CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 This chapter present the review of related literature by different authors,
evaluate concepts, empirical review and theoretical review
2.1 Conceptual framework
2.2 Theoretical review
2.3 Empirical review

2.1.1 Concept of Agriculture

According to Korgbeelo (2008) “Agriculture can be defined as the art and science of
cultivating the soil, growing crops and raising livestock for food and other human
needs or economic gains”. “Agriculture is a way of life that involves production of
animals, fishes, crops, forest resources for the consumption of man and supplying the
agro-allied product required by our sub sectors. It is seen as the inherited and dominant
occupation employing about 70% of Nigerians. Though, subsistence agriculture is
practiced in this part of the world, it will not be an overstatement to say that it is the
life-wire of the economies of developing countries. The sector has the following as its
component:
Harris (2007), proposes that agriculture is a form of land use and economy that
resulted from the combination of cultivation (a bundle of human actions focused on
preparing soil and planting, tending, and harvesting plants) and domestication (a
bundle of genetic and morphological, changes that have increased the ability of plants
to adapt to cultivation). Cultivation and domestication are related as cause and effect, a
change in human strategy with consequences in genetic adaptations of another
organism, which increased the interdependencies of both.
2.1.2 Agriculture as Landscapes of Food Production
The beginnings of food production represent a strategic shift in human behavior,
towards the manipulation of the soil environment and through an influence on the
composition of plant populations grown in that soil, via preferential seeding and
tending of one or a few species. While cultivation may involve a range of practices,
and these will tend to select for morphological domestication, at least in seed crops, we
can define agriculture in relation to the scale of cultivation, its prominence in local
landscapes and in contributing a major component of human diet. In this sense,
agriculture is the form of land use that represents a change in the landscape, as people
regularly cultivate, raise, and focus more attention on domestic plants and/or animals.
Agriculture creates fields for larger-scale production of crops and livestock. While
small-scale cultivation may involve a few plants, agriculture involves the creation of
substantial fields of sown vegetation on such a scale that it should, in principle, be
recognizable in regional Paleolithic vegetation datasets, recoverable from Paleolithic,
and a prominent part of the inferred source of archaeological plant remains. How one
distinguishes agriculture from small scale cultivation varies according to the
parameters of particular geographical and cultural contexts.
Butzer (2006) Opined that Irrigation systems are one notable and widespread way in
which distinctive landscapes of agriculture have been created. Control of water can be
focused either on its removal (drainage) or by adding water to otherwise locally dry
areas to allow cultivation where rainfall is insufficient to enhance productivity. In
riverine agriculture, such as that associated with ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt this
took the form of canals and basins that helped to conserve floodwater and distribute it
more evenly and widely. In some mountain environments, such as the Andes, canal
systems, often closely associated with cultivated terraces, were also developed to bring
steep slopes into agricultural production
Some irrigation systems incorporated manual water-lifting devices, such as the shaduf
which was widespread in Egypt and Southwest Asia by c. 1,500 BCE and allowed
buckets of water to be raised above the level of canals and fed onto the fields. By the
Classical era, cattle-driven water wheels (saqia) made lifting water more efficient and
increased the extent of arable lands in river valleys. In regions that relied on rainfall for
cultivation, deep wells to tap into groundwater, and surface reservoirs (tanks), were
developed to store water. In some of the driest margins of cultivation around the
Iranian plateau, in Central Asia, Arabia, and the Sahara, systems of underground
tunnels or galleries (qanats, karez, foggara) began to be built several thousand years
ago to collect subsurface water from piedmont slopes and direct it out to fields and
palm groves in the adjacent plains. (Magee 2005).
 2.1.3 Agriculture and Economic Development
Timer, (2002) Propose that the contribution of agriculture to economic development
lies in Providing more food to the rapidly expanding population Increasing the demand
for industrial product, and thus necessitating the expansion of secondary and tertiary
sectors. It can release workers needed for the production of non-agricultural goods and
services. It can provide a source of capital that can be invested in improved productive
facilities in the rest of the economy
A progressive urban industrial economy contributes, in turn, to the rapid development
of agriculture by expanding the market for agricultural products; by supplying the farm
machinery, chemical fertilizers and so on, that raise the level of agricultural
technology; by expanding productive employment opportunities for workers released
from agriculture by technological change; and by making possible improvements in
the quality of rural life by raising standards of consumption both in urban and rural
areas (Binswanger, 2020).
A rise in rural purchasing power, as a result of the increased agricultural surplus, is a
great stimulus to industrial development. The market for manufactured goods is very
small in an underdeveloped country where the peasant farm labourers and their
families, comprising typically two goods in addition to whatever they need. There is
lack of real purchasing power thus reflecting the low productivity in agriculture. The
basic problem thus is low investment return caused by small size of the market.
Increased rural purchasing power caused by expansion of agricultural output and
productivity will tend to raise the demand for manufactured goods and extend the size
of the market. This will lead to the expansion of the industrial sector (Lewis, 2014).
Moreover, the demand for such inputs as fertilizers, tractors, better tools, implements,
irrigational facilities in the agricultural sectors will all lead to the greater expansions of
the agricultural sector. Besides, the means of transport and communications will
