INDEX
POLES OF A MAGNET- 02
MAGNETIC FIELD-02
MAGNETIC FLUX-02,03
MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY-03
MAGNETISING FORCE-03
MAGNETIC POTENTIAL-03
ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE PERMEABILITY-03
RELATION BETWEEN B AND H-03
IMPORTANT TERMS(EXTRA)-04
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT-04
TYPICAL ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS-05
FORCE ON CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD (EXTRA)-05
AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW-05
APPLICATIONS OF AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW (EXTRA) -06
BIOT-SAVART LAW-06
APPLICATIONS OF BIOT-SAVARTL LAW (EXTRA) -07
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT-07
MAGNETISING FORCE-07
DERIVATION FOR M.M.F FORMULA RELATED TO FLUX AND RELUCTANCE(EXTRA)-08
COMPARISON B/W MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC CIRCUITS-08
SERIES MAGNETIC CIRCUIT-09
AIR GAPS IN MAGNETIC CIRCUITS (EXTRA)-10
MAGNETIC LEAKAGE AND FRINGING-10
SOLENOID-10
B-H CURVE – 11
EMI- 11
MAGNETISM
POLES OF A MAGNET
Pole- points of maximum magnetic effect
1. poles of a magnet cannot be separated. No matter how many times a magnet is broken, each piece will
contain N-pole at one end and S-pole at the other.
2. The two poles of a magnet are of equal strength. The pole strength is represented by m.
3. Like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other.
Isolated poles- if we take thin and long steel rods (about 50 cm long) with a small steel ball on either end and then
magnetise them, N and S poles become concentrated in the steel balls. Such poles may be assumed point poles for all
practical purposes.
Coulomb’s laws of magnetic force
1. Like poles repel each other while unlike poles attract each other.
2. The force between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the product of their pole strengths and
inversely proportional to the square of distance between their centres
m1 m2
F=K 2
d
K is a constant whose value depends upon the
surrounding medium and the system of units employed.
In SI units, force is measured in newtons, pole strength in *weber, distance in metres and the value of K is
given by:
1
K=
4 π μ o μr
µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m (Absolute permeability of vacuum or air)
µr = Relative permeability of the surrounding medium. For vacuum or air, its value is 1.
Unit of pole strength
that pole which when placed in air 1 m from an identical pole, repels it with a force of 62800 newtons.
m1 m2
In vector form, ⃗
F= 2
d^ where d^ is a unit vector to indicate the direction of d.
4 π μo d
MAGNETIC FIELD
The space (or field) in which a magnetic pole experiences a force.
The magnetic field around a magnet is represented by imaginary lines called
magnetic lines of force.
The important properties of magnetic lines of force are :
(i) Each magnetic line of force forms a closed loop i.e. outside the magnet, the direction of a magnetic line
of force is from north pole to south pole and it continues through the body of the magnet to form a
closed loop (See Fig. 7.2).
(ii) No two magnetic lines of force intersect each other. If two magnetic lines of force intersect, there would
be two directions of magnetic field at that point which is not possible.
(iii) Where the magnetic lines of force are close together, the magnetic field is strong and where they are
well spaced out, the field is weak.
(iv) Magnetic lines of force contract longitudinally and widen laterally.
(v) Magnetic lines of force are always ready to pass through magnetic materials like iron in preference to
pass through non-magnetic materials like
MAGNETIC FLUX
The total number of magnetic lines of force produced by a magnetic source. A unit N-pole is supposed to radiate out
a flux of one weber. Therefore, the magnetic flux coming out of N-pole of m weber is φ = m Wb
Now, 1Wb = 108 lines of force
Sometimes we have to use smaller unit of magnetic flux viz microweber (µWb).
