Introduction

The magnitude of the pressure in the pores of a formation, referred to as formation pore pressure (or
simply formation pressure), is a critical consideration in well planning and operations. Understanding this
concept is vital as it influences:

 Casing design
 Mud weight selection
 Stuck pipe risks
 Well control problems

Especially, predicting and detecting high-pressure zones is crucial for avoiding blowouts.

Additionally, predicting the pressure at which rocks will fracture is equally important. Fractures lead to:

 Losses of significant volumes of drilling fluids

 Possible influx from shallow formations, which could flow through fractures to the surface and
result in blowouts

When the pore and fracture pressures of formations to be penetrated are known, the well design and
operation must ensure:

 Pressure in the borehole does not exceed the fracture pressure

 Pressure in the borehole does not fall below the pore pressure

2. Formation Pore Pressures

During erosion and sedimentation, sediment grains build up in a water-filled environment. As this layer
thickens:

 Grains are packed closer together

 Some water is expelled from the pore spaces

If pore throats through the sediment connect to the surface, the fluid pressure at any depth aligns with the
pressure in a simple fluid column. Factors influencing pore pressure include:

 Fluid density in the pore space

 Depth of pressure measurement

The P-Z diagram illustrates the relationship of pore pressure with depth.

The formation pressure during drilling is often expressed as a pressure gradient, derived from a datum
point at the surface (usually Mean Sea Level or drillfloor elevation). Understanding this gradient is
important, as it provides a clear representation of fluid density changes within the formation. The pore
pressure gradient is usually constant unless abnormal pressures are present.
3. Overburden Pressures

Overburden pressure, or geostatic pressure, relates to the vertical stress at various depths over the
pore pressure. To calculate it, one must determine:

 Average density of rock and fluids above the point of interest

The overburden pressure at any depth can be calculated as:

Poverburden = ρbulk × g × h

Where:

 ρbulk = Bulk density of porous sediment

 g = acceleration due to gravity
 h = height above the point of interest

Overburden pressure gradients vary based on compaction and lithology changes.

4. Abnormal Pressures

Abnormal formation pressures arise when pressures deviate from the normal column gradient typical of
0.45 psi/ft, categorized as:

 Subnormal: Less than 0.45 psi/ft

 Overpressured: Greater than 0.45 psi/ft

Common mechanisms for overpressures include:

 Undercompaction
 Faulting
 Phase Changes
 Massive Rock Salt Deposition
 Salt Diapirism

Subnormal formation pressures can originate from:

 Thermal Expansion
 Formation Foreshortening
 Depletion of hydrocarbons
 Precipitation effects in arid environments
 Potentiometric Surface changes
 Epicontinental movements

5. Drilling Problems Associated with Abnormal Formation Pressures

When drilling through formations with abnormal pressures, maintaining sufficient hydrostatic
mud pressure is vital to:

 Prevent borehole collapse

 Prevent influx of formation fluids
If the overbalance is excessively high, drilling complications may arise such as:

 Reduced penetration rates

 Formation breakdown
 Stuck pipe incidents

Additionally, proper casing design accounts for the presence of high-pressure zones to avoid
fracturing lower zones.

6. Transition Zone

The transition zone is the region where pore pressures transition from normal to overpressured.
In this zone:

 Pressure exceeds the hydrostatic pressure gradient, indicating a seal or caprock for the
overpressured formation.
 Pore fluids cannot flow into the wellbore due to low permeability, aiding in the
identification of overpressure zones during drilling.

Monitoring drilling parameters can help detect the transition zone, signaling potential
overpressured formations. The transition may be gradual or abrupt, depending on the sealing
rock type.

In conclusion, understanding formation pore pressures and their behaviors is essential for
successful drilling operations.

Overview

This study material covers the techniques utilized for predicting, detecting, and confirming abnormal
pressures encountered during drilling. Understanding these methods is crucial for effective drilling
operations and to mitigate risks associated with overpressures.

1. Techniques Overview

The techniques for dealing with abnormal pressures are classified into three main categories:

 Predictive Techniques: Methods used before drilling starts.

 Detection Techniques: Methods employed during the drilling process.
 Confirmation Techniques: Techniques used after drilling has been completed.