expand to urban areas and manufactured goods to the rural areas. The long run effects
of the expansion of the secondary and tertiary sectors will be towards higher profits in
them whether they are operated in the private or the public sector. These profits will
tend to increase the rate of capital formation through their re-investment. That is what
Kuznets calls the “market contributions” of agriculture when it trades with other
sectors of the economy.
Development economists in general and agricultural economists in particular, have
focused on how agriculture can best contribute to overall economic growth and
modernization. Fel and Rani, (2014) Highlighted agriculture because of its abundance
of resources and its ability to transfer surpluses to the more important industrial sector.
Alston et al (2006) Opined that Rapid agricultural productivity growth is a prerequisite
for the market mediated linkages to be mutually beneficial. Productivity growth that
resulted from agriculture has had enormous impacts on food supplies and food prices
and consequent beneficial impacts on food security and poverty reduction. Binswanger
(2020). Posit that because a relatively high proportion of any income gain made by the
poor is spent on food, the income effect of research induced supply shift can have
major multinational implications, particularly if those shift results from technologies
aimed at the poorest producers. Agricultural productivity growth also triggers the
generation of non-market mediated linkages between the agricultural sector and the
rest of the economy. These includes the indirect contribution of a vibrant agricultural
sector to food security and poverty alleviation, safely net and buffer role; and the
supply of environmental services. FAO, (2004). While agricultures direct private
contributions to form households are tangible, easy indirect benefits tend to be over
looked in assessing rate of returns. Ignoring the whole range of economic and social
contributions of agriculture underestimates the returns to investments in the sector.
Valdes and Foster, (2005) Stated that some empirical evidence exists on the positive
relationship between agricultural growth and the transformation of agriculture from its
traditional subsistence roots induced by technical change, to a modernizing agricultural
sector is a phenomenon observed across the developing world. It is clear that
agricultural growth has played a historically important role in the process of economic
development. Evidence from industrialized countries that are rapidly developing today
indicates that agriculture was the engine that contributed to growth in the non-
agricultural sectors and to overall economic wellbeing. Economic growth originating
in agriculture can have a particular strong impact in reducing poverty and hunger.
Increasing employment and income in agriculture stimulates demand for non-
agricultural goods and services, thereby providing a boost to non-farm rural income
earners as well.
In the early stages of development, capital can be provided by increasing the
marketable surplus from the rural sector without reducing consumption levels from
population. According to Johnson and Mellor (2011) “an increase in agricultural
productivity implies some combination of capital formation when it is reduced on the
farm and employed in construction works”. But the possibility of utilizing unskilled
surplus form labour on capital project requiring skilled labour is limited. The second
possibility of increasing capital formation through reduced agricultural prices is also
not feasible in the early stages of development when the rise in price is not feasible.
Reduction in agricultural prices is not feasible. Reduction in agricultural prices is
possible in the long run but democratic countries may not be able to follow this
reasoning for political reasons. A more practicable solution is to stabilize the prices in
farm products. The third possibility of increasing farm receipts is perhaps the best way
for capital formation. This can be done by mobilizing increased farm incomes through
agricultural income tax, land registration charges, school fees, for providing
agricultural technical services and other types of fees that cover all or part of the farm
population. But “political and institutional problems makes it difficult to translate the
increased potential for saving and capital accumulation, made possible by increased
agricultural productivity, into an actual increase in investment in underdeveloped
countries. According to Wald, (2005) Special assessments have had their widest
application in view of the fact that they are specially designed for financing such
developed projects as irrigation works, flood control system and certain classes of
roads, all of which are extremely important for underdeveloped countries like India
that “the penalties of too light taxation on agriculture are a stagnating farm sector, a
financially starved public sector and a retarded rate of economic growth in the country
as a whole; (Wald, 2005). Thus countries were agriculture dominates, the taxation of
agriculture in one form or another is essential for mobilizing agricultural surplus in
order to accelerate economic development. Kuznets calls it the “factor of contribution”
when there is a transfer of resources to the other sectors, these resources to the other
sectors, these resources being productive factors. Agriculture also expands and
diversifies employment opportunities in rural areas. As agricultures productivity and
farm income increases, non-farm rural employment expands and diversifies. Landless
and marginal farmers are primarily engaged in non-agricultural pursuits which
includes the manufacturers of textile, furniture, tools, handicraft, leather and metal
processing, marketing, transport, repair work, construction of houses and other
buildings, education, medicine and other services, as these activities satisfy local
demand.
Increase in rural incomes as a result of the agricultural surplus tends to improve rural
welfare. Peasant starts consuming more food especially of a higher nutritional value in
the form of superior quality cereals, eggs, ghee, milk, fruits etc. They build better
houses fitted with modern amenities like electricity, furniture, radio, fan etc. provide
themselves with bicycles, motorcycles, watches, readymade garments, shoe etc. they
also receive direct satisfaction from such services such as schools, health centres,
irrigation, banking, transport and communication facilities. Thus increased agricultural
surplus has the effect of raising the standards of living of the mass of rural people.

