SAT Math Notes

This is a comprehensive guide of the math you need to know

for the SAT Math Section. It includes step-by-step examples
for how to solve for all of the key topics and question types
you will encounter.

Keep an eye out for the USEFUL TIPS since they could give
you hints for how to solve problems more quickly, even for
some of the questions with basic content.

The SAT math section includes problems from the following

four general categories, with more specific topics included in
each category, as shown below.
 Heart of Algebra  Passport to Advanced
 Mathematics
 Contains 19 of 58
 Contains 16 of 58
questions = 32.8%
questions = 27.6%
 Linear equations and
 Polynomial factors,
inequalities
graphs, and operations
 Interpreting linear
 Quadratic, exponential,
functions
radical, and rational
 Systems of linear equations and
equations and expressions
inequalities
 Radical and rational
 Basic function notation exponents
 Absolute value functions  Structure in expressions
and isolating quantities
 Problem Solving and  Function notation
Data Analysis
 Contains 17 of 58  Additional Topics in
questions = 29.3% Math
(Calculator Section
 Contains 6 of 58
only)
questions = 10.3%
 Ratios, rates, and
 Geometry: area,
proportions
volume, triangles,
 Percentages angles, arc lengths,
 Units sector areas
 Linear and exponential  Right triangle
growth trigonometry
 Reading table data and  Circle equations and
 graphs theorems
 Data collection,  Complex numbers
inference,
and conclusions

Heart of Algebra
The Heart of Algebra problems make up 18 of 58 questions, or
roughly 32.8% of the entire math section. The main topics
include:
 Linear equations and inequalities
 Interpreting linear functions
 Systems of linear equations and inequalities
 Basic function notation
  Absolute value functions
Order of Operations

Simplifying Expressions Solving for a Variable

Simplify expressions with the order Solve for a variable using

of operations, PEMDAS. the reverse order of
 PEMDAS stands PEMDAS: SADMEP.
for Parenthesis, Exponents, Multi  SADMEP stands
plication or Division, Addition for Subtraction
or Subtraction. or Addition, Division
 Multiplication and division have or Multiplication, Expo
 equal priority and should be nents,
done from left to right. The and Parenthesis.
same is true for addition and  Addition and
subtraction. subtraction have equal
Simplifying Example: priority, as
does multiplication
4(8 - 5) + 9 and division.
Solving Example:
Subtract 5 from 8. According to the
PEMDAS order, first simplify (3x - 12)/2 = 9
anything inside of the Parenthesis.
Multiply by 2. There is
4(3) + 9 nothing that can
be Added or Subtracted,
Multiply 4 by 3. According to
PEMDAS, there is nothing left to but there is something
simplify in the Parenthesis and that can be Divided
no Exponents to deal with, so the or Multiplied, so do that
next step would be to Multiply first in this case.
or Divide.
3x - 12 = 18
12 + 9
Add 12. According to the
Add 12 and 9. This is the only step SADMEP order, there is
left. something that can
be Subtracted or Added
21 to both sides next.

3x = 30
 Divide by 3. According to
SADMEP, there is nothing
that can be Subtracted
or Added to both sides,
so the next step would be
to Divide or Multiply.

x = 10
USEFUL TIP: If you need to isolate a variable that is being
multiplied by a fraction, multiply both sides by the reciprocal
of the fraction to isolate the variable in one step. For example,
here is how you could solve for x in the equation below.
Multiply both sides by 5/4 so that the coefficient of 4/5 on the
right side is cancelled.

This becomes:

USEFUL TIP: Before using SADMEP to solve for a variable, it

would be helpful to combine any like terms first. For example,
for the equation 2x + 6x + 4 = 28, first combine the like terms
(2x and 6x) to get 8x + 4 = 28. Then solve for (or "isolate") x
by using SADMEP.
Forms of Linear Equations for Graphing

Linear equations can be expressed in the forms shown below.

*Note: The word "output" is interchangeable with the word
"height."
Slope-Intercept Slope Formula Standard Form
Form
USEFUL TIP:
m = slope
m = slope or rate If y is isolated for
(see Example 2
The change in the standard form,
 below)
output for every the equation
 Change in height becomes:
increase of 1 for
divided by
the input.
change in
horizontal where -A/B is the
b = y-intercept distance. slope, and C/B is
(see Example 1 the y-intercept.
 "Rise over run."
below)
  For graphs: The
output when x x1 and x2 = given x
= 0. values
y1 and y2 = given y
x = input value of values
the function
y = output value of *This form is often
the function used to find the
slope when two
points are known.
USEFUL TIP: If the coordinates of a point are given but they
are in the form of two variables, such as the point (c, d), then
you can substitute c as an x value and d as a y value in one of
the formulas above to help you solve the problem. Don't get
intimidated if you don't see numbers as point coordinates,
such as (4, 7). You can manipulate other variables in the same
way as numbers, even if the answer is written in terms of the
variables (see example 4 below).

USEFUL TIP: If it's given that the line goes through the origin,
you know that (0, 0) is one of the points on that line, so you
can often use that information to get to the answer (see
example 3 below).

Example 2. Example 3. Example 4.

Example 1. Visualization When it's If the
The y-intercept of the "rise" given that the coordinates
is always at (0, and "run" of a line goes are given as
b) for y = mx + slope, through the variables, use
b. Note that the represented origin, you them as you
y-axis is the line by y2 - y1, can often use would
x = 0, so the x and x2 - x1, (0, 0) as a numbers to
value will respectively. point to help find the slope
always be 0 for solve the or other
the y-intercept problem. values of a
of a graph. By line.
plugging in 0 for
x for
y = mx + b, you
get y = m(x) +
 b. Therefore, y
= b when x = 0.
Interpreting Linear Equations

On the SAT you may need to interpret the meaning of part of a

linear equation or its graph in the context of the situation it
represents. For problems where the equation is given, it could
be of the form y = mx + b, or it could be written in a different
form that still represents a linear equation. Variables other
than x and y might be used as well.

Imagine this scenario: Betty is selling popcorn at a school

event. She spent $12 on cotton candy ingredients and
supplies in total, and she is charging $1.50 per cotton candy
that she sells, where p is the profit she earns and c is the
number of cotton candies sold.

Below are some ways that p as a function of c may be

expressed for this situation.

Those 5 equations all represent the same function, and there

are even more ways to rewrite the function. For interpreting
linear functions, you will typically have to figure out whether a
given part of the function represents the rate or initial
condition of a situation.

For example, if the function is written as:

What is the best interpretation of the number -12 in the
equation?

A) Betty loses $12 for every cotton candy that she sells.
B) It cost Betty $12 originally to set up her operation.
C) Betty will need to sell 12 cotton candies to break even.
D) There are 12 cotton candies left for Betty to sell.

Answer: B
Explanation: When Betty has sold 0 cotton candies, c = 0. By
plugging in 0 for the variable c in the equation, p = -12. This
means that her profit when she started is -12 dollars. In other
words, she has spent 12 dollars before selling any cotton
candies.
USEFUL TIP: If you're having trouble interpreting parts of a
linear function because of its form, take a few moments to
rewrite it in the form y = mx + b (slope-intercept form) so that
you can quickly tell what the parts of the equation represent.

Finding the Rate:

 It is the value being multiplied by the input variable (the
variable on the x-axis) for slope-intercept form.
 For graphs, it is the value of the slope.
 In each of the five equations above, p increases by 1.5, or
3/2, for each increase of 1 for c. Therefore, the rate of
change of p in terms of c is 1.5, or 3/2.
Finding the Initial/Starting Condition (Initial Output):
 It is the constant on the side with the input variable for
slope-intercept form.
 For graphs, it is the y-intercept.
 In the equations above, p = -12 when c = 0. Therefore, the
profit is -12 dollars when 0 cotton candies are sold.

USEFUL TIP: There may be cases where you are asked to

solve for p in terms of c. In other words, you would need to
isolated the other variable. In those instances, use
the Reverse order of PEMDAS (or SADMEP) that was
mentioned earlier to isolate the other variable.
For example, solve for c in terms of p (in other words, get c by
itself):

Add 12.

Multiply both sides by 2/3 to cancel out the coefficient of 3/2

on the right side.

The equation is solved for c.

For an alternate form, distribute 2/3 to the terms in the
parenthesis on the left side.

Alternate form of the equation solved for c.

Slopes of Linear Equations

Slopes of Slopes of Slopes of Slopes of

horizontal vertical lines parallel lines perpendicular
lines are 0. are undefined. are equal. lines are
negative
reciprocals.
For example:
5/3 and -3/5.
Systems of Linear Equations

Systems of linear equations are two or more lines that are

graphed simultaneously. Solutions for systems of equations
are the points where the graphs intersect. There are three
possible types of solutions for systems of linear equations.