2. Predictive Techniques

Predictive techniques rely on surface measurements and analysis of nearby wells. The following methods
are emphasized:

 Geophysical Measurements: These are used for identifying geological structures that may
indicate overpressure zones. Notable tools include:
o Seismic Data: Helps identify transition zones and fluid content (e.g., gas presence).
o Offset Well Information: Historical data from nearby drilled wells, including:
 Mud weights used
 Incidents of stuck pipe, lost circulation, and kicks
 Wireline logs and mudlogging data
3. Detection Techniques

Detection techniques serve to identify increases in pressure during drilling, focusing mainly on:

 Drilling Parameters: Observing variations in drilling parameters, such as:

o Rate of Penetration (ROP): An increase in ROP may signal entry into a transition zone.
 Drilling Mud Monitoring: Monitoring the impact of overpressured zones on the drilling mud
including changes in:
o Temperature
o Inclusions of oil or gas
 Drilled Cuttings Analysis: Examining drilling cuttings helps in identifying materials from sealing
zones.

4. Detection Based on Drilling Parameters

This approach utilizes drilling parameters to detect overpressured zones based on specific geological
theories:

 Compaction Effects: Compaction increases with depth, affecting ROP:

o In a transition zone, the rock becomes less compacted, resulting in a potentially
increased ROP.
o A decrease in differential pressure may further increase ROP.

5. The “d” Exponent Technique

The d exponent technique is a refined method to detect overpressured zones:

 Theoretical Foundation: Developed by Bingham (1964), the penetration rate equation is defined
as:
 R = aN^d W B^{-1}
o Where:
 R = Penetration rate (ft/hr)
 N = Rotary speed (rpm)
 W = Weight on Bit (Ib)
 B = Bit diameter (in)
 a = Constant (matrix strength)
 d = Formation drillability exponent
 e = Rotary speed exponent (generally close to 1)
 Normalised ROP: The main aim is to establish a normalized ROP that effectively indicates
changes in formation pressure.
 Plotting Results: The d exponent is plotted against depth; decreases in the d exponent may
suggest entry into overpressured zones.

6. Refinements for Accurate Results

To enhance the accuracy of the d exponent technique:

 Maintain constant weight on bit (WOB) and rotary speed (RPM).

 Apply the equation over small depth increments for better assessments.
 Utilize a thick shale formation to accurately plot a trend line.
7. Other Drilling Parameters

In addition to ROP, other drilling parameters can indicate overpressure:

 Torque Monitoring: An increase in torque may occur if the borehole walls break down due to
reduced overbalance, leading to excess material accumulating in the annulus.
 Drag Increase: Notable increases in drag can also hint towards overpressured conditions,
though identifying drag changes is often more challengin

Formation Pressures and Drilling Engineering

7.2.2 Drilling Mud Parameters

The drilling mud experiences various changes upon entering an overpressured zone. Key effects of
abnormal pressures on the mud include:

 Increased Gas Cutting of Mud: The presence of gas can significantly alter the composition of
the drilling mud.
 Decrease in Mud Weight: Influx of formation fluids leads to a reduction in mud weight.
 Increase in Flowline Temperature: Temperature changes are indicative of different pressure
zones.

Since these effects are measurable only once the mud has returned to the surface, there is a time lag of
several hours in detecting overpressured zones. This time lag may allow the drill bit to penetrate further
into the overpressured area before detection occurs.

A. Gas Cutting of Mud

Gas cutting can occur in two primary ways:

 From Shale Cuttings: Gas released from shale cuttings enters the annulus.
 Direct Influx: An influx may take place if the overbalance is reduced excessively or due to
swabbing when pulling back the drillstring.

Continuous gas monitoring is typically performed by the mudlogger using gas chromatography. A
degasser is usually integrated into the mud processing equipment to prevent recycling gas downhole or
allowing its accumulation in the mud pits.

B. Mud Weight

The weight of the mud measured at the flowline can be influenced by an influx of formation fluids. The
presence of gas is readily identifiable because of a marked decrease in density, whereas water influx is
harder to detect. Continuous mud weight measurements can be achieved with a radioactive densitometer.

C. Flowline Temperature

Temperature readings in drilling operations can inform on the pressures being experienced. Under-
compacted clays with relatively high fluid content exhibit higher temperatures. A decrease in temperature
is evident when drilling through normally pressured zones, followed by an increase as overpressured
zones are encountered. The average geothermal gradient is approximately 1°F per 100 feet, with
changes of up to 10°F detected in overpressured zones.
It is essential to consider additional effects, such as circulation rate and mud mixing, as they can impact
the mud temperature readings.