2.1.4 Agricultural Sub-Sectors

Pastoralism
The full incorporation of domestic herd animals into systems of mixed farming
requires permanent facilities such as barns, sheds, stalls, fenced fields, and other
enclosures for confining the animals and controlling their movements. This contrasts
with pastoral systems that are characterized by more mobile methods of management.
According to Ngold,(2008) The term pastoralism derives from the Latin pastor,
meaning a herdsman or shepherd, and it applies to mobile systems in which the herd
animals, principally sheep, goats, cattle, horses, donkeys, camels, llamas, alpacas, and
reindeer, are raised to provide food and other products and as pack and riding animals.
The essence of pastoralism is that people move with their animals. The above
definition stated by (Ngold 2008). The spatial and temporal scales of their movements
range from short daily movements of flocks and herds to and from pastures near their
owners’ settlements (diurnal grazing) to longer seasonal movements by part of the
local community with their animals to higher and/or more distant pastures
(transhumance), to the most fully mobile system in which families migrate from
pasture to pasture with their herds throughout the year and from year to year (nomadic
pastoralism). Nomadic pastoralists own and largely depend on their animals, although
they have historically obtained some of their food and other supplies by trading with or
raiding settled agricultural communities. Most nomadic pastoralists depend to some
degree on crop products for their food and often also for supplementary fodder for
their animals.
The pastoralists’ herds consisted mainly of sheep and goats, with the roles of horses
and camels varying from region to region, and in the high latitudes of Eurasia a variant
form of reindeer pastoralism became established
Horticulture
According to Coomes (2004) Horticulture has two contrasted connotations in the
literature on traditional agricultural systems and the origins of agriculture. The first
relates directly to the origin of the word from the Latin hortus, meaning garden, and in
this literal sense it refers to the cultivation of plots of land adjacent or quite close to the
houses of the cultivators. Such gardens are normally smaller than fields, which are
usually located farther from their associated settlements. A greater variety of plants,
especially perennial shrubs and trees, tend to be cultivated in gardens than in fields,
which are commonly devoted to one or only a few types of crop. Also, whereas most
fields are cultivated in seasonal cycles, gardens are usually tended continuously,
especially in the tropics where long growing periods favor year-round production.
Another distinctive feature of house gardens is the presence in them of many
adventitious wild and weedy plants. They add to the floristic and structural diversity of
the plant community and enhance its ability to provide a great variety of edible,
medicinal, and other products such as flowers, fibers, dyes, containers, and
construction materials.
Ban, (2014) opined that the contrasts in size and floristic diversity between gardens
and fields are widely recognized in the literature on early agriculture, for example, in
the terms “fixed-plot horticulture” and shifting or “swidden” cultivation and the
German gartenbau and ackerbau. Small, continuously tended plots close to dwellings
have been proposed as probable arenas of early plant domestication, but very little
archaeobotanical research on past garden cultivation has as yet been undertaken.
Secondly, the terms horticulture and gardening have been used to denote agricultural
systems that combine field cultivation of annual root and/or seed crops with growing
