongated aggregates in concrete, the voids ratio will become high compared to the other
aggregates.

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 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS (BCV613D)

 Flaky aggregates – The flaky aggregates are having a very light thickness, and it can
easily crack. Due to its lower workability, it is not used in concrete, and also it quickly
gets broken due to its minor thickness.

 Flaky & elongated aggregates – The flaky & elongated aggregates are having less
thickness & high in length. It is also not used in concrete due to its lower compressive
strength. Image Courtesy Payment Interactive

Classification of aggregates based on Geographical Origin

Based on the source of aggregates, it can be classified into two types, namely natural aggregates
and manufactured aggregates.

Natural aggregates

The natural aggregates are available in river banks, seashore, & pits mines. The natural
aggregates are used in construction work after involving some quality tests. The river sand,
gravel, mud, etc., naturally available.

Manufactured Aggregates

All aggregates are developed from natural resources only.

But the manufactured aggregates means the natural aggregates are processed to produce new size &
quality aggregates which are suitable for different construction activities.

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 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS (BCV613D)

 The coarse aggregates are manufactured in different sizes like 10 mm, 12 mm, 20 mm, and now
manufactured sand is also available instead of river sand. Image Courtesy Payment
Interactive

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Evaluation of desirable Properties of the Aggregates.

1. Specific Gravity of Fine Aggregates

Theory and Scope:

The specific gravity of an aggregate is defined as the ratio of the mass of a given volume of
sample to the mass of equal volume of water at the same temperature specific gravity of fine
aggregate is generally required for calculations in connection with concrete mix design and
bituminous mix design. It is used in calculations of volume yield of concrete, moisture content
and it gives information on the properties of aggregate.

Further indicates the change in shape and grading of aggregates used in mix design. (If the
value of specific gravity departure from its standard value).

Absorption: The increase in mass due to water in the pores of the material. Absorption
influences the behaviour of aggregate in concrete in several aspects.

For example a highly absorptive aggregate, if used in dry condition, will reduce “effective
water cement ratio”, which in turn results in unworkable concrete mix. If a highly absorptive
aggregate is used in construction of flexible pavement consumes cause quantity of binder
(bitumen) which leads to higher cost.

Bulk Specific Gravity (also known as Bulk Dry Specific Gravity): The ratio of the weight in
air of a unit volume of aggregate at a stated temperature to the weight in air of an equal volume
of gas-free distilled water at the stated temperature. Bulk SSD Specific Gravity: The ratio of
the weight in air of a unit volume of aggregate, including the weight of water within the voids
filled to the extent achieved by submerging in water for approximately 15 hours, to the weight
in air of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at the stated temperature.

Apparent Specific Gravity: The ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of the impermeable
portion of aggregate (does not include the permeable pores in aggregate) to the weight in air of
an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at the stated temperature.

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Saturated, Surface Dry. The condition in which the aggregate has been soaked in water and
has absorbed water into its pore spaces. The excess, free surface moisture has been removed so
that the particles are still saturated, but the surface of the particle is essentially dry.

Procedure:

Specific Gravity

 Weight empty flask, let that weight be W1.

 Collect sample of fine aggregate for which the specific gravity has to be determined
(note: the sample must be saturated and surface dry i.e. free from surface moisture) and
transfer that to the empty flask and then it is weighed let the weight be W2.
 The flask filled with sample is filled with water up to a mask (made on the flask) and
its weighed. Let the weight be W3.
 Then the flask is emptied, and washed thoroughly. After washing the flask it is filled
with water up to the mask (made on the flask) and its weight is noted. The flask should
be completely dry on the outer face. Let the weight be W4.
 Calculate the specific gravity of the fine gravity by the formula.

Specific gravity =____dry weight of aggregate_____

Weight of equal volume of water

= _____(W2-W1)_____

(W2-W1)- (W3-W4)

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Absorption test:

 Take the sample of the fine aggregate and soak it in water and keep it for 24+ ½ hours,
at a temperature 27+5 0 c
 Weigh the sample of saturated surface dry (i.e. it should be saturated and free from
surface moisture i.e. surface dry condition). Let this weight be W 1.
 Dry the sample in an oven at the 100-1100 c for a period of 24 hours. And take the
weight of the dry sample and let that be W2.
 Calculate the absorption of the fine aggregate by the formula.