One solution: The No solutions: The Infinite

lines intersect at lines intersect Solutions: The
one point. nowhere. lines intersect at
  If the slopes of  If the slopes of infinite points (they
two lines are two lines are the are overlapping
different, they same (they are lines).
will have exactly parallel) but the  If the slopes and
one solution. y-intercept is y-intercepts are
different, they the same for
will have no both lines, they
solutions. will have infinite
solutions.
More about Infinite Solutions
 If each of the coefficients and constants of one linear
equation are proportional to the corresponding coefficients
or constants of another linear equation, the lines will have
infinite solutions.
  For example: -2x + 3y = 9 and -4x + 6y = 18 will have
infinite solutions because the second equation's
coefficients and constant are all twice the value of the first
equation's.
 Written in y = mx + b form, both equations could be
rewritten as y = (2/3)x + 3. In other words, they are the
same line.
Graphing Linear Equations

Graphed lines will go through at most only 3 quadrants.

Lines with positive slopes with Lines with negative slopes with
a positive y-intercept will go a positive y-intercept will go
through quadrants I, II, and III, through quadrants I, II, and IV,
but will not go through but will not go through
quadrant IV. quadrant III.
Lines with positive slopes with Lines with negative slopes with
a negative y-intercept will go a negative y-intercept will go
 through quadrants I, III, and IV, through quadrants II, III, and
but will not go through IV, but will not go through
quadrant II. quadrant I.
USEFUL TIP: If a linear graph is given where you need to
determine either the slope or y-intercept, make sure to check
the scale of the axes. There may be times when one axis uses
different units than another. For example, each mark on the x-
axis may represent a unit of 1, however, each mark on the y-
axis may represent a unit of 5. It is fairly common for graphs
on the SAT to use different scales for the different axes, and
not noticing this will likely result in an incorrect choice.
Solving Systems of Equations

As mentioned above, the solution to a system of equations is

the point or points where two lines intersect. If you're given
two lines in either the slope-intercept form (y = mx + b) or
standard form (Ax + By = C), you can solve for the places the
lines intersect by either the Combination
Method (sometimes called the Elimination Method) or
the Substitution Method.

Combination Method

General process: Make the coefficients of one of the variables

opposites, add the equations to cancel out the variable, and
solve for the other variable.
Example: Steps:
10x + Multiply either or both equations by a number that
5y = 40 makes the coefficients of one of the variables
-6x + 2y opposite values. In this case, the top equation can
= -4 be multiplied by 3 and the bottom equation can be
multiplied by 5. This will make it so that there is 30x
in the top equation and -30x in the bottom equation.
3•(10x Distribute.
+ 5y =
40)
5•(-6x +
2y = -4)
30x + Add the left sides together and set them equal to the
15y = right sides added together. Notice that 30x and -30x
120 will cancel each other out.
-30x +
10y = -
 20
25y = Solve for y by dividing both sides by 25.
100
y=4 Substitute the value of y into one of the original
equations.
10x + Solve for x.
5(4) =
40
10x = 20

x=2
Since x = 2 and y = 4, the solution to the system of equations
is the point (2, 4).
USEFUL TIP: Almost all systems of equations problems can
be solved fairly efficiently with the combination method on the
SAT.

USEFUL TIP: Using the combination method, if you need to

solve for just one variable, multiply the equations by constants
that cancel out the other variable.

Substitution Method

General process: Solve for one variable in terms of the other

and substitute the value into the second equation.
Example: Steps:
3x + y = Solve for y in terms of x in the top equation by
-10 subtracting 3x from both sides.
-4y = -
8x - 20
y = -3x - Substitute -3x - 10 for y into the bottom equation.
10
-4(-3x - Solve for x since it is the only variable in the
10) = - equation.
8x - 20
12x + 40 = -8x - 20

20x + 40 = -20

20x = -60
x = -3 Substitute -3 for x in the other equation (3x + y = -
 10) to solve for y.
3(-3) + y = -10

-9 + y = -10

y = -1
Since x = -3 and y = -1, the solution to the system of
equations is (-3, -1).

USEFUL TIP: In the problem above, -3 could be substituted

into the equation y = -3x -10 to solve for y more quickly.

USEFUL TIP: Sometimes you only need to solve for one

variable. Using the substitution method, if you need to just
solve for x, first solve for y in terms of x for the first step. If
you need to just solve for y, first solve for x in terms of y for
the first step.
Function Notation Basics

Function notation is a slightly different method of writing

equations than we've discussed so far. In basic function
notation f(x) (read "f of x") represents the output of a function.
The x inside the parenthesis represents the input of the
function. In the regular x and y coordinate graphing system,
f(x) takes the place of y, the graph's output (a.k.a. height).

For example, f(x) = 2x - 5 is the function notation equivalent of

y = 2x - 5. And y = -3x + 8 could be written as f(x) = -3x +
8 in function notation.
Although f(x) = "expression" is the basic form of function
notation, other letters besides f and x can also be used, just as
linear equations can be written with variables other than x and
y. For example, y = 4x + 3 could be rewritten as h = 4s + 3,
where both y and h refer to the output, and x and s refer to
the input of a linear function. Similarly, f(x) = 4x + 3 and g(x)
= 4x + 3 and p(a) = 4a + 3 all refer to a function where the
input is multiplied by 4 and then 3 is added to the value.

Function notation can also specify certain input and output

pairs. Let's use the function f(x) = 5x + 8 as an example. This
function states that the input is multiplied by 5 and then 8 is
added to the value. We could say that f(2) = 18. This means
that by inputting 2 into the function, the output is 18. We can
check this: f(2) = 5(2) + 8 = 18.

Using this same function, f(3) would mean that 3 is the input
value. Therefore, f(3) = 5(3) + 8 = 23.

More on Function Notation is given in the Passport to

Advanced Mathematics section.
Linear Inequalities in One Variable

Graphing Linear Inequalities in One Variable

When graphing linear inequalities, the collection of all points

that make the inequality true are plotted on a number line.
For "greater than" or "less than" inequalities, there will be an
open (not filled in) point. On the other hand, for "greater than
or equal to" or "less than or equal to" inequalities, the
corresponding point is closed (filled in).

There is an open (not filled in) There is a closed (filled in)

circle at x = 3. circle at x = 3.
This might be a representation This might be a representation
of the sentence: of the sentence:
"He has more than three "He has at least three dollars."
dollars."
Notice the difference between these two graphs: the "greater
than" graph is not filled at the point x = 3 since plugging in 3
for x would not make the inequality true. 3 is not greater than
3. However, for the "greater than or equal to" graph, plugging
in 3 for x would still make the inequality true since 3 is greater
than OR EQUAL TO 3.

For graphs that are "less than" or "less than or equal to," the
graph would be filled in on points to the left of a specific value
instead of to the right as shown above.
Solving for Linear Inequalities in One Variable

When solving for an inequality, use the same process as

solving for a variable in an equation until the variable is
isolated. The one major difference is that when multiplying
or diving by a negative value, you need to reverse the
direction of the inequality sign.
Example 1: Example 2:
 2x + 5 > 17 -4x - 2 ≤ 6

Subtract 5. Add 2.

2x > 12 -4x ≤ 8

Divide by 2. Divide by -4 and reverse the

inequality sign.
x>6
x ≥ -2
Linear Inequalities in Two Variables

The solution to linear inequalities graphed on an xy-plane is

the shaded region of points that make the inequality true. You
should be careful to note whether the region to shade should
be above or below a certain line and whether the line itself
should be a solid line or a dotted line.

Choosing which Region to Shade

 If the inequality starts as y > ... or y ≥ ... then the region
above the line is shaded (for "greater than" or "greater
than or equal to").
 If the inequality starts as y < ... or y ≤ ... then the region
below the line is shaded (for "less than" or "less than or
equal to").

Choosing the Type of Line

 If the inequality starts as y > ... or y < ... then the line is
dotted, since the values for x and y on the line itself do not
make the inequality true (for "greater than" or "less than").
 If the inequality starts as y ≥ ... or y ≤ ... then the line is
solid, since the values for x and y on the line itself make
the inequality true (for "greater than or equal to" or "less
than or equal to").

y > 2x + 3 y ≥ 2x + 3 y < 2x + 3 y ≤ 2x + 3
The line is The line is The line is The line is
 dotted since filled in since dotted since filled in since
points on the points on the points on the points on the
line do not line make the line do not line make the
make the inequality make the inequality
inequality true. The inequality true. The
true. The region above true. The region below
region above the line is region below the line is
the line is shaded since the line is shaded since
shaded since y (the height) shaded since y (the height)
y (the height) is greater than y (the height) is less than or
is greater than or equal to the is less than equal to the
the line. line. the line. line.
Systems of Linear Inequalities

The solution to a system of linear inequalities is the region of

points where both inequalities are true at the same time. Two
inequalities are graphed together below that illustrates this
idea. The inequalities are y ≤ 3x + 1 and y > -x + 2.

y ≤ 3x + 1 y > -x + 2 y ≤ 3x + 1 and y >

-x + 2 graphed
together. The
solution is the
overlapping region.
Absolute Value

Absolute value refers to the magnitude of a value, regardless

of its sign. In other words, it is the distance of a value from 0,
no matter which direction it is. The symbol for absolute value
is two vertical lines. The absolute of x is written as |x|.

