BUILDING COMPONENTS

Comprehensive Study Material

Topic Section
Foundations — Definition, Purpose & Functions Section 1
Types of Foundations Section 2
Bearing Capacity and Settlement Section 3
Brick Masonry Section 4
Stone Masonry Section 5
Beams Section 6
Columns Section 7
Lintels Section 8
Rain Water Harvesting Section 9
Concept of Green Buildings Section 10
Key Definitions & Summary Section 11
1. FOUNDATIONS

Definition
A foundation is the lowest structural element of a building that transfers loads from
the superstructure to the underlying soil or rock, providing stability and preventing
differential settlement.

1.1 Purpose and Functions of Foundations

• Load Transfer: Safely distributes structural loads (dead, live, wind, seismic) to the
ground
• Stability: Prevents overturning, sliding, and tilting of the structure
• Settlement Control: Reduces and uniformly distributes settlement to avoid
structural damage
• Level Base: Provides a flat, firm platform for constructing the superstructure
• Resistance to Lateral Forces: Resists horizontal forces from wind, earthquakes,
and soil pressure
• Moisture Barrier: Prevents groundwater and dampness from entering the building

1.2 Requirements of a Good Foundation

• Located at adequate depth to avoid frost action, soil movement, and erosion
• Placed on a soil layer with sufficient bearing capacity to support all loads
• Designed to produce uniform settlement — avoids differential settlement
• Constructed to resist all types of loads throughout the building's service life
• Economical — appropriate to the nature of soil and loading conditions
• Adequately waterproofed to prevent moisture ingress

1.3 Factors Affecting Foundation Design

Factor Influence on Foundation Design

Type of Soil Bearing capacity, settlement characteristics, and
susceptibility to liquefaction
Depth of Water Table Affects waterproofing requirements, excavation
methods, and uplift forces
Nature of Load Magnitude, direction (vertical/lateral), and distribution
determine footing size
Type of Structure Light residential vs. heavy industrial requires different
 foundation systems
Adjacent Structures Existing foundations influence excavation limits and load
distribution
Seismic Zone Earthquake-prone areas require deeper, reinforced
foundations
Frost Depth Foundation must be below frost line to prevent heave in
cold climates

2. TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
Foundations are broadly classified into two major categories based on their depth and
mode of load transfer to the ground:

Classification Types Suitable For

Shallow Foundations Strip, Spread (Isolated), Good soil near surface;
Combined, Raft/Mat light to medium loads
Deep Foundations Pile, Pier/Caisson, Well Weak near-surface soil;
Foundation heavy loads; variable
strata

2.1 Shallow Foundations

Shallow foundations transfer loads to soil strata relatively close to the ground. They are
economical for buildings on stable, competent soils.

A. Strip Foundation (Wall Footing)

A continuous strip of concrete running beneath load-bearing walls, spreading wall loads
over a wider area of soil.
• Application: Load-bearing brick and stone masonry walls in residential buildings
• Depth: Typically 0.6 m to 1.0 m below ground level
• Width: 2–3 times the width of the wall above
• Material: Plain cement concrete (PCC) or reinforced cement concrete (RCC)
• Advantage: Simple construction; economical for continuous wall loads
• Limitation: Not suitable for very weak soils or heavy point loads

B. Isolated/Spread (Pad) Footing

An individual footing supporting a single column. The base is wider than the column,
spreading the load over a larger soil area.
• Shape: Square, rectangular, or circular based on load and soil conditions
• Application: RCC framed buildings with individual columns
• Types: Simple pad (PCC), stepped footing (RCC), sloped (trapezoidal) footing
• Advantage: Economical for individual columns; straightforward design and
construction
• Limitation: Not suitable where columns are closely spaced or soil is weak