Water absorption in percent = (W1-W2 ) X 100

W2

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2. Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate

Theory and Scope:

The sieve analysis is a simple test consisting of sieving a measured quantity of material through
successively smaller sieves. The weight retained on each sieve is expressed as a percentage of
the total sample. The sedimentation principle has been used for finding the grain size
distribution of fine soil fraction; two method are commonly used viz., Pipette method and
Hydrometer method of distribution of soil particles. Most of the methods for soil identification
and classification are based on certain physical properties of the aggregate. The commonly
used properties for the classification are the grain size distribution. Grain size analysis also
known as mechanical analysis. It determines the percentage of the individual grain size present
in the sample. The result of the test is of great value in soil classification. In mechanical
stabilization of soil and for designing soil aggregate mixture the result of gradation tests are
used. Conclusions have also been made between the grain size distribution of soil and the
general soil behaviors as a subgrade material and the performance such as susceptibility to frost
action. Mud Pumping in rigid pavements etc. Sand is the fine aggregate used in mortar. Coarse
aggregate that is the broken stone or gravel and the mixed aggregate which is the combination
of coarse and fine aggregates are used in concrete. The coarse aggregate, unless mixed with
fine aggregate does not produce good quality concrete for construction works.

Fineness Modulus:

Fineness modulus is only a numerical index of fineness giving some idea of the mean
size of particles in the entire body of aggregate.

Table 1 Limits of fineness modulus for fine aggregates:

Type of Aggregate Fineness Modulus

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Max size of
Min Max
Aggregate in mm

Fine Aggregate 4.75 2.00 3.50

The object of finding the fineness modulus is to grade the given aggregate for obtaining a most
economical and workable mix.

Procedure:

 Take 1 Kg of fine aggregate sample out of 10 Kg by quartering and breaking if any

lumps are present.
 Arrange the sieves in order of I.S Sieve size 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600μm, 300μm
and 150μm by keeping the sieve 4.75mm at the top and 150μm at the bottom. Fix them
in the sieve shaking machine with the pan at the bottom and cover at the top.
 Keep the sample in the top sieve; carry out the sieving in the set of sieves as arranged
before for not less than 10 min.
 Weigh the mass retained on each sieve.
 The grain size of size greater than 75 micron is determined by sieving set sieves of
decreasing order; sieve opening placed one below the other and separating out the
different size ranges. Two methods of sieve analysis are as follows:
1. Wet sieving applicable to all soil and
2. Dry sieving applicable only to soil which has negligible proportion of clay and
silt.

Fineness Modulus = cumulative % wt retained on sieves

100

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100

90

80

70
Percent passing

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Sieve Size
Control Points Trial blend 1 Trial blend 2
Trial blend 3 MOST limits

Sieve size Weight Weight % weight % weight Cumulative % wt

retained passing retained passing retained

4.75mm

2.36mm

1.18mm

600μm

425μm

250μm

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150μm

75μm

Pan

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 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS (BCV613D)

3. Specific Gravity of Course Aggregate

Theory and Scope:

The specific gravity of an aggregate is defined as the ratio of the mass of a given volume of
sample to the mass of equal volume of water at the same temperature specific gravity of fine
aggregate is generally required for calculations in connection with concrete mix design.

It is used in calculations of volume yield of concrete, moisture content and it gives information
on the properties of aggregate. It also indicates the change in shape and grading of aggregates
used in mix design. (If the value of specific gravity departure from its standard value).

The specific gravity of an aggregate is considered to be a measure of strength or quality of the

material. Stones having low specific gravity are generally weaker than those with higher
specific gravity value. The specific gravity test helps in identification of stones.

Water absorption gives an idea of strength of rock. Stones having more water absorption are
more porous in nature and generally considered unsuitable unless they are found to be
acceptable based on strength, impact and hardness test.

Absorption influences the behaviour of aggregate in concrete in several aspects.

For example, a highly absorptive aggregate, if used in dry condition, will reduce “effective
water cement ratio”, which in turn results in unworkable concrete mix. If a highly absorptive
aggregate is used in construction of flexible pavement consumes cause quantity of binder
(bitumen) which leads to higher cost.