1 µWb = 10–6 Wb = 10–6 × 108 lines = 100 lines
MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY
the magnetic flux passing normally per unit area. φ = BAsinϴ
φ
B= Wb/m2
A
Where, φ = flux in Wb
A = area in m2 normal to flux
SI UNIT- Wb/m2 or tesla (T)
Flux density is a measure of field concentration
i.e. amount of flux in each square metre of the field. In
practice, it is much more important than the total i) maximum ii) minimum flux when ϴ=0° i.e
amount of flux. flux when when the plane of the coil is
Magnetic flux density is a vector quantity. ϴ=90° parallel to the flux direction
Also, B=μ o∋¿
MAGNETIC INTENSITY OR MAGNETISING FORCE (H)
Imagine a unit north pole (i.e. N-pole of 1 Wb) is placed at P. Then, by definition, magnetic intensity at P is the force
acting on the unit N-pole placed at P.
m
H= 2
N /Wb
4 π μod
m
Vector form, ⃗H= 2
d^
4 π μod
If a pole of m Wb is placed in a uniform magnetic field of strength H newtons/Wb, then force acting on the pole,
F = m H newtons
MAGNETIC POTENTIAL
The magnetic potential at any point in the magnetic field is measured by the work done in moving a unit N-pole (i.e.
1 Wb strength) from infinity to that point against the magnetic force.
Magnetic potential is a scalar quantity.
m
V=
4 π μ o μr d
J/Wb
ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE PERMEABILITY (conductivity of magnetic flux)
The greater the permeability of a material, the greater is its conductivity for magnetic flux and vice-versa.
Air or vacuum is the poorest conductor of magnetic flux.
The absolute (or actual) permeability µ of magnetic materials is much greater than µ 0 (absolute permeabilty
of air) .
μo
relative permeability of the material μr =
μ
Concept of relative permeability- The relative permeability of a material is a measure of the
relative ease with which that material conducts magnetic flux compared with the conduction of flux
in air. Due to high relative permeability of magnetic materials (e.g. iron, steel and other magnetic alloys), they are
widely used for the cores of all electromagnetic equipment.
RELATION BETWEEN B AND H
The flux density B produced in a material is
directly proportional to the applied
magnetizing force H.
relative permeability of a material is equal to the ratio of flux density
produced in that material to the flux density produced in air by the same
magnetising force.
IMPORTANT TERMS (extra)
intensity of magnetisation (I)- The intensity of magnetisation of a magnetic material is defined as
the magnetic moment developed per unit volume of the material.
M
I= M = magnetic moment developed in the material V = volume of the material
V
OR intensity of magnetisation of a material may be defined as the pole
strength developed per unit area of cross-section of the material.
SI units of I are A m–1.
Magnetic susceptibilty ( χ ¿¿ m)¿ - The magnetic susceptibility of a material is
defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetisation (I) developed in the material to
the applied magnetising force (H). dimensionless quantity.
Relation between μr and χ m-
HERE I IS INTENSITY OF MAGNETISATION
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
When an electric current flows through a conductor, magnetic field is set up all along the length of the
conductor.
The direction of lines of force depends upon the
direction of current and may be determined by
right-hand rule. Hold the conductor in the right-
hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of
current. Then the fingers will point in the direction
of magnetic field around the conductor.
The following points may be noted about the magnetic effect of electric current :
(i) The greater the current through the conductor, the stronger the magnetic field and viceversa.
(ii) The magnetic field near the conductor is stronger and becomes weaker and weaker as we
move away from the conductor.
(iii) The magnetic lines of force around the conductor will be either clockwise or anticlockwise,
depending upon the direction of current. One may use right-hand rule to determine the
direction of magnetic field around the conductor.
(iv) The shape of the magnetic field depends upon the shape of the conductor.
TYPICAL ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
long straight conductor parallel conductors coil of several turns
The field between A and B cancels out to give
field shown in (ii).
If there are several parallel conductors placed
close together-
FORCE ON CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD (extra)
B = magnetic flux density in Wb/m2
I = current through the conductor in amperes
l = effective length of the conductor in metres
i.e. the length of the conductor lying in the magnetic field
θ = angle which the conductor makes with the direction of the magnetic field
It has been found experimentally that the magnitude of force (F) acting on the
conductor is directly proportional to the magnitudes of flux density (B), current (I),
F ∝ BIl sinθ newtons
length (l) and sin θ i.e.
or F = k BIl sinθ where k is a constant of proportionality. Now SI unit of B is so defined that value of k becomes unity.