C. Combined Footing
A single footing supporting two or more columns when they are closely spaced, when one
column is near a property boundary, or when individual footings would overlap.
• Application: Two adjacent columns with limited spacing or boundary restrictions
• Shape: Rectangular or trapezoidal (area proportioned to column loads)
• Design Principle: Centre of gravity of footing coincides with resultant of column
loads
• Advantage: Economical when footings would otherwise interfere with each other

D. Raft / Mat Foundation

A large reinforced concrete slab extending under the entire building, distributing the
structural load over the full base area.
• Application: Weak or compressible soils; heavy buildings; basements; where
individual footings would cover >50% of plan area
• Advantage: Reduces net soil pressure; controls differential settlement; acts as
structural basement floor
• Types: Flat plate raft, flat plate with thickened column zones, beam-and-slab raft,
cellular raft
• Limitation: High material cost; requires careful design for bending moments and
punching shear

2.2 Deep Foundations

Deep foundations are used when adequate bearing capacity soil is at great depth, when
loads are very heavy, or when soil near the surface is unstable or highly compressible.

A. Pile Foundation
Long, slender structural members driven or cast into the ground to transfer loads to
competent soil or rock at depth.

Classification Type Description

By Material Timber Piles Used in permanent wet conditions or
temporary works
 By Material Concrete Piles Precast (driven) or cast-in-situ
(bored/drilled)
By Material Steel Piles H-piles and pipe piles for heavy loads
By Load Transfer End-Bearing Piles Load transferred to hard stratum/rock at
pile tip
By Load Transfer Friction/Skin Piles Load transferred through skin friction
along pile shaft
By Load Transfer Combination Piles Both end bearing and friction transfer
load
By Installation Driven Piles Forced into ground by hammer or
vibration
By Installation Bored Piles Hole drilled and concrete cast in place

• Advantage: Suitable for any load and most soil conditions; resists lateral and tensile
loads
• Limitation: High cost; requires specialist equipment; noise/vibration during
installation

B. Pier / Caisson Foundation

Large-diameter (> 750 mm) drilled shafts or cast-in-situ concrete cylinders that transfer
loads to deep bearing strata. Often used for bridges and multi-storey buildings.
• Open Caisson: Open at top and bottom; sinks by self-weight as soil is excavated
from inside
• Box Caisson: Open at top but closed at bottom; floated to position and sunk
• Pneumatic Caisson: Pressurised interior prevents water entry during excavation
below water table
• Application: Bridge piers, quay walls, heavy building columns, water intake
structures

C. Well Foundation
Large hollow cylindrical or rectangular structures sunk through soil to a firm bearing
stratum, widely used for bridge foundations in India.
• Shape: Circular (most common), twin circular, rectangular, dumbbell, or hexagonal
• Components: Cutting edge → Steining (walls) → Bottom plug → Sand fill → Top
plug → Well cap
• Sinking Method: Gradually sunk by excavating soil through the open dredge hole
• Application: River bridge foundations; structures subjected to large scour depths
3. BEARING CAPACITY AND SETTLEMENT

3.1 Bearing Capacity

Definition
Bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to safely carry the pressure placed on it by a
foundation without undergoing shear failure or excessive settlement. It depends on
soil type, structure, and foundation geometry.

Types of Bearing Capacity

Type Symbol Definition

Ultimate Bearing qu Maximum pressure the soil can support
Capacity before shear failure
Net Ultimate Bearing qnet qu minus the original overburden pressure (q
Capacity = γDf)
Gross Safe Bearing qs qu divided by Factor of Safety (FOS = 2.5–
Capacity (gross) 3.0)
Net Safe Bearing qs (net) qnet / FOS
Capacity
Safe Bearing Capacity qsbc Net safe bearing capacity + original
overburden pressure
Allowable Bearing qa Pressure that limits settlement to tolerable
Capacity limits; usually governing value

Terzaghi's Bearing Capacity Equations

Karl Terzaghi (1943) proposed the first comprehensive bearing capacity theory. For a
general shear failure condition:

Foundation Shape Terzaghi's Equation

Strip Footing qu = c·Nc + q·Nq + 0.5·γ·B·Nγ
Square Footing qu = 1.3·c·Nc + q·Nq + 0.4·γ·B·Nγ
 Circular Footing qu = 1.3·c·Nc + q·Nq + 0.3·γ·B·Nγ
Rectangular Footing qu = c·Nc(1 + 0.3B/L) + q·Nq + 0.5·γ·B·Nγ(1 − 0.2B/L)

Where: c = cohesion of soil, q = overburden pressure (γDf), γ = unit weight of soil, B =

footing width, L = footing length, Nc, Nq, Nγ = dimensionless bearing capacity factors
depending on friction angle (φ)

Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity

• Soil Properties: Cohesion (c), angle of internal friction (φ), unit weight (γ), void ratio
• Foundation Depth (Df): Deeper foundations generally have higher bearing capacity
• Foundation Width (B): Larger width increases bearing capacity; reduces stress
intensity
• Water Table Position: High water table reduces effective stress, decreasing
bearing capacity by 30–50%
• Loading Conditions: Eccentric or inclined loads reduce effective bearing capacity
• Soil Stratification: Weak layers below foundation can cause failure despite good
surface soil

3.2 Settlement of Foundations

Definition
Settlement is the downward movement of a foundation and the structure it supports
due to deformation and consolidation of soil under applied loads. Excessive or
uneven settlement causes structural damage, cracking, and instability.

Types of Settlement

Type Cause Soil Type Time Scale

Immediate Elastic deformation Sands, gravels, Instantaneous
(Elastic) under load without unsaturated clays
Settlement volume change
Primary Gradual expulsion of Saturated clays Months to years
Consolidation pore water, reducing and silts
Settlement void ratio
Secondary Continuous Organic soils, soft Years to decades
Consolidation deformation at clays, peats
(Creep) constant effective
stress
Differential vs. Uniform Settlement
• Uniform Settlement: All parts of structure settle equally — generally not structurally
harmful
• Differential Settlement: Different parts settle by different amounts — causes
cracking, tilting, and structural distress
• Allowable Differential Settlement: IS 1904 recommends max differential
settlement of 25 mm for framed buildings and 40 mm for load-bearing walls

Methods to Reduce Excessive Settlement

• Increasing Foundation Area: Reduces bearing pressure on soil
• Increasing Foundation Depth: Reaches more competent soil strata
• Soil Improvement: Compaction, grouting, preloading, vibro-compaction, stone
columns
• Pile Foundation: Transfers load to deeper, stronger strata
• Raft Foundation: Distributes load over entire building footprint
• Structural Stiffness: Rigid frame structures redistribute differential settlement
effects

4. BRICK MASONRY

Definition
Brick masonry is the art of constructing walls, piers, and other building elements by
laying bricks in a definite pattern and bonding them together with mortar. It is one of
the oldest and most widely used construction methods.

4.1 Components of Brick Masonry

• Bricks: Rectangular units of fired clay or fly ash, standard size 190×90×90 mm
(nominal 200×100×100 mm with 10 mm mortar)
• Mortar: Binding material — cement-sand mortar (1:3 to 1:6) or lime mortar, 10–12
mm thick joints
• Course: A single horizontal layer of bricks of uniform height
• Joint: Bed joint (horizontal) and perpend/cross joint (vertical), filled with mortar
• Leaf / Wythe: Vertical thickness of one brick (one-brick or half-brick wide sections)

4.2 Technical Terms in Brick Masonry

 Term Definition
Stretcher Brick laid with its longest face parallel to the wall face (length
visible)
Header Brick laid with its shortest face (end) visible on wall face
(bond across wall)
Closer A cut brick placed at corners to maintain the bond pattern
Queen Closer Brick cut in half along its length to start alternate courses in
English bond
King Closer Brick with one corner cut diagonally
Quoin Corner brick forming an angle of a wall
Frog Indentation on the top face of a brick to improve adhesion
with mortar
Plinth Lower portion of wall between ground level and floor level
DPC (Damp Proof Horizontal waterproofing layer in masonry to prevent rising
Course) dampness

4.3 Bonds in Brick Masonry

A bond is the arrangement of bricks in successive courses to avoid continuous vertical
joints and ensure structural integrity.