For example, the absolute value of -3 is 3 because -3 is 3 units

away from 0. This could be written using math symbols as |-3|
= 3. On the other hand, 3 is also 3 units away from 0. So |3|
= 3 is also true. |-3| = 3 and |3| = 3.

In the equation |x + 6| = 2, there are two possible solutions for

x. Think about it this way: if the expression inside the absolute
value sign is equal to either 2 or -2, the equation is true. So to
solve for x, we can set up two different equations: x + 6 = 2
or x + 6 = -2.

By solving for the two equations, we get x = -4 or x = -8.

Distance-Rate-Time and Work-Rate-Time Problems

The relationship between distance, rate, and time is

essentially the same as the relationship between work, rate,
and time.
Distance - Rate - Time Work - Rate - Time

Making sense of the equation: Similarly to the D-R-T example,

If you were to run at 10 miles if you were to paint 10 walls an
an hour for 2 hours, you would hour for 2 hours, you would
run 10 miles per hour times 2 paint 10 walls per hour times 2
hours, or 20 miles total. hours, or 20 walls total.

If you are given two parts of a If you are given two parts of a
D-R-T problem, rewrite d = rt to W-R-T problem, rewrite w = rt
solve for the remaining to solve for the remaining
variable. variable.
 d = rt (use if given the rate  w = rt (use if given the rate
and time and you need the and time and you need the
distance) work)
 r = d/t (use if given the  r = w/t (use if given the
distance and time and you work and time and you
need the rate) need the rate)
  t = d/r (use if given the  t = w/r (use if given the
distance and rate and you work and rate and you need
need the time) the time)

Problem Solving and Data Analysis

The Problem Solving and Data Analysis problems are only on
the Calculator Section of the SAT. The make up 17 of 58
questions, or roughly 29.3% of the entire math section. The
main topics include:
 Ratios, rates, and proportions
 Percentages
 Units
 Linear and exponential growth
  Reading table data and graphs
 Data collection, inference, and conclusions
Ratios

A ratio is a comparison of one value to another. It can be

written as a fraction, such as 3/4, or with a colon, such as 3:4.
Ratios are typically used to compare parts to parts, or parts to
wholes.

For example, if you need to make a fruit smoothie that uses 2

strawberries, 5 raspberries, and 6 blueberries, the ratio of
strawberries to raspberries would be 2:5 (part to part). The
ratio of strawberries to fruit would be 2:13 (part to whole).
USEFUL TIP: If a ratio is given not in its fraction form, turn it
into the fraction form first since it will often be easier to use
that form to solve a problem.
Rates

Rates are ratios that compare ratios involving two different

units of measurement. They often involve time as a unit.
When dealing with anything that says, "per minute," "per
week," per year," etc., that is a rate.
Rates involving units of time: Rates involving units other
 The car drove 45 miles per than time:
hour. (45 miles / 1 hour)  The club earned $24 for
 She wrote 5 essays each customer. ($24 / 1
each week. (5 essays / 1 customer)
 week)  Each carton has 10 eggs.
 He grew 5 inches in 2 years. (10 eggs / carton)
(5 inches / 2 years)  They need 15 markers for a
group of 4 people. (15
markers / 4 people)
As you can see in the examples above, the denominator of a
rate might not always be a unit of 1.

USEFUL TIP: When asked to find a rate, make sure to

carefully check the units and cancel common factors. For
example, if revenue increases by $45,000 over 3 years, both
the numerator and denominator have a factor of 3 that can
cancel. The simplified rate would be $45,000 / 3 years =
$15,000 / 1 year.
Unit Rates

Unit rates are rates in which the denominator is written in

terms of a unit of 1. For example, 55 miles per hour is a unit
rate because it means that an object moves at a rate of 55
miles in one hour.

To convert a rate into a unit rate, divide both the numerator

and denominator by the value in the denominator.

Example:
A hot air balloon rises 74 meters in 4 minutes. What is the
unit rate for its speed of ascent?
Write the original rate.

Divide the numerator and denominator by the value of the

denominator so that the new denominator becomes 1 of that
unit (in other words, it converts it into the unit rate).

The answer can be read as "18.5 meters per minute."

Density as a Unit Rate

Density is defined as the mass of an object divided by its

volume and is typically given as a unit rate.
Example:

If the density of liquid mercury is 13.56 grams per cubic

centimeter, would an object that has a mass of 127 grams and
takes up 9.2 cubic centimeters float or sink in the mercury?

In order to solve this, you need to determine whether the

object's density is greater or less than that of the liquid
mercury's.

The object's density is slightly greater than that of the liquid

mercury, so it will sink.
Proportions

Proportions are two or more ratios that are equal. Ratios

are proportional if they are equal. Here are examples of
proportions:

Notice that there can be more than two equal ratios in a

proportion, and variables can also be used.

Proportions can often be solved by "cross multiplying." To

cross multiply means to multiply the numerator of one fraction
by the denominator of the other fraction and set that equal to
the denominator of the first fraction being multiplied by the
numerator of the second fraction. This works because if you
multiply both sides of the original equation by both
denominators, the denominators will cancel out as shown
below:

This Divid
Multiply Cancel out (Previous
shows e by
both sides the same step
the 4.
by both factors in shown)
original
denominato the
equation
rs. numerator
when it
and
is cross
denominat
multipli
or on each
ed.
side.
Next,
multiply
 3 by 12.
In the example above, if you were to start by cross
multiplying, you would multiply x times 4 and set that equal to
3 times 12: 4x = 3•12.
This is a good method to use on the SAT to save time.

USEFUL TIP: Solve for proportions by cross multiplying. (Just

make sure you understand why it works!)

Another way to deal with a proportion when the unknown

value is in the numerator is to multiply both sides by the
denominator of the side with the unknown value. The next
problem shows this method.

Example:
If a man drives 270 miles in 6 hours, at the same rate, how far
will he drive in 10 hours?

Remember that proportions are equal ratios, or equal rates. In

this scenario, we are dealing with rates. One rate is 270
miles / 6 hours. In the other rate, we aren't given the number
of miles, but we are given the number of hours, so we can use
a variable to represent the unknown number of miles and
divide it by 10 hours, which becomes x / 10 hours. Then we
can set these rates equal to each other to solve for the
unknown value:
Multiply both sides by 10 hours (which is the denominator on
the side with the unknown value).

Cancel out 10 hours in the numerator and denominator on the

right side.

Cancel out the unit "hours" on the top and bottom on the left
side, and simplify 270 / 6 to be 45 / 1.

Simplify the left side.

Unit Conversions
The key to unit conversions is to make sure that equivalent
values are substituted accurately and that units cancel
properly during the conversion process.

Example problem: If a person runs half of a 3 kilometer race,

how many feet would that person have run during that portion
of the race?
(1 kilometer = 0.621 miles, and 1 mile = 5280 feet)

To solve this problem, first you can write the original

information given and then substitute equivalent values for
units until you convert the unit into feet.
Express the information given: the person runs one half of 3
kilometers.
Since 1 kilometer = 0.621 miles, substitute 0.621 miles for
"kilometers."

Since 1 mile = 5280 feet, substitute 5280 feet for "miles."

Calculate the product of 1/2 times 3 times 0.621 times 5280

feet.

For anything other than very common knowledge, problems

involving unit conversions will give you information on how
one unit converts to another.
If you need to convert units in the
numerator and denominator, the same principle as above
applies. In a slightly more complicated example, let's say that
a certain type of glass can support 3,000 pounds per square
inch, and you need to find how many kilograms per square
centimeter that would be. (1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds, and 1
square inch = 6.45 square centimeters).

In this situation we are given that 1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds.

However, since we are given pounds per square inch but we
need kilograms per square centimeter, we need to convert
pounds into kilograms to start.

By dividing both sides by 2.2, you can solve for what 1 pound
is equal to in terms of kilograms.
Simplify as a decimal.

Now that we know that 1 pound = 0.454 kilograms and it was

given that 1 square inch = 6.45 square centimeters, we are
ready to convert all the units.
Next, substitute 0.454 kilograms for "pounds" and 6.45 cm^2
for "inches^2."

Simplify the right side by dividing both the numerator and

denominator by 6.45 in order to get a unit rate.
This tells us that 3000 pounds per square inch is equal to
211.16 kilograms per square centimeter.
USEFUL TIP: When dealing with unit conversions, start with
the expression that represents the situation of the problem
and replace each unit with its equivalent value until you arrive
at the required units.
Percentages
A percentage is a ratio that means "per 100" or "out of 100."
For example, 32 percent (32%) means 32 out of 100.