Therefore, F = BIl sin θ
the direction of the force is always perpendicular to the plane containing the conductor and the magnetic
field F =I ( ⃗l× ⃗
⃗ B)
If the current-carrying conductor is at right angles to the magnetic field, the direction of force can
also be found by Fleming’s Left-hand rule stated below :
Fleming’s Left-hand Rule. Stretch out the First finger, second finger and thumb of your left
hand so that they are at right angles to one another. If the first finger points in the direction of
magnetic field (North to South) and second finger (i.e. middle finger) points towards the direction of
current, then the thumb will point in the direction of motion of the conductor.
AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW OR WORK LAW
The work done on or by a unit N-pole in moving once around any complete path is
equal to the product of current and number of turns enclosed by that path i.e.
where Hr is the magnetising force at a distance r. The circle around the integral sign indicates that the
integral is around a complete path.
The work law is applicable regardless of the shape of complete path.
Thus, paths ‘a’ and ‘b’ completely enclose N conductors. If a unit N-
pole is moved once around any of these complete paths, the work
done in each case will be equal to N I. Although path ‘c’ is a complete path, it fails
to enclose any current carrying conductor. Hence, no work is done in moving a unit N-pole around such a
path.
Note. The work law is applicable for all magnetic fields, irrespective of the shape of the field or of the
materials which may be present.
APPLICATIONS OF AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW (EXTRA)
Magnetising force around a long straight Magnetising force due to long solenoid
conductor
Current =I [Link] conductor will set up magnetic lines of force Consider a long solenoid of length l and wound uniformly with N
which encircle turns. assume length>>> breadth. The following assumptions are
it. circular path radius = r metres. By symmetry,the field intensity H permissible : (i) The field strength external to the solenoid is
on all the points of this circular path will be the same. If a unit N- effectively zero. (ii) The field strength inside the solenoid is uniform.
pole is moved once around this Suppose the current I flowing through the solenoid produces
circular path, then work done is = 2πrH. By work law, this must be uniform magnetic field strength H within the solenoid. Applying
equal to the product of current and number of turns enclosed by work law to any closed path say dotted one.
this circular path. Total work done around closed path = Ampere turns linked. Since there is
2π r H = I (since, N = 1) negligible field strength (H) outside the solenoid, the only work
H=I ⁄2πr done will be in travelling length l within the solenoid. Note- the
If there had been N turns enclosed by the path, then magnetic field strength (H) is a vector quantity since it has
H=NI ⁄2πr magnitude
and direction.
BIOT-SAVART LAW
Biot-Savart law gives us expression for the magnetic field at a point due to a current element.
Consider a current element I⃗ dl of a conductor XY carrying current I. Let P be the point where the
magnetic field ⃗
dB due to the current element is to be found. Suppose r⃗ is the position vector of
point P from the current element I⃗
dl and ϴ is the angle between ⃗
dl and r⃗ .
According to Biot-Savart law, the magnitude ⃗
dB of magnetic field at point P
due to the current element depends upon the following factors :
(i) ⃗
dB ∝ I (ii) ⃗
dB ∝ ⃗
dl (iii) ⃗
dB ∝ 1/r2 (iv) ⃗
dB ∝ sinϴ
APPLICATIONS OF BIOT-SAVART LAW (EXTRA)
Magnetic flux density at the centre Magnetic flux density due to straight Magnetic flux density on the axis of
of current-carrying circular coil conductor carrying current circular coil carrying current
[Link] the conductor If coil has n turns
XY is of infinite length
(if coil has N turns) and point P lies at the
centre of the conductor.
here, ϕ1 = ϕ2 =90°
[Link] conductor XY is
Right-hand palm rule. of infinite length but [Link] point P is at the centre of the coil implies x = 0
Orient the thumb of your point P lies near one end
right hand perpendicular to Y (or X). In this case, ϕ1 = 90° and ϕ2 = 0°
the grip of the 2. When point P is far away from the centre of coil
[Link] the length of
fingers such that curvature of
the conductor is implies x >>
the fingers points in the a so that a2
finite (say l) and point P lies on the right
direction of current in the + x2 ≈x.
2
circular coil. Then thumb will bisector of the conductor.
point in the direction of the so, ϕ1 = ϕ2 = ϕ.
magnetic field near the Direction can be given by
Direction of field is determined by righthand fist rule.
centre of the circular coil. right hand thumb rule. Hold the axis of the coil in the right-hand fist in such a
way that fingers point in
the direction of current in
the coil. Then
outstretched thumb gives
the direction of the
magnetic field.