mainly perennial tree, shrub, and herbaceous plants in gardens – a mixed cropping
system that, when trees are a major component, is sometimes alternatively described as
agroforestry. This connotation of horticulture has been used particularly in descriptions
of traditional, and by implication early, systems of cultivation in Melanesia and the
Pacific Islands, but this usage tends to obscure the useful distinction between field and
garden cultivation.
Arboriculture
The term arboriculture, from arbor the Latin for tree, is used to specify agricultural
systems focused exclusively or largely on the cultivation of trees and shrubs for the
production of fruits and seeds and, in some species, also for ancillary products such as
wood for construction and leaves for thatch, fiber, etc. Latinis (2000). Stated that the
term, which is sometimes equated with agroforestry, refers mainly to the specialized
cultivation of fruit- and nut-bearing trees and shrubs in single- or mixed-species
orchards and plantations. It can refer also to plantations of trees for timber production,
although this process is more usually described as forestry. Forestry this concerns the
preservation and maintenance of economic trees or plants. It also involves the
extraction of various form of resources associated with forest. Tersoo definition in
(2019) Stated that, we derived a lot from such plants preserved and they include timber
for plywood, furniture building of houses, boat manufacture of papers, electric pole
etc. Other resources like wild life, roots and herbs.
Arboriculture differs from horticulture in that the plants are grown in less floristically
diverse communities on larger landholdings. Traditional systems of arboriculture
include oil-palm plantations in tropical West Africa and olive, almond, and walnut
orchards in the circus Mediterranean region. Arboriculture has attracted much less
attention in the literature on the beginnings and early development of agriculture than
the cultivation of cereal, pulse, and root crops, and fruit- and nut-bearing trees are
likely to have been a much more important source of food among many hunter-
gatherer groups than among early farmers tends to be difficult to differentiate
specialized arboriculture from more floristically mixed traditional systems of
horticulture, and it is seldom possible to do so on the basis of botanical data alone.
Vegeculture
According to Hather (2004) The, word vegeculture is used to describe agricultural
systems that produce mainly root and tuber crops with underground storage organs
consisting of starch-rich roots, root and stem tubers, corms, and rhizomes. The crops
are reproduced asexually by planting pieces of a parent plant such as parts of tubers,
stem cuttings, or sprouts, rather than being grown from seed. Vegetative reproduction
made possible the domestication of tuberous plants by replicating the characteristics of
parent clones and then selecting and multiplying useful phenotypic variations that
arose in planted stock, such as unusually large or smooth-skinned tubers. Fullager et al.
2006 stated that the process did not involve directional genotypic change from wild
progenitor to domesticate as occurred in seed-crop domestication. Root and tuber
domestication has taken place within the limits of phenotypic variation determined by
an unaltered genotype, but morphological changes under domestication have
nevertheless been substantial, for example, decreased flowering and in tubers changes
towards greater size and starch content and reduction in bitterness and in the numbers
and length of thorns.
Although root and tuber and seed crops are often cultivated together, vegeculture is the
traditional mode of agricultural production in many parts of the humid and seasonally
dry tropics.