Procedure:

Specific gravity

 About 2Kg of the aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines.

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 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS (BCV613D)

 Thoroughly washed aggregate sample is placed in a wire basket and immersed in

water at a temperature between 22O to 32OC (a minimum of 5cm of water has to be
maintained above the top of the basket).
 Immediately after immersion, in order to remove the entrapped air from the basket,
it is jolted 25 times at a rate of 1 jolt/sec with in the water level.
 The basket and the aggregate should remain completely immersed in water for a
period of 24+1/2 hour.
 The basket and the sample are weighed while suspended in water and the weight is
taken as W1 gms.
 Then the aggregates are transferred to one of the dry absorbent cloth.
 Then the empty basket is suspended in water and the weight is taken as W2gms.
 Aggregates placed on the absorbent cloth are completely surface dried. (the
aggregate should not be exposed to direct sun light or any other source of heat while
surface drying. A gentle current of unheated air may be used during the first 10min
to accelerate the drying of aggregate surface.)
 Then the surface dried aggregates are weighed and the weight is taken as W 3 gms.
 Then the aggregate is placed in an oven and a temperature of 105O-1100C is
maintained for 24hrs.
 Then the aggregate is removed from the oven and cooled to atmospheric
temperature and the weight of the aggregate is taken as W4 gms.

Bulk Specific gravity =____dry weight of aggregate_____

Weight of equal volume of water

= _____W4_____
W3 -(W1-W2)

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 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS (BCV613D)

Apparent Specific gravity = dry weight of aggregate

(Wt of equal vol of water excluding air voids in agg)

= _____W4_____
W4 -(W1-W2)

Absorption test:

 Take the sample of the coarse aggregate and soak it in water and keep it for 24+ ½
0
hours. The temperature should be 27+5 c
 Weigh the sample of saturated surface dry (i.e. it should be saturated and free from
surface moisture i.e. surface dry condition). Let this weight be W 1.
 Dry the sample in an oven at 100O-1100 C for a period of 24 hours. And take the weight
of the dry sample and let that be W2.
 Calculate the absorption of the coarse aggregate by the formula.

Water absorption in percent = (W1-W2 ) X 100

W2

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 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS (BCV613D)

4. Bulk Density of Aggregate

Theory and scope:

The bulk density clearly depends on how densely the aggregate is packed, and it follows that
for a material of a given specific gravity the bulk density depends on the size distribution and
shape of the particles. It is well known that, in the metric system the density of a material is
numerically equal to it specific gravity although, of coarse, the latter is a ratio while density is
expressed in kg per liter. However, in concrete practice, is to express the density in kg per cubic
meter is more common. When aggregate is be actually batched by volume it is necessary to
know the weight of aggregate that would fill a container of unit volume. This is known as bulk
density of aggregate and this density is used to convert quantities by weight to quantities by
volume. There are two types of bulk density viz. Loose bulk density (uncompacted) and
Compacted bulk density.

Procedure:

 Depending on the size of the testing aggregate the size of the container is taken.
The container is calibrated. (i.e., empty weight and volume of container is
measured). Let weight be W1 and volume be V.
 Then dried aggregate is filled in three layers into the container and each layer is
compacted uniformly using tampering rod of 16mm diameter with round nosed
(25 blows are given on each layer).
 After the aggregate is completely filled in container, weight of aggregate and
container is measured. Let the weight be W2.
 The compacted bulk density of the aggregate is given by the formula

Bulk density(ρ) = weight of the aggregate Kg

Volume of the container m3
= W2-W1 Kg
V m3
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 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS (BCV613D)

5. Sieve Analysis of Course Aggregate

Theory and Scope:

The sieve analysis is a simple test consisting of sieving a measured quantity of material through
successively smaller sieves. The weight retained on each sieve is expressed as a percentage of
the total sample. The sedimentation principle has been used for finding the grain size
distribution of fine soil fraction; two methods are commonly used viz., Pipette method and
Hydrometer method of distribution of soil particles. Most of the methods for soil identification
and classification are based on certain physical properties of the aggregate. The commonly
used properties for the classification are the grain size distribution. Grain size analysis is also
known as mechanical analysis. It determines the percentage of the individual grain size present
in the sample. The result of the test are of great value in soil classification. In mechanical
stabilization of soil and for designing soil aggregate mixture the result of gradation tests are
used. Conclusions have also been made between the grain size distribution of soil and the
general soil behaviours as a subgrade material and the performance such as susceptibility to
frost action. Pumping of rigid pavements etc. Sand is the fine aggregate used in mortar. Coarse
aggregate that is the broken stone or gravel and the mixed aggregate which is the combination
of coarse and fine aggregates are used in concrete. The coarse aggregate, unless mixed with
fine aggregate does not produce good quality concrete for construction works.

Fineness Modulus:

Fineness modulus is only a numerical index of fineness giving some idea of the mean
size of particles in the entire body of aggregate.

Table 1 Limits of fineness modulus for coarse aggregates:

Type of Aggregate Fineness Modulus

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Max size of agg in

Min Max
mm

20 6.00 6.90

Coarse Aggregate 40 6.90 7.50

75 7.50 8.00

The object of finding the fineness modulus is to grade the given aggregate for obtaining
a most economical and workable mix.

Procedure:

 Take 1Kg of coarse aggregates sample of 10Kg by quartering and breaking if any lumps
are present.
 Arrange the sieves in order of I.S Sieve size 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600μm, 300μm
and 150μm by keeping the sieve 4.75mm at the top and 150μm at the bottom. Fix them
in the sieve shaking machine with the pan at the bottom and cover at the top.
 Keep the sample in the top sieve, carry out the sieving in the set of sieves as arranged
before for not less than 10min.
 Weigh the mass retained on each sieve.
 The grain size of size greater than 75micron is determined by sieving set sieves of
decreasing order, sieve opening placed one below the other and separating out the
different size ranges. Two methods of sieve analysis are as follows:
1. Wet sieving applicable to all soil and
2. Dry sieving applicable only to soil which has negligible proportion of clay and
silt.
Fineness Modulus = cumulative % wt retained on sieves
100

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100

90

80
Percent passing

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Sieve Size
Control Points Trial blend 1 Trial blend 2
Trial blend 3 MOST limits

Sieve size Weight Weight % weight % weight Cumulative % wt

retained passing retained passing retained

80mm

40mm

20mm

10mm

4.75mm

Pan

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6. Aggregate Crushing Value

Theory and Scope:
This is one of the major Mechanical properties required in a road stone. The test evaluates
the ability of the Aggregates used in road construction to withstand the stresses induced
by moving vehicles in the form of crushing. With this the aggregates should also provide
sufficient resistance to crushing under the roller during construction and under rigid tyre
rims of heavily loaded animal drawn vehicles. The crushing strength or aggregate crushing
value of a given road aggregate is found out as per IS-2386 Part- 4. The aggregate crushing
value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under a gradually applied
compressive load. To achieve a high quality of pavement aggregate possessing low
aggregate crushing value should be preferred. The aggregate crushing value of the coarse
aggregates used for cement concrete pavement at surface should not exceed 30% and
aggregates used for concrete other than for wearing surfaces, shall not exceed 45% as
specified by Indian Standard (IS) and Indian Road Congress (IRC).

Procedure:

 The aggregate m surface-dry condition before testing and passing 12.5 mm

sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is selected.

 The cylindrical measure is filled by the test sample of the aggregate in three
layers of approximately equal depth, each layer being tamped 25 times by the
rounded end of the tamping rod.

 After the third layer is tamped, the aggregates at the top of the cylindrical
measure are leveled off by using the tamping rod as a straight edge. Then the
test sample is weighed. Let that be w1 gm.

 Then the cylinder of test apparatus is kept on the base plate and one third of the

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sample from cylindrical measure is transferred into cylinder and tamped 25 times
by rounded end of the tamping rod.

 Similarly aggregate in three layers of approximately equal depth, each layer being
tamped 25 times by rounded end of the tamping rod.

 Then the cylinder with test sample and plunger in position 1s placed on compression
testing machine.