It's often useful to use the decimal version of a percentage

when calculating. To turn a percentage into a decimal, divide
the percentage number by 100. For example, 57% = 57/100
= 0.57.
To convert between percentages and fractions, use the
formula:

Here are some example problems involving percentages, some

which use a variation of the formula above.
Formula Example Calculation
Situation
What is 42% of
$280?
What percent of 60
is 24?
If a computer's old
version cost $800
when it came out, (This means the
but the new price increased by
version costs 15%).
$920, what
percent increase is
the new version's
price compared to
the old version?
If a jacket is on
sale for 20% off
(Note: The
and originally
percentage
cost $85, what is
change is -20%,
the new price?
since it is 20%
less than the
 original price.)
Scatterplots
Graphs of Scatterplots

Scatterplots are graphs that typically include these

characteristics:
 Data points are plotted on an xy-grid.
 The x and y values represent different units.
 They are often used to find trends or patterns in data
with two variables.
This scatterplot shows the height of 8 people plotted against
their age. The x-axis represents age in years, and the y-axis
represents height in feet. The data point in blue has
coordinates (15, 5.5), which means that person is 15 years old
and 5.5 feet tall.
Best-fit Line and Best-fit Curve
An equation that most closely describes the points on a
scatterplot is called a best-fit line (for linear models) and a
best-fit curve (for non-linear models).
Here is some information you should know about best-fit lines
or curves:
 They often do not go through all of the points.
 They do not need to go through any of the points.
 They can be used to estimate where a certain point may
be, even though there may not be a point there.
Best-fit Line Best-fit Curve
 Above, the best-fit line is  Above, the best-fit curve is
graphed with the data graphed with the same
points. data points as the previous
 This line only represents scatterplot.
an estimate of where points  Notice how the curve
may be based on the seems to fit the points
patterns of the data. more closely than the best-
 Best-fit Equations are fit line in this case.
equation that describes the  As this best-fit curve shows,
best-fit line. the data is better described
 In this case, the best-fit by an equation that has the
equation can be written height starting to level off
as: y = 0.14x + 3.2. after a certain age rather
 Interpreting the best-fit than continuing to increase
equation: The equation for with age.
the best-fit line has a y-  This type of graph shown
intercept of 3.2 and slope of may be modeled by some
0.14. This means that the type of exponential or
line estimates the power function (more about
initial height (when people types of best-fit curves
are 0 years old) to be 3.2 further below).
feet, and that every year
they will grow 0.14 feet.
 Using this equation, a 12
year old would be
predicted to be:
 0.14(12) + 3.2 =
4.88 feet tall. This is
a fairly reasonable
estimate.
 However, the model is
not a good estimate for
other age ranges:
 Babies are not born
being as tall as 3.2
 feet as
this equation predicts
.
 And with this
equation, a person 50
years old would be
estimated to be a
height of 0.14(50) +
3.2 = 39 feet tall!
 Therefore, it's important
to keep in mind that
best-fit equations may
only be useful for
modeling situations for
 certain input values, but
not others. In particular,
they may not give good
estimates when you
input numbers outside of
the least and greatest
input values (x values)
from the original data.
Modeling Data

The relationship between two variables can be expressed as

an equation that allows you to make a prediction or draw
conclusions about the data. Here are three types of models
that you are most likely to come across.
Linear Quadratic Exponential
In a linear model, In a quadratic An exponential
the values increase model, the shape function will be a
when the slope is looks roughly like a curve where one
positive. The "U" and the values side "flattens out"
values decrease change from while the other side
when the slope is decreasing to either shoots up or
negative. increasing or vice down more and
Form of versa. When the more quickly.
 equation coefficient of the Unlike the quadratic
: x^2 value is model, the values
m: slope or rate of positive, the graph for an exponential
change opens up and will function do not
b: initial amount have a minimum change direction
(the y-intercept) point, as shown and there is no
above. When the vertex.
coefficient of the Form of
x^2 value is equation
negative, the graph :
open down and will
a: the initial amount
have a maximum
(output value when
point. The
x = 0)
maximum or
b: common ratio
minimum point of a
 parabola is called (determines the
the vertex. ratio of one output
Form of value to the
equation previous value each
: time x is increased
by 1)
a: if positive the
graph opens up,
and if negative the
graph opens down
Association

The association of a model to data describes how closely the

data fits the model. If the data fits the model closely, it is
called a strong association. If it fits somewhat, it is called a
weak association. There is no association if the data does not
fit the model at all. Additionally, for linear models, if the
model has a positive slope, the association is also called
positive. If the model has a negative slope, the association is
also called negative.

Below are five associations for linear models.

Strong Weaker No Weaker Strong

positive positive association negative negative
association association association association
Table Data
Table data presented as two-way tables allow you to calculate
the relative frequency or the conditional probability of an
event. The relative frequency is the percentage a sub-group is
of the larger group. And a conditional probability is the
probability of an event occurring given that some other aspect
is already known to be true.

Let's use this hypothetical situation and the table below to

calculate such values: 127 people in a town answered a survey
about their age and whether or not they had travelled abroad.
The answers are reported in this two-way table.
 18 = the number of people
younger than 20 who have
travelled abroad.
27 = the number of people 20
or older who have travelled
The rows on the left shows the abroad.
travel status, while the two 45 = the total number of
middle columns show the age. people who have travelled
The totals of each column and abroad.
row are shown in the margins.
44 = the number of people
younger than 20 who have not
travelled abroad.
38 = the number of people 20
or older who have not travelled
 abroad.
82 = the total number of
people who have not travelled
abroad.

62 = the total number of

people under 20.
65 = the total number of
people 20 or older.
127 = the total number of
people who responded to the
survey.
Approximately If a person is Those who have
what percent of chosen at random travelled
the respondents from those who abroad or are
have never have travelled under 20 make up
travelled abroad? abroad, what is what fraction of
the probability the total
Solution: that they are 20 respondents?
Take the number of or older?
people who have Solution:
never travelled Solution: The number of
abroad and divide it We will only deal people who have
by the total number with people who travelled abroad is
of people. have travelled 45. Those under 20
abroad for this make up 62 of the
82 / 127 is problem. Take the people. However, it
approximately .645 number of people is important to
6 or 65%. who are 20 or older realize that there is
This is a relative who have travelled an overlapping
frequency. abroad and divide it group here. 18 of
by the total number the people who
of people who have have travelled
travelled abroad. abroad are also
under 20. We don't
27 / 45 = 0.6 or want to count them
60%. twice.
This is a conditional
probability. Therefore, to
calculate the
answer, we need to
add the number of
people who have
travelled abroad
with those under
20, and then
subtract 18 so that
we don't double-
count the overlap.

Travelled abroad
(45) + under 20
(62) - travelled
abroad AND under
20 (18) = 45 + 62 -
18 = 89.

Finally, we need to
divide this number
by the total number
 of people to find the
fraction who have
travelled abroad or
are under 20.

89 / 127

Statistics
You'll want to know the basics of statistics for the SAT,
including how to calculate certain statistical values and the
meaning of others in the context of a problem. You should
know how to calculate the value for the mean, median, mode,
and range of a set of data. Let's use this set of data to
calculate those four values: 5, 8, 8, 8, 10, 13, 13, 16, 18
Term Definition Calculation / How to
Find the Value
Mean The sum of values
divided by the number
(Arithmeti of values.
c
Average)
Median The value in a middle of There are 9 numbers in
a set of numbers when this set. Therefore, the
they are arranged from middle value is the fifth
least to greatest. If number since there are
there is an even number four numbers both below
of terms, take the mean and above the fifth
of the two middle terms. number. The fifth
 number in this set is 10.
Mode The number that 8 is the mode in this set
appears the most since it appears three
frequently in a set. times, which is more than
any other number
appears.
Range The difference between 18 is the maximum, and
the greatest and least 5 is the minimum.
value. To find the range, The range is 18 - 5 = 13.
calculate the maximum
minus the minimum.
You should also understand what standard deviation,
confidence intervals, and measurement error are to answer
certain questions, but you will not need to calculate their
values.

Standard Deviation: A measure of how far data points are

spread from the mean of the data. In general, there will be a
lower standard deviation if most values are closer to the mean
than if they are farther from the mean. For example, this set
of data: 8, 8, 9, 10, 12, has a smaller standard deviation than
this set: 8, 12, 15, 23, 28. This is because the first set of
numbers are all generally closer to the mean than the second
set of numbers.
Data Set A has a larger standard deviation than Data Set B
since the values are spread farther from the mean in general
for Data Set A than for Data Set B.
Confidence Intervals: Confidence intervals contain two
components: an interval between which a data value is
expected to be found and the probability that it will be in that
interval. For example, after studying the traffic flow at a
certain stop light, it was found that there would be between
410 to 530 cars (the interval) that drive through the light in a
day for 95% of days (the probability). Based on this
confidence interval, it would be highly likely that on any given
day there would be between 410 to 530 cars that drive
through the light and a low probability that there would either
be less than 410 cars or more than 530 cars that drive through
the light.
Measurement Error: The difference between a measured
value of quantity and its true measurement. Measurement
errors are either:
1. Random errors that occur while taking measurements
(such as a person accidentally filling out the wrong age).
2. Problems with the way data are collected that causes
inaccurate results (such as trying to find the average age of
people in a town but only asking people at a university,
which would not be a representative sample of everyone in
the town).
Random errors are often difficult to anticipate and avoid, but
care should be taken to collect data in a way that can find
accurate or representative answers of the matter being
studied.
Data Inferences

Making data inferences means to deduce properties, or make

probable guesses, about a population (the entire group) being
studied based on the data taken from a sample (a portion of
the population). In order to make accurate data inferences,
it's important that the data is taken in a way that would
accurately reflect the overall population.