2.1.5 Concept of Agricultural Productivity

The concept of agricultural productivity refers to the ratio of agricultural outputs to
inputs as against individual products which are usually measured by weight and is
simply referred to as crop yield (Ogebe et al, 2020). The measurement of overall
agricultural output can sometime be difficult as a result of varying products. Also,
agricultural productivity can be defined as a measure of efficiency in an agricultural
production system which employs land, labour, capital and other related resources
(Olufemi, 2019). Agricultural productivity is influenced by a host of factors which
include population pressure on agriculture, the role of non-farm services, rural
environment, and pattern of land tenure as well as size of land holdings. Agricultural
productivity will involve massive transformation of the sector for increase productivity
through changes in a country’s farming practices. It engenders the overhauling of a
country’s rural economy (Osabohien et al, 2019). For instance, land ownership or
tenure may be reformed to enable an all-inclusive agricultural transformation as a way
of influencing farmers’ investment and productivity.

2.1.6 Concept of Economic Growth

Economic growth encompasses a process that permits increases over time in a nation’s
wealth. Although, the term is often used in discussions of short-term economic
performance, in the context of economic theory it generally refers to an increase in
wealth over an extended period. In the 1950s, Solow (1956) and Swan (1956) were the
brain behind the emergence of the main model used in growth economics which
assumes diminishing returns to labour and capital. The Solow–Swan model also
referred to as exogenous growth model is an economic model that tries to explain long-
run economic growth by looking at growth rate of the population, capital accumulation
as well as technological progress which largely account for increases in productivity.
Economic growth therefore is the increase in the value of goods and services produced
by the economy thereby creating more profit for businesses prompting a rise in stock
prices. In the process, firms have more capital for investment purposes, more jobs are
created and more employees are hired leading to a rise in incomes (Osabohien et al,
2020). The job opportunities created lead to stronger demand for labour which is a
very critical condition for increasing employment necessary in delivering higher
growth. Basically, there are four main factors of economic growth which include land,
labour, capital, and enterprise. Economic growth can also be viewed from the
perspective of economic transformation which connotes a move away from low-
productivity to high-productivity growth (Oguwuike, 2018). A policy aimed at
promoting economic transformation amidst shocks is one strategy for developing
economies to build resilience to further shocks. For resource dependent economies,
this is mostly noticeable in that they are more exposed to shocks. Several of the
developing economies struggle to survive the fallout occasioned by a number of
economic shocks most especially the continue fall of the commodity prices. According
to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, transformation is a total change in the
structure of something especially for the better. To achieve this, a total revolution is
inevitable thereby resulting in a better results.
Likewise, economic growth can also be referred to as a sustained increase in per capita
income. This increase in income may emanate from very few sectors of the economy
like crude oil as in the case of Nigeria. As for economic development, it involves
economic growth plus qualitative changes in all or majority of sectors in the economy
(Ezeonwuka, 2014). In the latter case, there should be advances in economic goods,
institutions, incentives, wants, productivity and knowledge. There can be economic
growth without economic development as absence or near absence of technological
and structural changes may permit the presence of inequalities, poverty and
unemployment. On the other hand, there can be no economic development without
economic growth as is the case in western economies. Thus, an economy may grow,
develop, retard, shrink or fail (Ezeonwuka, 2014).

2.1.7 Unemployment in Nigerian

Gbosi (1997) defined unemployment as a situation in which people who are willing to
work at the prevailing wage rate are unable to find jobs. In recent times, the definition
of unemployment by the International Labor Organization states that “the unemployed
is a member of the economically active population, who are without work but available
for and seeking for work, including people who have lost their jobs and those who
have voluntarily left work (World Bank, 1990).
The analysis from agricultural point of view suggests that people who have been
majorly affected by unemployment are a great proportion of underprivileged Nigerians
in rural areas where agriculture is primarily subsistence, land is not easily accessible or
not fully utilizable, credit facilities are lacking and improved production methods are
not practiced. In recent times however, the situation has been compounded by the
increasing unemployment of professionals such as accountants, engineers, among
others. It is worrisome to note that the current unemployment rate in Nigeria is high
and was reported to be 19.7%, 20.1% and 21% in 2009, 2010 and 2011 respectively by
the National Bureau of Statistic (NBS). This has placed Nigeria as the 12 th country in
ranking unemployment rate in Africa. The Nigerian Bureau of Statistics (NBS) has
also recently released the 2011 unemployment data which reveals a wide dichotomy
between states in the North and those in the southern part of the country. According to
the released data, the bottom ten in the jobless list are; Zamfara State with 42.6%;
Bauchi, 41.4%; Niger, 39.4%; Gombe, 38.7%; Nasarawa, 36.5%, Jigawa, 35.9%; Edo,
35.7%; Yobe, 35.6%; Adamawa, 33.8%, and Kaduna with 30.3%. Only Edo State with
35.7% unemployment rate is among the bottom ten states listed. Osun State lead the
employment levels list with 3.0%, followed by Kwara, 7.1%; Lagos, 8.3%, and Oyo,
8.9%.The Nigerian population was put at 170m, and 70% of that figure are said to be
within the ages of 17 and 65. It therefore means that the 23.9% data released by the
NBS as the national unemployment rate reveals that 40.6m of working age Nigerians
lack any form of employment whatsoever.

Types of Unemployment

(i) Structural Unemployment

This occurs when there is a change in the structure of an industry or the economic

activities of the country. As an economy develops over time, the type of industry may

well change. This may be because people’s tastes have changed or it may be because

technology has moved on and the product or service is no longer in demand.

(ii) Frictional Unemployment

This type of unemployment is caused by industrial friction, such as, immobility of

labour, ignorance of job opportunities, shortage of raw materials and break down of

machinery, etc. Jobs may exist, yet the workers may be unable to fill them either

because they do not possess the necessary skill, or because they are not they are not

aware of the existence of such jobs. They may remain unemployed on account of the
shortage of raw materials, or mechanical defects in the working of plants. On average

it will take an individual a reasonable period of time for him or her to search for the

right job.