 Load is then applied through the plunger at a uniform rate of 4 tonnes per minute
until the total load is 40 tonnes and the load is released.

 Aggregates including the crushed position are removed from the cylinder and sieved
on a 2.36mm IS. sieve and material which passes this sieve is collected and weighed.
Let this be w2 gm.

 The above step is repeated with second sample of the same aggregate. The two tests
are made for the same specimen for taking an average value.

 Total weight of dry sample taken is w1 gm weight of the portion of crushed material
passing 2.36mm IS sieve be w2 gm.

 Then the aggregate crushing value is defined as the ratio of weight of fines passing
the specified IS sieve to the total weight of the sample (w1).

Aggregate crushing value = 100*w2 / w1 %

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7. Aggregate Abrasion Value

Theory and Scope:

Abrasion is a measure of resistance to wear or hardness. It is an essentially property
for road aggregates especially when used in wearing coarse. Due to the movements of
traffic, the road stones used in the surfacing course are subjected to wear and tear at
the top. When traffic moves on the road the soil particle (sand) which comes between
the wheel and road surface causes abrasion on the road stone. The abrasion test on
aggregate is found as per I.S.-2386 part-IV.

Abrasion tests on aggregates are generally carried out by any one of the following
methods-
1. Los Angeles abrasion test.
2. Deval abrasion test.
3. Dorry abrasion test.

Los Angeles Abrasion Test: - The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find
the percentage wear due to the relative rubbing action between the aggregates and
steel balls used as abrasive charge pounding action of these balls also exist while
conducting the test. Maximum Allowable Los Angeles Abrasion Values of Aggregates
in Different types of pavement layers as per Indian Road Congress (IRC) are:-

For sub-base course a value of 60%. For base course such as WBM, Bituminous
Macadam (B.M.), Built – Up spray grout base course and etc. value of 50%. For
surface course such as WBM, BM, Bituminous Penetration Macadam, Built-Up
spray grout binder course and etc. a value of 40%. If aggregates are used in surface
course as Bituminous carpet, Bituminous surface dressing, single or two coats, cement
concrete surface coarse and etc. a value of 35%.

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If aggregates are used for Bituminous concrete, Cement concrete pavement as surface
coarse than aggregate abrasion value of 30% maximum.

Procedure:
 Clean and dry aggregate sample confirming to one of the grading A to G is used
for the test. (Refer table no. 1)

 Aggregates weighing 5Kg for grading A, B, C or D and 10Kg for grading E, F or

G may be taken as test specimen and placed in the cylinder.

 The abrasive charge is also chosen in accordance with table no.1 and placed in
the cylinder of the machine, and cover is fixed to make dust tight.

 The machine is rotated at a speed of 30 to 33 revolutions per minute.

 The machine is rotated for 500 revolutions for grading A, B, C and D, for grading
E, F and G, it shall be rotated for 1000 revolutions.

 After the desired number of revolutions, the machine is stopped and the material
is discharged from the machine taking care to take out entire stone dust.

 Using a sieve of size larger than 1.70mm I.S sieve, the material is first separated
into two parts and the finer position is taken out and sieved further on a 1.7mm
I.S sieve.

 Let the original weight of aggregate be w1gm, weight of aggregate retained on

1.70mm I.S sieve after the test be w2gm.

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8. Shape Test Combined Index

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Shape Test (Elongation Index)

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1. Specific Gravity of Bitumen

2 Penetration Test

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3. Softening Point Test

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4. Viscosity Test

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5. Ductility Test
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6. Flash & Fire Point

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Binder Rheology and its role in Performance of Bituminous Mix

Bituminous binders deform when subjected to loads. The properties of bitumen also change with
varying temperatures. The deformation is a combination of elastic response and viscous flow. The
magnitude of deformation, or mechanical response, is dependent on load magnitude, duration, and
rate of application and the temperature state of the material. Since bituminous binders display both
elastic and viscous response properties, they are classified as viscoelastic materials. (Anderson, et al.
1994) presents a review of binder rheology, which served as the basis for the following discussion.