Here are a few general guidelines that should be followed in

order to make accurate data inferences.

Sample Size: In general, a sample size of 30 is considered

large enough to make fairly accurate calculations for any size
population. That said, the larger the sample, the more
accurate the statistics are that can be calculated from it.

Randomization: To be a representative sample of a

population, the participants of a sample should be chosen
using randomizing techniques to avoid bias.

Passport to Advanced Mathematics

The Passport to Advanced Mathematics problems make up 16
of 58 questions, or roughly 27.6% of the entire math section.
The main topics include:

 Polynomial factors, graphs, and operations

  Quadratic, exponential, radical, and rational equations and
expressions
 Radical and rational exponents
 Structure in expressions and isolating quantities
 Function notation
Polynomials
A polynomial is an expression with one or more terms
consisting of variables that have non-negative integer
exponents. They can also have coefficients for each term with
a variable. Here are some examples of polynomials.

Each of the polynomials above have x as the variable, but

polynomials could have different variables than x as well.
Also, polynomials are typically written with their exponents in
descending order. As you can see with the polynomials above,
the first term has the greatest power, with each following
terms having a lesser power than the one before it. They
don't need to be written in this order, but keeping the way you
write polynomials consistent can help in determining key
features that they have.
Adding Polynomials Subtracting Polynomials

To add two or more Subtracting polynomials is very

polynomials, all you need to do similar to adding them. Just
is combine like terms. make sure to be careful of
Below are two polynomials distributing a negative sign if
being added, each contained
within parenthesis to necessary.
distinguish them.
Distribute the negative sign to
Rewrite the expression by the terms in the second
placing like terms next to each polynomial and take
other and in descending order everything out of the
of powers. parenthesis.

Combine like terms. Rewrite the expression by

placing like terms next to each
other and in descending order
of powers.

Combine like terms.

Multiplying Polynomials

When multiplying polynomials, each term of one polynomial

needs to be multiplied by each term of the other polynomial.
Then the like terms can be combined.
Multiplying Two Binomials Multiplying Other
Polynomials
For multiplying two binomials
(polynomials with two terms) For multiplying polynomials
such as for the example below, that are not two binomials,
it can be helpful to remember make sure each term of one
to multiply the terms in the polynomial is multiplied by
order FOIL: First, Outside, each term of the other
Inside, Last. polynomial. If one polynomial
 has two terms and the other
Multiply the terms using the being multiplied has three
FOIL method. terms, there should be a total
of 2 x 3 = 6 terms created
before combining like terms.
This type of example is shown
below.
Combine like terms.
Both x and 4 need to be
multiplied by x^2, -2x, and 5.

Rewrite the expression by

 placing like terms next to each
other and in descending order
of powers.

Combine like terms.

Polynomial Factors and Zeros

The zeros of a polynomial are
the values for x that make the
polynomial equal to 0. Other
names for the zeros are the x-
intercepts, roots, or solutions
of the polynomial.
 The graph of the polynomial
shown has three zeros.
They are x = -1, x = 1, and x =
3.
In order to find the zeros of a polynomial, it is useful to have
the polynomial in factored form. Let's start with factoring the
quadratic polynomial below.

This quadratic expression will factor into two binomials. Since

the first term is x^2, we can assume that there will be an x in
both binomials. At this point we assume the factored form will
look something like (x + ?)(x + ?), and we need to find the
numbers (called constants) that go in each parenthesis.

Since the constant of the original polynomial is -15, we know

that the two constants from the factored form will multiply to -
15 when we FOIL. We also know that x is multiplied by each
constant, and the original polynomial had a total of 2x. 2x is
the value we will get when we combine like terms, which will
be our terms with x in them.

This tells us that the two constants will multiply to -15 and add
up to 2. To find these numbers, we can think of factors of -15,
and see which add up to 2. The only possible pair is -3 and 5.
Therefore, the factored form of the quadratic is (x - 3)(x + 5).

To check if this is in fact true, you can use the FOIL method
described above to see if the factored form is equivalent to the
original quadratic expression.
Finally, to find the zeros of the polynomial, we can use the
factored form and set each factor equal to 0 to solve for what
values of x make the polynomial equal to 0. Since the zeros
(or x-intercepts or roots) are what values of x makes the
polynomial equal to 0, we can write 0 = (x - 3)(x + 5).

If either (x - 3) or (x + 5) equals 0, the whole polynomial will

equal 0 since the factors are being multiplied by each other.
To find the zeros for this quadratic:
 x - 3 = 0, therefore x = 3
 x + 5 = 0, therefore x = -5
The two zeros for x^2 + 2x -15 are x = 3 or x = -5.

Possible Number of Zeros

A polynomial can have at most the same number of zeros as
the highest degree of the variable. For example, a quadratic
function, which has 2 as the greatest exponent, will have at
most 2 zeros. A cubic function, which has 3 as the greatest
exponent, will have at most 3 zeros. However, this does not
mean that the graph has to have that many zeros.

A function with an odd number as the highest power must

have at least 1 zero or as many as up to the highest power.
For example, a cubic equation (which has degree 3) could
have 1, 2, or 3 zeros.

A function with an even number as the highest power could

have no zeros or as many as the up to the highest power. For
example, a quartic equation (which has degree 4), could have
0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 zeros.

Single zeros (single roots) will "cross" the x-intercept at the

zero. For example, for the graph of y = (x - 5)(x - 6), the graph
will cross the x-axis at the points x = 5 and x = 6. However,
for double zeros (double roots), the graph will not cross the x-
axis but will simply "bounce" back from the direction it came.
For example, y = (x - 3)(x - 3) has a double root at x = 3. In
this case, the graph will come down to touch the x-axis at x =
3 and go back up after that point, but will not cross the x-axis.

In general, single or any odd number of roots at a particular

point will cross the x-axis, while double or any even number of
roots at a particular point will bounce back from the direction
the graph approached the x-axis.

This function has two single This function has a double root.
roots. They each cross the x- It bounces back at the x-axis.
axis. This might be the graph of a
This might be the graph of a function such as y = (x - 2)(x -
function such as y = (x - 1)(x - 2) = (x - 2)^2.
3).
Quadratic Equations
There are 3 forms of quadratic equations that you should be
familiar with and know how to find the vertex and x-intercepts
(a.k.a. zeros, roots, or solutions) for. The vertex is the
maximum or minimum of the parabola. The x-intercepts are
the values you would input for x to make the height equal to 0.
That is, y = 0 or f(x) = 0 at the x-intercepts.

For all of the forms below, when the "a" value is positive, the
parabola opens up and it will have a minimum, as shown in
the images. When the "a" value is negative, the parabola
opens down and it will have a maximum.
Vertex Form
 This form shows
the vertex as
constants
(numbers) in the
equation.
 The vertex is the
point (h, k).
 To solve for the
x-intercepts, set
y equal to 0 and
algebraically
solve for x by
applying the
following steps
to both sides:
 subtract k
 divide by a
 take the
square root
(and include
the plus or
minus sign on
the opposite
side of the
equation
that x is on)
 add h
  USEFUL TIP: If you are given the vertex coordinates and
one other point of a parabola, you can find the equation of
the parabola by solving for the "a" value of the vertex form.
In order to do this, substitute the vertex coordinates for h
and k, substitute the coordinates of the other point in for x
and y, and then the only unknown value left will be "a,"
which you can solve for by isolating it in the equation.

For example, if the vertex is (3, -2) and another point on the
parabola is (5, 14), then "a" can be solved for by plugging in 3
for h, -2 for k, 5 for x, and 14 for y:
 y = a(x - h)^2 + k becomes 14 = a(5 - 3)^2 - 2
 14 = a(2)^2 - 2
 14 = 4a - 2
  16 = 4a
 4=a
Therefore, the equation for the parabola in vertex form is y =
4(x - 3)^2 - 2.
Factored Form

 This form shows

the x-intercepts
as constants
(numbers) in the
equation.
 The x-intercepts
are at x = p or x
= q.
 This should
make sense
because
when either p
or q is
inputted for
x, the value
inside one of
the
parenthesis
becomes 0,
so the entire
output
 becomes 0.
 The vertex
occurs where x is
in the middle of
the x-intercepts,
which is at x =
(p + q)/2.
 To find the y-
value of the
vertex, plug
in (p + q)/2
for x into the
equation and
solve for y.
USEFUL TIP: If you are given the x-intercepts and one other
point of a parabola, you can find the equation of the parabola
by solving for the "a" value of the factored form. In order to
do this, substitute in the x-intercepts for p and q, substitute
the coordinates of the other point in for x and y, and then the
only unknown value left will be "a," which you can solve for by
isolating it in the equation.