(iii) Seasonal Unemployment

This is due to seasonal variations in the activities of particular industries caused by

climatic changes, changes in fashions or by the inherent nature of such industries. The

rain coat factories are closed down in dry seasons throwing the workers out of their

job because there is no demand for rain coat during dry season. Likewise, the sugar

industry is seasonal in the sense that the crushing of sugar cane is done only in a

particular season. Such seasonal industries are bound to give rise to seasonal

unemployment.

(iv) Cyclical Unemployment

This type of unemployment (also known as Keynesian unemployment or the demand

deficient unemployment) is due to the operation of the business cycle. This arises at a

time when the aggregate effective demand of the community becomes deficient in

relation to the productive capacity of the country. In other words, when the aggregate

demand falls below the full employment level, it is not sufficient to purchase the full

employment level of output.

(v) Disguised Unemployment

This refers to the mass unemployment and underemployment which prevail in the

agricultural sector of an underdeveloped and overpopulated country. For example, if

there are four persons trying to cultivate an area of land that could be cultivated as

well by the three persons, then only three of these persons are really fully employed
and the remaining fourth person represents disguised unemployment. The people in

underdeveloped countries are outwardly employed but actually they are unemployed,

the reason being that agricultural production would suffer no reduction if a certain

number of them are actually withdrawn from agriculture. (Njoku and Ihugba, 2011)

Agriculture as a Solution for Unemployment

In order to eradicate unemployment and poverty in Nigeria, innovative methods need
to be used to successfully tackle unemployment and poverty. In Nigeria, tackling
unemployment requires development and implementation of programs that will
directly benefit the poor, by restructuring sources of Nigeria's gross domestic product
to significantly include variety of industries that are labor intensive, such as cottage
industries.
Improvement in agricultural production by making land available to private and public
organizations to set up industries in the most economically depressed areas of Nigeria,
and providing training in setting up industries (especially cottage industries) to
unskilled or economically deprived Nigerians would make ownership of small scale
industries a viable source of employment opportunities and building wealth for many
Nigerians. In addition, businesses and governmental entities can also be encouraged
via incentives to locate industries that are labor intensive in areas with the highest
incidences of poverty, which will usually be the rural areas of Nigeria, as a means of
providing employment opportunities to these citizens.
Successive government in Nigeria has always initiated programmes towards
promoting agriculture to guarantee food security and reduce youth unemployment.
However, these programmes have not yielded the desired results due to corruption,
structural weakness, mismanagement and undue politicization. The new agricultural
policy of the Federal government of Nigeria, if properly implemented, will herald in a
new policy direction via new policy strategies that will lay the foundation for sustained
improvement in agricultural productivity and output
Functional investment by individuals, government and the organized private sector in
agriculture will help solve the problems of unemployment and poverty in Nigeria. One
of the main objectives of agricultural activities is to provide food for man. Agriculture
provides employment opportunities, raw materials for industries and foreign exchange
earning to Nigeria. It has been reported that in Nigeria today over 65% of the
population derived its income from livestock rearing, crop farming, forestry or fishing.
Agriculture has many branches which allow people to specialized and gain
employment in those fields. Some branches of agriculture includes Agronomy, Soil
science, Animal science, Agricultural engineering, Agricultural economics,
Agricultural extension education, home economics, Horticulture, Forestry, Fisheries,
Veterinary Medicine etc. Agricultural graduates can be gainfully employed in Banks,
Agricultural Research institute, Schools, Universities, Private farms, Nigerian
Agricultural Insurance Corporation, Local, State/Federal Department / Ministry of
Agriculture, Agricultural Development Programmes (ADPS) and above all can be self
employed. The self employed graduates can earn his/her income from livestock
enterprises, crop production and function as an Agricultural consultant.

2.1.8 Concept of Employment

Employment is a state in which an individual is gainfully employed. That is, when an
individual work to earn, the individual can be said to be employed. Likewise, a better
understanding of employment can be derived from the word unemployment and
according to Ohale & Onyema (2010) “unemployment is a term referring to
individuals who are employable (i.e, able to work) and seeking a job at the prevailing
wage rate, but are unable to find a job”. “Unemployment also includes people who are
waiting to return to a job after being discharged. However, it does not include
individuals who have stopped looking for a job in the past four weeks due to various
reasons such as leaving work to pursue higher education, retirement, disability, and
personal issues. Even people who are not actively seeking a job anywhere but want to
find one are not considered unemployed” It can concluded that employment is a
situation where a job seeker has found a viable job to do to earn a living.