The typical elastic, viscous, and viscoelastic responses to an applied stress is shown in Figure 2.1.
An elastic material experiences recoverable deformation when subjected to a constant (or creep) load,
Figure 2.1a. An elastic material will immediately deform and maintain a constant strain when loaded,
Figure 2.1b. The material will immediately return to its initial shape when the creep load is removed.
A viscous Newtonian material, when subjected to a constant load, will deform at a constant rate until
the load is removed, Figure 2.1c. The deformation of the viscous material, however, will remain
after the load is removed; hence, a viscous material experiences nonrecoverable deformation.

(a) Applied
Stress

Time

(b) Elastic
Response

Time

(c) Viscous
Response
Time

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(d) Viscoelastic

Time
Mechanical Responses of Elastic, Viscous, and Viscoelastic Materials

A viscoelastic material, when subjected to a creep load, experiences an immediate deformation

followed by a continued time-dependent deformation, as shown in Figure. The immediate
deformation corresponds to the material’s elastic response and the time-dependent deformation
corresponds to the material’s viscous response. Once the load is removed, the viscous deformation
component immediately ceases, but this deformation is not recovered. The delayed elastic
deformation component is slowly recovered at a decreasing rate. Thus, a viscoelastic material
experiences only a partial recovery of the deformation resulting from creep loading. The viscoelastic
behavior of bitumen can be characterized by its deformation resistance and the relative distribution
of that resistance between the elastic component and the viscous component within the linear range.
The relative distribution of the resistance between the elastic component and the viscous component
is dependent on the binder characteristics and temperature and loading rate.

The previous loading-response descriptions are for responses within the linear range, which is
characterized by the deformation being directly proportional to the applied load at any time and
temperature. Nonlinear loading responses are difficult to model for viscoelastic materials such as
bitumen. Linear response models, however, are sufficient for the engineering analysis of bituminous
binder response to the loading conditions and environmental stresses encountered in the field.

The most familiar of these is age hardening, also referred to as oxidative aging. Bituminous binders
consist of hydrocarbons that tend to oxidize when exposed to oxygen. The binder also undergoes
volatilization when exposed to the environment. Oxidation and volatilization increases the binder’s
stiffness (hardness) and viscosity. The time of exposure to the environment (i.e. aging), as well as
the service temperatures, directly affect the rate and extent of age hardening.

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The greatest extent of age hardening occurs during the production of hot mix. During the mixing
process, the thin film of bituminous binder covering the aggregate is subjected to air temperatures up
o
to 163 C. The extreme production environment accelerates binder oxidation and volatilization. Age
hardening continues, at a slower rate, during the transportation to the project site and during
construction. Thereafter, the rate of age hardening significantly reduces such that extended periods
are required to identify changes in bituminous binder rheological properties.

Superpave binder specifications have incorporated various stages of testing the binder which
evaluates the above facts during selection of a binder before transferring the same to the field.

Bituminous Mix Design Procedure

Following are the mix design procedural outlines followed in the research program.

Step I Selection of Material

(A) Selection of Binder

(B) Selection of Aggregates

Step II Selection of Design Aggregate Structure

(A) Establishing Trial Blends

(B) Compacting Trial Blend Specimens.

(C) Evaluating Trial Blends

(D) Selecting the Most Promising Design Aggregate Structure for Further Analysis

Step III Selection of Design Binder Content

(A) Compacting Design Aggregate Structure Specimens at Multiple Binder Contents

(B) Determining the Mixture Properties and Binder Contents.

(C) Selecting Design Binder Content

Step IV Evaluation of Moisture Sensitivity of Design Bituminous Mixture as per AASHTO

T283.

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Evaluation of Moisture Sensitivity

As per AASTHO T-283 moisture evaluation test, one subset of three specimens will be compacted to
approximately 7 percent air voids at design binder content and named as controlled specimens. One
more subset of three specimens shall be cast at design binder content at 4 percent air voids content.
The evaluation for moisture sensitivity will be done by thawing freezing cycle. The controlled subsets
of three specimens are conditioned by subjecting the specimens to partial vacuum saturation keeping
specimens at 60oC for 24 hours in water bath followed by 2 hours in temperature-controlled chamber
at 25oC. The other subset of three specimens will be kept in a temperature-controlled chamber at 25 0C
for 2 hours and these specimens are called as unconditioned specimens. All the specimens shall be
tested for their indirect tensile strengths and the ratio of conditioned to that of unconditioned
specimens indirect tensile strength shall be represented as Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR).As per
MORTH section 500 minimum TSR value shall not be less than 80%.