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
The closed path followed by magnetic flux is called a magnetic circuit.
In a magnetic circuit, the magnetic flux leaves the N-pole, passes through the entire circuit, and returns to
the starting point.
RELUCTANCE- The opposition that the magnetic circuit offers to magnetic flux is called
reluctance. Its unit is AT/Wb.
PERMEANCE- It is the reciprocal of reluctance. It is a measure of the ease
with which flux can pass through the material. Its unit is Wb/AT. P= 1/S
MAGNETISING FORCE (H)
The magnetic flux (f) can be produced by
(i) current-carrying conductor or coil
(ii) a permanent magnet
magnetic flux (f) produced by a current-carrying coil is directly proportional to the product of number of
turns (N) of the coil and electric current (I) which the coil carries. The quantity NI is called magnetomotive
force (m.m.f) and is measured in ampere-turns (AT).
m.m.f. = NI Ampere-turns (AT)
m.m.f. is required to produce magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit (The closed path followed by magnetic
flux ). The greater the m.m.f., the greater is the magnetic flux produced in the magnetic circuit and vice-
versa.
The magnetising force (H) produced by an electric current is defined as the
m.m.f. set up per unit length of the magnetic circuit.
Magnetising force (H) is known by different names such as magnetic field
strength, magnetic intensity and magnetic potential gradient.
DERIVATION FOR M.M.F FORMULA RELATED TO FLUX AND
RELUCTANCE(EXTRA)
m.m.f = ϕ * S(reluctance)
Suppose the mean length of the magnetic circuit (i.e. length ABCDA) is l
metres, cross-sectional area of the core is ‘a’ m2 and relative permeability
of core material is μr. When current I is passed through the coil, it will set
up flux ϕ in the material.
SERIES MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
μr=1 for air gap
Composite series magnetic circuit-A series
magnetic circuit that has parts of different dimensions
and materials
AIR GAPS IN MAGNETIC CIRCUITS (EXTRA)
The magnitude of AT required for air gap is much greater than that required for iron part of the magnetic
circuit. It is because reluctance of air is very large compared to that offered by iron. Consider a
magnetic circuit of uniform cross-sectional area a with an air gap as shown in Fig. 8.5. The length of
the air gap is lg and the mean length of iron part is li. The flux density B(= ϕ/a) is constant in the
magnetic circuit.
Now relative permeability μr of iron is very high (> 6000) so that
reluctance of iron part is very small as compared to that of air
gap inspite of the fact that li > lg. In fact, most of ampere-turns
(AT) are required in a magnetic circuit to force the flux through the air gap than through the
iron part.
In some magnetic circuits, we neglect reluctance of iron part compared to the air gap/gaps.
MAGNETIC LEAKAGE AND FRINGING
The flux that does not follow the desired path in a magnetic circuit is
called a leakage flux.
The flux in the air gap is known as useful flux because it can be
utilised for various useful purposes.
The total flux produced by the coil does not pass through the air gap
as some of it leaks(since air not a good magnetic insulator) through
the air (path at ‘a’) surrounding the iron. These flux lines as at ‘a’ are
called leakage flux.
Magnetic leakage is undesirable in electrical machines
because it increases the weight as well as cost of the
machine. Magnetic leakage can be greatly reduced by
placing source of m.m.f. (eg-generator) close to the air
gap. Shorter the path lesser the leakage.
Fringing- When crossing an air gap, magnetic lines of force tend to bulge out such as lines
of force at bb. It is because lines of force repel each other when passing through non-magnetic material
such as air. This effect is known as fringing. The result of bulging or fringing is to increase the effective area
of air gap and thus decrease the flux density in the gap. The longer the air gap, the greater is the fringing
and vice-versa.
Note. In a short air gap with large cross-sectional area, the fringing may be insignificant. In other situations,
10% is added to the air gap’s cross-sectional area to allow for fringing.
SOLENOID
A long coil of wire consisting of closely packed loops is called a solenoid.
When current is passed through the coil of air-cored
solenoid, magnetic field is set up. The path of the magnetic
flux is made up of two components :
(i) length l1 of the path within the coil
(ii) length l2 of the path outside the coil.