For example, if the x-intercepts are at x = -1 and x = 5, and

another point on the parabola is (6, 21), then "a" can be
solved for by plugging in -1 for q, 5 for p, 6 for x, and 21 for y.
 y = a(x - p)(x - q) becomes 21 = a(6 + 1)(6 - 5)
 21 = a(7)(1)
 21 = 7a
  3=a
Therefore, the equation for the parabola in factored form is y
= 3(x + 1)(x - 5).
Standard Form

 This form shows

the y-intercept
as a constant
(number) in the
equation.
 The y-intercept is
the value c.
 To solve for the
x-intercepts,
 either use the
quadratic
formula or factor
the equation (if
possible) and
use the factored
form method to
find the x-
intercepts.
 The vertex
occurs where x =
-b/(2a).
 To find the y-
value of the
 vertex, plug
in -b/(2a) for
x into the
equation and
solve for y.
USEFUL
TIP: Quadratics in
standard form may
factor and can be
rewritten in factored
form. If they do,
converting the
equation to a
factored form is
often a faster way
 to solve for the x-
intercepts.
Linear and Quadratic Systems
Linear and quadratic systems have solutions where their
graphs intersect. To solve for such systems, first make sure
both the linear and quadratic equation has isolated one of the
variables (typically y), and then set the other expressions
equal to each other.

Example: Find the intersections of the following equations.

In this case, the quadratic equation is solved for y, but the
linear equation isn't. The first step would be to solve for y for
the linear equation.

Set the expressions including x's equal to each other to solve

for the x-coordinate of the intersection(s).

Move all the terms to one side in order to set it equal to 0 and
combine like terms.

Simplify by dividing both sides by 2.

Factor.
Solve for x.

This tells us that the graphs intersect at two places: where x =

2 and where x = 7. The next step is to solve for the y value at
each intersection. Do this by plugging in 2 and 7 for x in any
of the equations that involve both x and y. However, the most
direct equation to use is y = 6x -5.
When x = 2: When x = 7:

When x = 2, then y = 7. When x = 7, then y = 37. Therefore,

the solution to the system are the points (2, 7) and (7, 37). In
terms of graphs, this means the line and parabola both go
through the points (2, 7) and (7, 37).
For this system, we were able to solve for the quadratic
equation that resulted using the standard form and then using
the factoring method. However, there are multiple variations
to the types of quadratic equations you might be given
originally, so make sure to know how to efficiently solve for x
using the vertex form, factored form, and standard form as
described in the Quadratic Equations section shown above.
Exponential Equations
Exponential equations represent situations where each
successive output is a certain percent larger or smaller than
the previous output. For example, exponential equations
could represent the amount of money in a bank account that
grows by 5% more than each previous year due to interest.
Simple exponential equations such as this example could be
expressed in the following form:

In the form above,

 A(t) is the total amount (or output)
 Ao is the initial amount (or amount at time = 0)
 r is the rate of change
 If the rate of change is expressed as a percentage,
make sure to convert this to the decimal version of the
percentage
 The equation has exponential growth when r > 0 and
has exponential decay when r < 0
 t is the time passed (or input variable)
Example problem: If a bank account with $500 earns 8%
annual interest and is otherwise left alone, how much money,
to the nearest cent, will be in the account after 6 years?

In this example, Ao = $500, r = 0.08 (which is 8%), and t = 6.

Plug these values into A(t) = Ao(1 + r)^t to find the solution.

Some situations involving exponential functions are slightly

more advanced. These include situations where:
 Case 1: the interest is compounded more than once per
time interval t
 Case 2: the initial amount changes by a certain percentage
during a time interval either more or less than what is
represented by t
For case 1 situations, use the For case 2 situations, use the
following formula: following formula:

In the form above,

In the form above,
 b is the percentage of the
 n is the number of times
initial amount that it
compounding occurs per
becomes in c amount of
time interval t.
time.
 For example, if the unit
Example problem: If an
of time is in years,
account with $1,600 earns 5%
when b = 0.8 and c = 5,
interest compounded that means that in 5
quarterly, how much interest, years the initial amount
to the nearest cent, will the becomes 80% of what it
account earn in 18 years? was.

Notice that this problem is Example problem: If a town's

asking how much is earned by population is 24,000 people
only interest, not how much now and is growing by 15%
total money is in the account. every 10 years, what will the
population estimate be, to the
Since the money is nearest person, in 32 years?
compounded quarterly and t is
being measured in units of Since the population is growing
years, that means that n would in this scenario, b is greater
be 4 (the money is than 1. In fact, it would be 1 +
compounded 4 times per year .15 = 1.15. Since b grows 15%
= compounded n times per t). every 10 years, c = 10.

Ao = 1600 By using the formula above,

r = 0.05 we can say that:
n=4
t = 18 Ao = 24,000
b = 1.15
t = 32
$30,267.23 is the total amount c = 10
in the account after 18 years.
Since we needed to find the
Rounding to the nearest person
amount earned solely by
would give an estimate of
interest, we have to subtract
37,536 people.
the original $1,600 from the
amount in the account to find
the answer.

$30,267.23 - $1,600 =
28,667.23
Rules of Exponents
Rule Example Explanation
When multiplying
expressions with the
same base, add the
exponents.
When dividing
expressions with the
same base, subtract the
exponent of the
denominator from the
exponent of the
numerator.
When raising an
expression with an
exponent to a power,
multiply the exponents.
When raising a product to
a power, raise each factor
to the exponent.
When raising an
expression to a negative
exponent, it becomes the
 reciprocal of the
expression with its
opposite power.
An expression to the
power of 0 is equal to 1 if
the expression itself is
not equal to 0.
Rules of Radicals
Rule Example Explanation
Factors under the radical
can be separated into
separate radical
expressions that are
multiplied.
A quotient under a radical
sign can be separated
into a quotient of two
radical expressions.
Radical expressions can
be combined as like
terms if the expressions
under the radicals are
equal.
Rational exponents can
be turned into radical
expressions. The
numerator from the
exponent is what the
radical is raised to. The
 denominator from the
exponent becomes the
root of the radical.
Useful Tip: When taking the square root of a variable in an
expression being squared, make sure to include a plus or
minus sign on the opposite side of the equation. Example:

Notice that x could be equal to either positive or negative 3

since either value being squared would result in 9.
Take the square root of both sides to turn the left side into x.
Include the plus or minus sign on the other side during this
step.

Simplify the square root of 9.

This also applies to any expression being squared that
involves a variable. Here is another example:

Take the square root on both sides and include the plus or
minus sign on the right.

The square root symbol and the power of 2 cancel each other
out on the left. Simplify the expression on the right.

Subtract 2 on both sides.

Split the answers.

Rationalizing the Denominator
If you need to simplify an expression with a radical in the
denominator (that doesn't itself simplify), multiply the
numerator and denominator by the radical in the denominator.
This will allow you to rationalize the denominator. In other
words, it will allow you to make the denominator a rational
number.

Example problem:

Multiply the numerator and denominator by the radical in the

denominator. This turns the denominator into a rational
number.
Simplify any values that have a common factor. In this case,
15 and 6 have 3 as a common factor so the fraction can
simplify further.

Undefined Values: A radical expression involving a square

root sign is undefined for values of x (or the input) which make
the expression under the square root sign negative. For
example, the equation

is undefined for where 5x - 10 is less than 0. Set up an

inequality to find the undefined values:
5x - 10 < 0

Add 10 to both sides.

5x < 10

Divide both sides by 5.

x<2

*Note: Negative values under a square root sign can be

expressed in terms of i. See the Additional Topics in
Math section about Complex Numbers for more about this.
Rational Expressions and Rational Equations
Rational expressions are fractions that contain one or more
variables in the denominator. These are all examples of
rational expressions:

Undefined Values: Rational equations are undefined for

values of x (or the input) that make the denominator equal to
0.

For example, the equation

is undefined at the value for x that makes the denominator

equal to 0. To find what that value is, set 3x - 2 = 0, and solve
for x.
3x - 2 = 0

Add 2 to both sides.

3x = 2

Divide both sides by 3.

x = 2/3

Since plugging in 2/3 for x makes the denominator of the

rational equation 0, the expression is undefined at x = 2/3.
USEFUL TIP: When solving for rational equations with
multiple terms, you can get rid of all the denominators by
multiplying both sides of the equation by the least common
multiple of all the denominators.

Example:

Multiply each term by 5x, which is the least common multiple

of the denominators. This will get rid of all the denominators.

Cancel out common factors and combine like terms.

Subtract 3x^2 from both sides.

Divide both sides by 17.

Take the square root of both sides and include the plus or
minus sign on the right.

Operations with Rational Expressions

Rational expressions can be added, subtracted, multiplied, or

divided. Techniques for dealing with each operation involving
rational expressions are shown below.
Adding Rational Subtracting Rational
Expressions Expressions

To add rational expressions, To subtract rational

first make a common expressions, first make a
denominator and then add the common denominator and
numerators. then find the difference of the
numerators.

Make a common denominator.

In this case it will be (4)(x+1). Make a common denominator.
Multiply the numerators and In this case it will be (x-2)
denominators of both terms by (x+6). Multiply the numerators
the missing factors of the and denominators of both
common denominator. terms by the missing factors of
the common denominator.

Distribute in the numerators .

Distribute in the numerators.

Add the numerators and

combine like terms. Subtract the second numerator
 from the first numerator and
add like terms. Be careful to
make sure to distribute the
negative value to each term.
When you distribute the
negative sign, you will get -
x^2, -3x, and +10 for the
numerator of the term on the
right.