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Marshall Method of Mix Design

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1. Setting Time of Cement

Theory and Scope: In order that the concrete may be placed in position conveniently, it is
essential that the initial setting time of cement is not too quick and after it has been cast,
hardening should be rapid so that the built structure can be occupied as early as possible.

The initial set is a stage in the process of hardening after which any crack that may occur will
not reunite. The concrete is said to be finally set when it has obtained sufficient strength and
stiffness. Therefore, certain limits for initial and final setting times have to be specified.
Procedu re:

 Prepare a neat cement paste by gauging the cement with 0.85P water, where P = standard
(normal) consistency as found out in the last experiment of Normal consistency before.
The gauging time is again kept between 3 – 5 minutes. Start the stop watch at the instant
when the water is mixed to the cement.
 Fill the Vicat mould and smooth off the surface of the paste making it level with the top
of the mould. The cement block thus readied is called as test block.
 For the determination of initial setting time, place the test block held in the mould and
resting on non – porous plates under the rod attached with the needle, lower the needle
gently in contact with surface of the test block and release rapidly, permitting it to
penetrate into the test block.
 Repeat this procedure until the needle fails to pierce the block for about 5mm measured
from the bottom of the mould.
 Initial Setting Time - The period lapsed between the time at which the needle fails to
penetrate the test block by about 5mm is known as the initi al setting time
 For the determination of final setting time replace the initial setting time needle of the
Vicat apparatus by the final setting time needle.
 The cement is considered finally set when, upon applying the final setting time needle
gently to the surface of the test block, the needle makes an impression thereon.
 Draw a graph between percentage of water and penetration in millimetres.

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2. Compressive Strength of Cement

Theory and Scope
The compressive strength of cement mortar is determined in order to verify whether the cement
conforms to IS specification (IS: 269 – 1976) and whether it will be able to develop the required
compressive strength of concrete.

According to IS: 269 – 1976, the ultimate compressive strength of cubes of cement sand mortar of the
ratio 1:3, containing (P/4 + 3) percent of water should be as follows:

1. After 3 days – Not less than 16 N/mm2

2. After 7 days – Not less than 22 N/mm2

Procedure

 The compressive strength of cement mortar is determined in order to verify whether the
cement conforms to IS specification (IS: 269 – 1976) and whether it will be able to
develop the required compressive strength of concrete. According to IS: 269 – 1976,
the ultimate compressive strength of cubes of cement sand mortar of the ratio 1:3,
containing (P/4 + 3) percent of water should be as follows:

1. After 3 days – Not less than 16 N/mm2

2. After 7 days – Not less than 22 N/mm2

 Place the mixture of the cement and standard sand in the proportions of 1:3 by mass on
a non – porous plate or mixing tray and mix it dry with a trowel for one minute and
then with water until the mixture is of uniform color. The percentage of water to be used
shall be [(P/4) + 3]. The time of mixing (gauging) in any event shall not be less than 3
minutes.

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 Immediately after mixing the mortar as explained above, fill the entire quantity of
mortar in the hopper of the cube mould and compact by vibration. The period of
vibration shall be 2 minutes.

 Remove the mould from the machine and keep it at a temperature of 27 +/- 2°C in an
atmosphere of at least 90 percent relative humidity for 24 hours.

 At the end of this period, remove the cube from the mould and immediately submerge
it in clean and fresh water and keep there until taken out just prior to breaking. Keep
the cubes wet till they are placed in machine for testing.

 Test the specimens at the required periods. Test three cubes at the periods mentioned
below. The compressive strength shall be the average of the strengths of the three cubes
for each period.

 OPC – 3 and 7 days. The cubes shall be tested on their sides, the load being applied at
the rate of 35 N/mm2.

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3. Workability
a) Slump Test

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b) Compaction Factor Test

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c) Vee-bee Consistometer

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Compressive Strength of Concrete

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Split Tensil Test

Flexural Strength Test

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