Employment Opportunities in Agriculture

Food Scientist: Food scientists and technologists use chemistry, biology and other
sciences to study the basic elements of food. They analyse the nutritional count of
food, discover new food sources and research ways to make processed food safe and
healthy.
Agricultural Journalist: An agricultural journalist covers all the events articles of
interest and stories which are relevant to farmers and others in their area. They gather
news by observing, interviewing and researching relevant topics/events.
Wildlife Specialist: A wildlife forensics specialist is a scientist who uses chemical
techniques to investigate wildlife crimes. These scientists analyse animals, animal
parts and products and other evidence collected by wildlife inspectors and other
officials.
Veterinarian: A veterinarian or a vet, is someone who gives animals, veterinary
medicine or medical treatment. They are doctors for animals.
Agri-business Management: The management field of the agricultural industry is
agri-business.
According to the Agri-business Job Report, (2015) there were 26 percent more
application posted on [Link] than 2014 and job listings were up from the
previous year as well; with nearly, 800 new listings a month.
Food Packers and Packagers: For agricultural products to reach their ultimate
destination, they must definitely package safely and appropriately beforehand for
shipment. Here is the major task for the food packers and packagers do.
Book Keeping, Accounting and Auditing Clerks: Just as every industry needs more
people to count money and keep track of expenses, so also the Agricultural industry as
being part of the most important industries.
Agricultural and Natural Resources Communications: Combining an interest in
Agriculture and that of communication, here is a field that provides for that.
Agricultural communications professionals work in print and broadcast journalism, on
the staffs of magazines and newspapers, as press spokespeople and marketing
executives.
Agricultural Equipment Operators: The job outlook for agricultural equipment
operators have been continuously good for the past 10 years, according to the U.S.
 Bureau of Labor Statistics, with job growth of 5 to 9 per cent in the next 10years.
These highly skilled agricultural workers driver, operate and maintain the equipment
used to plant and harvest crops; such as tractors, bladders, harvesters, shredders and
lot more.
Farm Workers and Laborers: According to the Bureau of labour statistics, (2015)
over 850, 000 people were employed as agricultural workers and a variety of roles.
Agricultural workers and labourers are employed in greenhouses and plant nurseries as
well as on farms and ranches. They also do routine animals care task on ranches and
dairy farms keep written records on animals, assist at birth and keep animal housing
areas clean.

2.2 Theoretical Review of Literature

2.2.1 Endogenous growth theory
Endogenous growth theory is an off shoot of Cobb-Douglas production though with
modification and improvements. Endogenous growth theory shows that investments in
skill; human capital; innovation; and knowledge are key determinants of economic
growth. (Chirwa & Odhiambo, 2018). The model identified that capital investment is
necessary for economic growth through increasing returns to investment. Another
strand of capital investment is human capital development that drives it to achieve
economic growth. However; interest rate and inflation have their effects on investment
capital. low interest rate increases capital accumulation albeit investment capital
growth which in turn raises economic growth. Rising inflation negatively affects
capital investment and economic growth. Bruno and Easterly (1998), Chirwa and
Odhiambo (2018) and Roman (1994) are endogenous growth model that links labour;
inflation and output growth.
2.2.2 Demand theory of employment
Demand theory is also known as Keynesian economics theory of employment. The
Keynesian theory of employment (1946) states that the cause of unemployment is the
deficiency of effective demand, and unemployment can be removed by raising effective
 demand. With the increase in effective demand, the production in the economy goes up.
The increased production generates more jobs thus increasing the employment and
giving a boost to the nation’s economy. With the increase in effective demand, there is
also an increase in inflation which is good for the economy if controlled within a limit.
Therefore, Keynesian theory of employment has a very positive looking approach for
the economy of a nation. It helps in dealing with the situations of economic crisis like
the Great Depression and the recession.
This theory deals with all levels of employment that is full employment, widespread
unemployment or intermediate level. Keynesian theory is a short run theory. Keynes
strongly believed in government intervention. He did not support the policy of Laissez
Faire. In his theory of employment, money is important in determining employment.
The principle of effective demand is the foundation of Keynes' General Theory of
Employment. Employment is dependent upon effective demand and is directly
proportional to Effective Demand. As Effective Demand increases, employment and
output and real income increase. The starting point of Keynes theory of employment
and income is the principle of effective demand. Effective demand denotes money
actually spent by the people on products of industry. The money which entrepreneurs
receive is paid in the form of rent, wages, interest and profit. Therefore effective
demand equals national income. An increase in the aggregate effective demand would
increase the level of employment. A decline in total effective demand would lead to
unemployment. Therefore, total employment of a country can be determined with the
help of total demand of a country. According to the Keynes theory of employment,
“Effective demand signifies the money spent on consumption of goods and services and
on investment. The total expenditure is equal to the national income, which is
equivalent to the national output”. The relationship between employment and output of
an economy depends upon the level of effective demand which is determined by the
forces of aggregate supply and aggregate demand.