USEFUL TIP: It's helpful to keep the numerators and

denominators of rational expressions in factored form so that
you can easily tell if factors on the top and bottom will cancel
out to leave you with a more simplified form. In the example
below, you can tell that (x + 4) will cancel when the rational
expression is in factored form, but this is very difficult to notice
when it is not in factored form.
Rational expression factored in The same rational
the numerator and denominator: expression not factored:

It is easy to tell that the factor (x Unless the numerator and

+ 4) cancels out in the denominator are factored, it
numerator and denominator. is hard to tell how this
rational expression will
simplify.
Multiplying Rational Dividing Rational
Expressions Expressions
When multiplying rational When dividing rational
expressions: expressions:
 Put each numerator and  Turn the division into a
denominator in factored multiplication problem by
form first. multiplying the first (or top)
 Next, see if any there are rational expression by the
any common factors in the reciprocal of the second (or
numerators that cancel out bottom) rational expression.
with any factors of the  Then simplify by using the
denominators. same methods described
 After that, multiply across in for multiplying rational
the numerators and expressions.
multiply across in the Example:
denominators.
Example:
Multiply the first rational
Put each part in factored form. expression by the reciprocal of
In this case, 2x + 6 can be the second.
factored into 2(x+3).
Put each part in factored form.
Cancel out common factors in
the numerator and Cancel common factors in the
denominator. In this case, x + numerators and denominators.
3 can be cancelled out.

Multiply across in the

Multiply across in the numerators and denominators.
numerators and denominators.
 Distribute. Distribute.

Polynomial Long Division

Rational expressions can be divided using long division in a

very similar way to regular long division. Some SAT math
problems will require this method to rewrite a rational
expression and find an equivalent form.

Example: Use polynomial long division to rewrite the rational

expression below.
Set the problem up as a long division problem.

The number of times the leading term of the denominator (2x)

goes into the leading term of the numerator (6x^2) is 3x.
Therefore, write 3x above the long division bar.

Multiply 3x by 2x - 1 to get 6x^2 - 3x and put the product

under 6x^2 + 5x. Subtract 6x^2 - 3x from 6x^2 + 5x to get
8x. Then bring down the -1.
The number of times the leading term of the denominator (2x)
goes into the new leading term (8x) is 4. Therefore, write +4
above the long division bar.

Multiply 4 by 2x - 1 to get 8x - 4 and put the product under 8x

- 1. Subtract 8x - 4 from 8x - 1 to get 3. This is the remainder.
Since 3 is the remainder, we need to add 3/(2x - 1) to the
value we have at the top. We end up with 3x + 4 + 3/(2x-1).

USEFUL TIP: Use polynomial long division to rewrite rational

expressions that don't simplify by putting them in factored
form and cancelling factors.
Function Notation (Extended from Heart of Algebra
Section)

Function notation is a method of writing equations for

functions. For example, f(x) = 2x - 5 is the function notation
equivalent of y = 2x - 5. And y = -3x + 8 could be written
as f(x) = -3x + 8 in function notation. Function notation can
also be used for quadratics or other types of functions besides
linear functions, including piecewise functions (functions with
different equations for different domains that are spliced
together to make one combined function).

In basic function notation f(x) (read "f of x") represents the

output of a function. The x inside the parenthesis represents
the input of the function. In the regular x and y coordinate
graphing system, f(x) takes the place of y, the graph's output,
or height.

Although f(x) = [function expression] is the basic form of

function notation, other letters besides f and x can also be
used, just as linear equations can be written with variables
other than x and y. For example, y = 4x + 3 could be
rewritten as h = 4s + 3, where both y and h refer to the
output, and x and s refer to the input of a linear function.
Similarly, f(x) = 4x + 3 and g(x) = 4x + 3 and p(a) = 4a + 3 all
refer to a function where the input is multiplied by 4 and then
3 is added to the value.

Function notation can also specify certain input and output

pairs. Let's use the function f(x) = 5x + 8 as an example. This
function states that the input is multiplied by 5 and then 8 is
added to the value. We could say that f(2) = 18. This means
that by inputting 2 into the function, the output is 18. We can
check this: f(2) = 5(2) + 8 = 18.

Using this same function, f(3) would mean that 3 is the input
value. Therefore, f(3) = 5(3) + 8 = 23.
We could make this even more complicated by evaluating f(a
+ 4). Since we know the rule of function f is that the input of
the function is multiplied by 5 and then 8 is added to it, here is
how we can evaluate f(a + 4):

f(a + 4) = 5(a + 4) + 8 = 5a + 20 + 8 = 5a + 28.

Useful Tip: Put a parenthesis around the substituted input

value before simplifying to avoid any careless mistakes or
distribution errors when dealing with function notation. Using
the previous example of f(x) = 5x + 8, when evaluating f(a +
4), the (a + 4) gets substituted for x on the right side of f(x) =
5x + 8. Therefore, substitute exactly (a + 4) with the
parenthesis where the x is on the right and then simplify.
There may be more than one place a substitution needs to
occur depending on the function. If h(x) = 6x - 12/x, and you
were asked to evaluate h(3), you could write: h(3) = 6(3) -
12/(3). This simplifies to 18 - 4 = 14. Notice that when
evaluating h(3), (3) was substituted for each place the x was
in the original equation on the right side.

Additional Topics in Math

Additional Topics in Math make up 6 of 58 questions, or
roughly 10.3% of the entire math section. The main topics
include:
 Geometry: area, volume, triangles, angles, arc lengths,
sector areas
 Right triangle trigonometry
  Circle equations and theorems
 Complex numbers
Geometry
Many of the geometry related problems on the SAT can be
solved for with the reference information given on the test that
is shown below.
You'll want to make sure to be very comfortable with all the
formulas, and if you don't have them memorized, it would be
good to do so to help save time in answering problems. Many
area and volume problems involve solving for a variable using
the formulas or making an extra connection or two to get to
the answer.
Angle Relationships
Knowing the angle relationships below will help you more
quickly solve some problems involving diagrams. Many of the
explanations involve the word congruent/congruence, so
let's start with an informal definition.

Congruent means that two geometric shapes or objects are

the same in size, dimensions, and angle measure (or any
combination that may apply). For example, two line segments
are congruent if they are the same length. Two angles are
congruent if their measures (how many degrees or radians
they contain) are the same. Two triangles are congruent if
they are the same size and have the same angle measures.
Shapes can be congruent even if they don't face the same
direction.
Vertical Angles
Angles are angles on directly opposite parts of
the intersection of two line segments.
Vertical Angles
 Vertical angles are congruent. That is, they
are always the same angle measure.
If two parallel lines are intersected by a third, non-parallel line
(called a transversal), certain angle pair relationships will
always be true.
Corresponding Angles

Angles in the same location relative to the

Corresponding intersections formed by the parallel lines and
Angles the transversal.
 Corresponding angles are congruent.
Alternate Interior Angles

Angles on opposite (alternate) sides of the

Alternate transversal that are on the inside (interior) of
Interior Angles the parallel lines.
 Alternate interior angles are congruent.
Alternate Exterior Angles

Angles on opposite (alternate) sides of the

Alternate transversal that are on the outside (exterior) of
Exterior Angles the parallel lines.
  Alternate exterior angles are congruent.
Same Side Interior Angles

Angles on the same side of the transversal that

Same Side are on the inside (interior) of the parallel lines.
Interior Angles
 Same side interior angles are
supplementary.
Same Side Exterior Angles

Angles on the same side of the transversal that

Same Side are on the outside (exterior) of the parallel
Exterior Angles lines.
 Same side exterior angles are
supplementary.
Proportional Shapes

If two lines are intersected by a If two triangles (or other

set of parallel lines, the length polygons) are similar,
of line segments that are corresponding angles have the
created will be proportional. In same measures, but the sides
the case above, each segment are not necessarily the same
on the left is 3/2 times the length. However, the
length of the corresponding corresponding sides of
segment on the right. triangles are proportional in
length. In the case above,
 each side of the triangle on the
left is twice the length of its
corresponding side on the
right.
Triangle Theorems and Properties
Triangle Sum Theorem: The three angle measures of a
triangle add up to 180 degrees.

Triangle Inequality Theorem: The sum of the lengths of any

two sides of a triangle is larger than the third side.

Side-Angle Relationships: The longest side is opposite the

largest angle. The shortest side is opposite the shortest angle.
Isosceles Triangle Theorems (Isosceles triangles
have at least two congruent sides and two congruent
angles)
 Angles opposite congruent sides are congruent.
 Sides opposite congruent angles are congruent.
Exterior Angle Theorem (The exterior angle of a
triangle is an angle on the outside of a triangle that
makes a linear pair with an angle on the inside of the
triangle).
 An exterior angle measure is equal to the sum of
the two interior angles not adjacent to it.
m<1 + m<2 = 180 - m>3.
m<4 = 180 - m>3.
 Therefore, m>1 + m>2 = m>4.
Proving Triangle Congruence
Two triangles can be proven to be congruent if certain
information about them is known. You will not be asked to
make a proof of congruence, but you may need the
information listed below to answer a question related to
triangle congruence.