A. Stretcher Bond
• All bricks laid as stretchers — only half-brick thick walls
• Used for partition walls and garden walls
• Simplest and most economical bond
• Not suitable for load-bearing walls of full-brick thickness

B. Header Bond
• All bricks laid as headers — only one-brick thick walls
• Good for curved walls as headers radiate outward
• Rarely used structurally; mainly for circular or curved work

C. English Bond
• Alternating courses of stretchers and headers
• Strongest and most commonly used bond in India
• Queen closers placed beside the quoin header in header courses
• No vertical joints align in adjacent courses — excellent load distribution
 • Suitable for all load-bearing walls

D. Flemish Bond
• Each course has alternate stretchers and headers
• Adjacent courses staggered so header of one course is centred over stretcher below
• Double Flemish Bond: Both faces show Flemish pattern; aesthetically pleasing
• Single Flemish Bond: Flemish on outer face, English bond on inner face;
combination of strength and appearance
• Stronger appearance; slightly weaker than English bond in practice

E. Other Bonds
• Dutch Bond: Modified English bond; alternating full and three-quarter bricks for
corners
• Facing Bond: Different size bricks on face and backing for economy and
appearance
• Garden Wall Bond: Three stretchers to one header; used for one-brick walls
exposed on both sides
• Raking Bond: Diagonal bricks — herringbone or diagonal pattern for decorative
panels

4.4 Types of Brick Masonry

Type Description Application

First Class Masonry Best quality bricks, cement mortar, Exposed walls, load-
flush/raked joints, uniform courses bearing structures
Second Class Second class bricks, cement or lime Internal walls, less
Masonry mortar, raked joints 12mm deep prominent positions
Third Class Rough bricks, mud mortar, irregular Temporary structures
Masonry courses, rough finish only
Reinforced Brick Steel bars in bed joints or cavities; Walls resisting lateral
Masonry (RBM) mortar or concrete fill loads
Cavity Wall Two parallel walls with 50–75 mm air Thermal and acoustic
Masonry gap, tied by metal wall ties insulation

4.5 Qualities of Good Bricks

• Minimum compressive strength of 3.5 N/mm² (first class: 10+ N/mm²)
• Water absorption < 20% by weight after 24-hour immersion
• Uniform size, shape, and colour with well-defined edges
 • Hard, dense structure that does not scratch easily
• Not efflorescent — free from soluble salts
• Good fire resistance — does not spall under heat

5. STONE MASONRY

Definition
Stone masonry is the construction of walls, columns, and other elements using
natural stone bonded with mortar. It is durable, aesthetically pleasing, and well
suited to regions where stone is locally available.

5.1 Types of Stone Masonry

A. Rubble Masonry
Uses rough, undressed or partially dressed stones as they come from the quarry. More
economical but less precise than ashlar.

Sub-Type Description
Random Rubble Stones of varying sizes laid without defined courses;
(Uncoursed) strongest rubble masonry
Random Rubble Stones of varying sizes but levelled to form courses at
(Coursed) regular intervals
Square Rubble Stones roughly squared with hammer; irregular heights
(Uncoursed) and lengths
Square Rubble (Coursed) Squared stones laid in distinct courses of varying heights
Polygonal Rubble Stones with many irregular faces, fitted together without
regular courses
Flint Rubble Flint nodules used with their natural surface; common in
England