The total m.m.f. required for the solenoid is the sum of
m.m.f.s required for these two paths i.e.
Total m.m.f. = m.m.f. for path l1 + m.m.f. for path l2
But m.m.f. for path l1 *>> m.m.f. for path l2
Therefore, Total m.m.f. = m.m.f. for path l1
Hence, for a solenoid (air-cored or iron-cored), the length of the magnetic circuit is the coil
length l1. We can use right-hand rule to determine the direction of magnetic field in the core of the
solenoid.
B-H CURVE
The B-H curve (or magnetisation curve) indicates the manner in which the flux density (B) varies with the
magnetising force (H).
For non-magnetic materials. For nonmagnetic materials (e.g. air, copper, rubber, wood etc.), the relation between B
and H is given by ; B = μ0 H
Hence, the B-H curve of a non-magnetic material is a straight line passing through
the [Link] things are worth noting. First, the curve never saturates no matter
how great the flux density may be. Secondly, a large m.m.f. is required to produce
a given flux in the nonmagnetic material e.g. air.
For magnetic materials. For magnetic materials (e.g. iron, steel etc.), the relation
between B and H is given by ;
B = μ0μr H
μr is not constant but varies with the flux density. Consequently, the B-H curve of
a magnetic material is not linear.
(i) shows the general shape of B-H curve of a magnetic material. The non-linearity of the
curve indicates that relative permeability μr (= B/μ0H) of a material is not constant but
depends upon the flux density.
It is slightly concave up for ‘low’ flux densities (portion OA) and exhibits a straight line character (portion AB) for
‘medium’ flux densities. In the portion AB of the curve, the μr of the material is almost constant. For higher flux ‘densities’, the
curve concaves down (called the knee of the curve). After knee of the curve, any further increase in H does not increase B. From
now onwards, the curve is almost flat and the material is said to be saturated. In terms of molecular theory, saturation can be
explained as the point at which all the molecular magnets are oriented in the direction of applied H.
(ii) shows how relative permeability μr of a magnetic material (cast steel) varies with flux density.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
The phenomenon of production of e.m.f. and hence current in a conductor or coil when the magnetic flux
linking the conductor or coil changes is called electromagnetic induction.
The following points may be noted carefully :
(i) The basic requirement for inducing e.m.f. in a coil is not the magnetic flux linking the coil but the change in flux linking the coil.
No change in flux, no e.m.f. induced in the coil.
(ii) The change in flux linking the coil can be brought about in two ways. First, the conductors (or coils) are moved through a
stationary magnetic field as is the case with d.c. generators. Secondly, the conductors are stationary and the magnetic field is
moving as is the case with a.c. generators. In either case, the basic principle is the same i.e. the amount of flux linking the
conductors (or coils) is changed.
(iii) The e.m.f. and hence current in the conductors (or coils) will persist so long as the magnetic flux linking them is changing.
The product of number of turns (N) of the coil and the magnetic flux (φ) linking the coil is called flux linkages i.e.
Flux linkages = Nφ
magnitude of e.m.f. induced in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change
of flux linkages, If N is the number of turns of the coil and the magnetic flux linking
the coil changes (say increases) from φ1 to φ2 in t seconds, then
FARADAY’S LAWS OF EMI
First Law: When the magnetic flux linking a conductor or coil changes, an e .m.f. is induced in it.
Second Law: The magnitude of the e.m.f. induced in a conductor or coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux
linkages where the value of k is *unity in SI
units
DIRECTION OF INDUCED E.M.F. AND CURRENT
Lenz’s Law: The induced current will flow in such a direction so as to oppose the cause that produces it i.e. the induced current
will set up magnetic flux to oppose the change in flux.
dϕ
Note that Lenz’s law is reflected mathematically in the minus sign on the R.H.S. of Faraday’s second law viz. e = − N
dt
The negative sign reminds us that the induced current opposes the changing magnetic field that caused the induced current.
Flemming’s right hand rule: Stretch out the forefinger, middle finger and thumb of your right hand so that they are at right
angles to one another. If the forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field, thumb in the direction of motion of the
conductor, then the middle finger will point in the direction of induced current. (GENERATORS-FOR INDUCED CURRENT)