7.2.3 Drilled Cuttings

Monitoring drilled cuttings can provide insight into the presence and degree of formation overpressure.
Common methods used to assess overpressure include:

 Density of Shale Cuttings: Bulk density should typically increase steadily with depth in normally
pressured formations.
 Shale Factor: Evaluates the reactive clay content present in the cuttings.
 Shale Slurry Resistivity: Examines the reduction in conductivity resulting from the expulsion of
water due to increased compaction.

A. Density of Shale Cuttings

In a normally pressured formation, bulk density typically increases with depth. Conversely, a decrease in
density may indicate an undercompacted zone. The bulk density of shale cuttings is measured using a
mud balance.

B. Shale Factor

This method assesses the reactive montmorillonite clay content using a methylene blue dye test. A higher
montmorillonite level indicates lesser density, suggesting undercompaction.

C. Shale Slurry Resistivity

As depth increases, decreased water content leads to greater resistivity. A plot of resistivity against depth
should show consistent increases unless an undercompacted zone is present, triggering resistivity
reductions.

73 Confirmation Techniques

Post-drilling operations may involve electric wireline logs and pressure surveys to confirm the existence of
overpressurized zones. Sensitive logs, such as sonic, density, and neutron logs, can provide key insights
into overpressure conditions. Should an overpressured sand interval be penetrated, direct pressure
measurements can be taken using a repeat formation tester or through well testing.

8 Formation Fracture Gradient

Establishing the formation pore pressure and fracture pressure for all penetrated formations is crucial
during well planning. Operations are designed to maintain borehole pressure between these two values:

 If borehole pressure falls below pore pressure, it may lead to an influx of formation fluids.
 If borehole pressure surpasses fracture pressure, the formations can fracture, leading to drilling
fluid losses.

8.1 Mechanism of Formation Breakdown

The rock's internal stress can be resolved into three principal stresses. Fracture occurs when the
borehole pressure exceeds the least of these stresses. Typically, fractures propagate perpendicular to the
least principal stress's direction. Identifying this stress requires analyzing fault activity in the region.
8.2 Testing Methods for Formation Breakdown

To ascertain the pressure at which formations begin to fracture, three primary testing methods can be
utilized:

 Leak-off Test: Determines the onset of fracturing.

 Limit Test: Assesses whether the formation can withstand a predetermined pressure.
 Formation Breakdown Test: Used to identify the complete breakdown point of the rock under
formation pressure.

A. Leak-Off Test

This test identifies the pressure at which the formation begins to leak off when subjected to borehole
pressure. The procedure includes:

1. Run and cement the casing string.

2. Drill a small section of new formation below the casing shoe.
3. Close the BOPs and apply surface pressure by pumping mud into the well.
4. Record surface pressure at each increment of pumped volume and analyze deviations from linear
pressure increases.

B. Limit Test

This test evaluates if the formation can endure a specified maximum pressure, transitioning from a linear
relationship as pressure increases. Should this occur, the integrity of the rock's structure is questioned.

C. Formation Breakdown Test

This test focuses on identifying the pressure signifying complete rock breakdown. Subsequent fluid
injection post-leak-off provides insights into the rock's failure point.

8.2.1 Leak-Off Test Calculations

The leak-off pressure under the casing shoe is used to ascertain the maximum allowable pressure in that
section, which can influence:

 The maximum mud weight for subsequent sections.

 The Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP).
Example Calculation

During a leak-off test, if:

 Leak-off pressure at surface = 940 psi

 True vertical depth = 5010 ft
 Utilized mud weight = 10.2 ppg

The maximum bottom hole pressure is calculated as follows:

Maximum Bottom Hole Pressure = (0.052 x 10.2 x 5010) + 940 = 3597 psi

The calculated maximum allowable mud weight at this depth would be:

Maximum Allowable Mud Weight = 3597 psi / 5010 ft = 13.8 ppg; after considering a safety factor, 13.8 -
0.5 = 13.3 ppg.

8.2.2 Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD)

When drilling fluid circulates, borehole pressure at the bottom will exceed hydrostatic pressure due to
frictional pressure from fluid movement. To accurately gauge pressure on the formation, calculating ECD
is crucial:

ECD = (MWA + Pfriction) / TVD Where:

 ECD = Equivalent circulating density (ppg)

 MW = Mud weight (ppg)
 Pfriction = Annulus frictional pressure drop (psi)
 TVD = True vertical depth (ft)

8.2.3 Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP)

MAASP is defined as the maximum pressure that can be applied to the annulus at surface before starting
to fracture the surrounding formation below the casing shoe:

MAASP = Maximum Allowable pressure - Hydrostatic Pressure of mud.