2.3 Empirical Review

Ogbalubi and Wokocha (2011) examines “Agricultural Development and employment
generation with particular reference to Nigeria. The paper acknowledged the important
role agriculture plays in developing countries such as Nigeria not only in employment
generation but also for overall economic growth. It showcases the agriculture sector as
the most critical and basic sector that has significant potentials for the transformation
of the Nigerian economy. It provides the overview of agricultural development in
Nigeria and also provides a framework for understanding the agricultural sector in
relation to the strategies employed by government to develop the sector. The paper
further acknowledged that although most public policies in Nigeria have been tailored
towards food security, supply of agricultural raw materials needed by the
manufacturing sector to provide adequate employment and income. However, the
potential of the sector is yet to be maximized. In assessing the growth of agricultural
sector in Nigeria and impact in employment, data were obtained from Central bank of
Nigeria and Federal Office of Statistics. This paper also identifies some major factors
constraining the development of agricultural sector in Nigeria such as neglect of
agriculture arising from the discovery of oil, inadequate infrastructural facilities,
inadequate extension services, shortage of labour to rural- urban migration, decline
quality of land because of oil activities in the Niger Delta Region, Policy
inconsistency etc. The paper recommends the provision of credit facilities to farmers,
extension services, price stabilization and making agriculture a priority [Link] to ensure
that the sector takes its rightful place in our economy”.
Tersoo examines “the role of agribusiness in all its tri-aggregates to the socio-
economic development of the rural sector in Nigeria. It acknowledges the importance
of agriculture as it employs a majority of the rural population in a predominantly
agrarian society like Nigeria. It draws majorly from documentary evidence on
agribusiness and agro-industrial linkage and reveals that, the farm, off farm and
processing components of agribusiness are capable of generating jobs, provision of
income, poverty reduction and infrastructural growth. The paper however identifies
poor policy articulations, shortage of working capital, poor infrastructure lack of
ideology etc. as major obstacles to effective agribusiness. The paper recommends a
robust political will, a sound ideological frame, adequate funds among other measures
to develop a strong interface between agricultural policies and politics in achieving a
sustainable agribusiness as a veritable tool for rural development in Nigeria”.
The study of Obakiri et al. (2014) on Review of Agricultural Development and
Employment Generation in Nigeria: Issues, Challenges and the way Forward is a
theoretical paper aimed at looking at issues, challenges and the way forward
concerning agricultural development and employment generation in Nigeria. It is in
the light of the above this study is carried out to access the level of development in the
agricultural sector and unraveling the potentials and capacity of the Nigeria
agricultural sector if properly developed in generating jobs for the millions of people
(Nigerians) without jobs. The study found that poor agricultural funding, poor and
lack of farm inputs, inconsistent and no sustained policy and programmes for the
sector, lukewarm and lackadaisical attitude of political leaders and neglect of
agricultural research institutes are seen as some major issues hampering the
development of the agricultural sector in Nigeria. Therefore, it is suggest that the only
way forward for Nigeria agricultural sector to drive industrialization, guarantee food
security and employment generation is by total and massive investment in the sector,
budgetary allocation to the sector should be increased by 10% to meet 2003 African
Union Summit in Maputo and the right policy and programmes put in place, sustained
and managed by patriotic states men and women for the benefit of all.
Korgbeelo (2018) in his study on “Agricultural sector performance and job creation in
Nigeria examined the impact of crop production output, livestock output, fishery
output and forestry output on the unemployment rate in Nigeria. Annual time-series
data from 1981 to 2019 were used for the study. The data were obtained from
secondary sources. The Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) approach was used in
estimating the data. The findings indicated that crop production output significantly
reduces unemployment in Nigeria while livestock and fishery outputs have weak
reducing effect on unemployment in Nigeria. Also, forestry output insignificantly
stimulates unemployment in Nigeria. Among other things, it is recommended that
government should support farmers with subsidized inputs and improved varieties of
crops”.