SSS (side-side-side): If all three SAS (side-angle-side): If two

sides of one triangle are sides and the included angle of
congruent to three one triangle are congruent to
corresponding sides of another the corresponding parts of
triangle, the triangles are another triangle, the triangles
congruent. are congruent.

ASA (angle-side-angle): If two AAS (angle-angle-side): If two

angles and the included side angles and a non-included side
are congruent to the are congruent to
corresponding parts of another the corresponding parts of
triangle, the triangles are another triangle, the triangles
congruent. are congruent.
CPCPT: Corresponding parts of
congruent triangles are
congruent. In other words, if
HL (hypotenuse-leg): If the
two triangles are shown to be
hypotenuse and one leg of a
congruent, any other
right triangle are congruent to
the corresponding parts of corresponding sides or angles
another right triangle, the will also be congruent.
triangles are congruent. Information that does NOT
Prove Triangle Congruence:
 AAA (angle-angle-angle):
This is not sufficient
information to prove
triangle congruence.
 SSA (side-side-angle):
This is not sufficient
information to prove
triangle congruence unless
the triangles are right
triangles.
Sine and Cosine of Complementary Angles
 If x° is the measure of one of the
acute angles in a right triangle, the
complementary angle measure is (90-
x)°.
 The sine of x is the cosine of 90-
x. sin(x) = cos(90-x). This is because
the opposite side / hypotenuse for x is
the adjacent side / hypotenuse for 90-
x.
 The cosine of x is the sine of 90-x.
cos(x) = sin(90-x). This is because the
adjacent side / hypotenuse for x is the
opposite side / hypotenuse for 90-x.
Angle Measures, Arc Lengths, and Sector Areas

Central Angle: The angle Arc Measure: The angle

contained between two radii. measure contained within the
arc.
Arc Length: The length of
part of a circle's circumference. Inscribed Angle: An angle in
the circle with its vertex on the
Sector Area: The area of part circle.
of a circle (often contained
between two radii). A central angle is equal to the
 arc measure of the arc it
The central angle, arc length, subtends (the arc it creates).
and sector area are However, the arc subtended by
proportional values. If you an inscribed angle is twice the
know one value, you can find measure of the inscribed
the others using this angle.
proportion:

The basic idea behind this

proportion is that each fraction
contains a part of the circle to
the corresponding whole. The
fraction of the central angle to
the full angle (360°) is the
same as the fraction of the arc
length to the circumference,
which is also the same as the
fraction of the sector area to
the area of the entire circle.

For example, if the central

angle is 120°, which is 1/3 of
the full angle, then the arc
length will be 1/3 of the
circumference.

USEFUL TIP: The key to

solving a problem involving a
circle, especially in relation to
an arc length or sector area, is
often to find the radius. Make
sure you know the radius for a
problem involving circles if you
get stuck.
Radians
Angles are often measured in units of
degrees, but the radian is another unit to
measure angles. A radian is the central
angle measure that would extend out to
fit just between an arc length of exactly
one radius length.

Whereas degrees divide the circle into

 360 equal parts, radians use the radius
length placed on the circle as a
measuring tool for the central angle. The
number of times the radius lengths fits
between the angle is the number of
radian there are in the central angle.

There are 2π radians in a full circle

because the radius can fit 2π times
around a circle. Remember: C = 2πr.
Therefore, 360° = 2π radians.
Converting Between Radians and Degrees

If a radian problem appears on the SAT, it's highly likely that it

will be an angle that is a multiple of 30° or 45°, so it will be
good to know what those degrees are in terms of radians.
Multiples of 30 Degrees Multiples of 45 Degrees

360° = 2π radians. 360° = 2π radians.

30° is 1/12 of 360°, therefore 45° is 1/8 of 360°, therefore
30° is 1/12 of 2π radians = π/6 45° is 1/8 of 2π radians = π/4
radians. radians.

To find how many radians any To find how many radians any
 multiple of 30° is, multiply π/6 multiple of 45° is, multiply π/4
by the number of times you by the number of times you
would need to multiply 30° by would need to multiply 45° by
to get that many degrees. to get that many degrees.

For example, 240° is 30° times For example, 225° is 45° times
8. 5.
π/6 times 8 is 8π/6, which π/4 times 5 is 5π/4.
simplifies to 4π/3. In other words, 225° = 5π/4
In other words, 240° = 4π/3 radians.
radians.
Radians and Degrees Conversion Proportion

Another way to convert between radians and degree is to use

a proportion that relates the two units. By using the ratio of
part to whole for the circle, we can set up a proportion to
directly convert between radians and degrees.

By dividing the denominators by 2, the proportion simplifies to

the following:

If you're given either the degrees or the radians of an angle,

plug that value in and solve for the angle measure of the other
unit.
Graphed Circles
 The general equation that
describes a circle is

where (h, k) is the circle's

center and r is the length of
the radius.

A circle with the equation

would have its center at (3, 2)

and its radius would be 4.
USEFUL TIP: If a point on the circle and the center is known,
the radius can be found using the distance formula since the
radius is the distance between the point on the circle and the
center.

Completing the Square for Equations of Circles

Completing the square is a technique that can be used to

rewrite quadratic equations but it can also be used to
manipulate equations for circles to fit the form (x - h)^2 + (y -
k)^2 = r^2 if it doesn't start with that form. The method is
called "completing the square" because it takes two terms on
one side of an equation (involving a second degree and first
degree variable) and rewrites them as a sum or difference
being squared.

Steps for Completing the Square (an example is shown below)

 Turn the coefficient of the variable being squared into 1 (if
it isn't already) by dividing both sides of the equation by
the value of the original coefficient.
 Move the constant to the other side of the equation from
the variables.
 Take half the coefficient of the variable raised to the first
power, square the number, and add it to both sides of the
equation.
  Factor the side with the variables into a sum squared or a
difference squared.

Here is a basic example of completing the square for a

quadratic equation without involving the whole equation for a
circle:

Subtract 5 from both sides.

Take half of the coefficient of x (half of -6 is -3), square it, and

add it to both sides. -3 squared is 9, so add 9 to both sides.

This makes the left side into a form that can be factored as a
difference squared. The right side can be simplified as well.
Those are the steps needed to compete the square, but for
circles, you may need to perform that process for both the x
and y variables.
An example for completing the square for fitting the general
equation for circles is shown below.

Move the constant from the left side to the right side by
subtracting 37 from both sides.

Take half the coefficient of x (half of -10 is -5), and add that
number squared to both sides. Since -5 squared is 25, add 25
to both sides.
Rewrite x^2 - 10x + 25 as (x - 5)^2 and simplify the right
side.

Take half the coefficient of y (half of 8 is 4), and add that

number squared to both sides. Since 4 squared is 16, add 16
to both sides.

Rewrite y^2 + 8y +16 as (y + 4)^2 and simplify the right

side.

Now that the equation has completed the square for both the
x and y variables, it is in the general equation form for the
circle. We can tell that the center is at (5, -4) and the radius is
2.
USEFUL TIP: Don't mix up the signs for h and k when writing
the center. In the example above (x - h) = (x - 5), so h = 5.
Also, (y - k) = (y + 4), so k = -4. It's easy to get the opposite
signs by mistake.
Complex Numbers
Complex numbers are numbers that include a real number
component and an imaginary number component. They take
the form "a + bi" where "a" is the real number component and
"bi" is the imaginary number component. The "i" is the
imaginary unit, which is defined as:

You should also know what i squared is equal to. If you were
to square both sides of the equation above, you would get:
For the SAT you should know how to add, subtract, multiply,
and divide complex numbers.

To add or subtract complex numbers, the main idea is to

simply combine like terms.
Adding Complex Numbers Subtracting Complex
Numbers
Example:
Example:
Rearrange with like terms next
to each other (if this step is Distribute the negative sign.
helpful for you).
Rearrange with like terms next
to each other (if this step is
 Combine like terms. helpful for you).

Combine like terms.

When multiplying or dividing with complex numbers, you will

often get values that contain i^2 in the process. If that's the
case, you need to turn i^2 into -1.
Multiplying Complex Dividing Complex Numbers
Numbers
Example:
Example:

Multiply the numerator and

FOIL. denominator by the conjugate
of the denominator. The
Turn i^2 into -1. conjugate of the denominator
is the expression in the
Combine like terms. denominator with the sign
reversed. The conjugate of 6-
2i is 6+2i.

Multiply across in the

numerators and denominators
by FOILing each.

Notice that the middle terms in

the denominators cancel out:
12i - 12i = 0. The purpose of
multiplying by the conjugate in
the numerator and
denominator in the previous
step was so that these terms
would cancel out and it would
eliminate all the imaginary
number components in the
denominator.

Turn i^2 into -1.

Combine like terms.

Split into two fractions.

 Simplify each fraction to make
the form a + bi.

SAT Practice Tests

Now that you have seen the material that will be on the test,
try taking official SAT practice tests to check your estimated
score. We also have a variety of SAT math tips to help you
study effectively and know what to bring on the test day.