B. Ashlar Masonry
Uses fine, accurately dressed stones with perfectly plane surfaces. Provides a superior
finish and structural performance.
Sub-Type Description
Ashlar Fine (Plain Ashlar) Stones accurately dressed; uniform courses; fine joints (≤
3 mm); excellent finish
Ashlar Rough Tooled Beds and joints finely dressed; face left with parallel
chisel marks (tooled)
Ashlar Rock-Faced Beds and joints dressed; projecting face (natural quarry
(Quarry-Faced) appearance) retained
Ashlar Chamfered Edges chamfered at 45°; projecting face gives shadow
effect
Ashlar Block-in-Course Midway between rubble and ashlar; stones >300 mm
high, roughly dressed

5.2 Comparison: Rubble vs. Ashlar Masonry

Aspect Rubble Masonry Ashlar Masonry

Stone Dressing None or rough dressing Accurate, fine dressing
required
Skill Required Unskilled to semi-skilled Highly skilled stone dressers
(masons)
Appearance Rough, natural Fine, uniform, attractive
Mortar Joints Thick (12–50 mm) Very thin (< 3 mm in fine
ashlar)
Cost Economical Expensive
Strength Moderate High
Application Foundations, compound Prestigious structures,
walls, rural buildings facings, pillars

5.3 Qualities of Good Building Stone

• Strength: Crushing strength > 100 N/mm² for structural use
• Hardness: Mohs hardness ≥ 6 for floor and pavement stones
• Durability: Resistant to weathering, frost, and chemical attack
 • Toughness: Resistance to impact and vibration loads
• Water Absorption: < 5% — porous stones are susceptible to frost damage
• Workability: Ease of quarrying, dressing, and cutting to required shapes
• Fire Resistance: Granite and slate perform well; limestone and sandstone may
spall
• Appearance: Pleasant colour, uniform texture, and grain for exposed work

5.4 Commonly Used Building Stones

Stone Properties Applications

Granite Very hard, durable, high crushing Foundations, columns, road
strength (100–250 N/mm²), kerbs, flooring, facings
igneous rock
Limestone Moderate strength, easily worked, Building facings, cement
calcium carbonate base, manufacture, flooring
sedimentary
Sandstone Sedimentary; easy to cut; variable Walls, steps, arches,
durability based on cementing pavements
agent
Marble Metamorphic; crystalline; high Flooring, wall cladding,
polish; good compressive strength decorative features
Slate Fine-grained metamorphic; splits Roofing, damp-proof courses,
into thin sheets; watertight electrical panels
Basalt Dense, hard, fine-grained igneous Road metal, railway ballast,
rock; good wear resistance heavy foundations

5.5 General Rules for Stone Masonry

• Stones must be laid on their natural bed (perpendicular to pressure direction)
• No unbroken vertical joints — adjacent courses must break joints
• Through stones used periodically to bind both faces of the wall together
• Stones in alternate courses should overlap by at least 1/4 of their length
• Mortar should be mixed fresh and used within 30 minutes of preparation
• All surfaces moistened before laying to improve mortar adhesion
• Cavities and hollows behind facing stones filled with concrete, not stone chips
6. BEAMS

Definition
A beam is a horizontal or inclined structural member primarily designed to resist
bending moments and shear forces caused by transverse loads. Beams transfer
floor and roof loads to columns, walls, or other supporting elements.

6.1 Classification of Beams

A. By Support Conditions

Type Description Characteristics

Simply Supported at both ends — 2 reactions; no moment at
Supported one pin, one roller supports; statically determinate
Cantilever Fixed at one end, free at Maximum moment at fixed support;
other deflection at free end
Overhanging One or both ends extend Reverse bending near overhang;
beyond support useful for balconies
Continuous Extends over more than 2 Statically indeterminate; smaller
supports moments than simply supported
Fixed Beam Both ends rigidly fixed Moments at both ends; smallest
deflection; indeterminate
Propped Fixed at one end, simply Intermediate behavior; one degree
Cantilever supported at other of indeterminacy

B. By Cross-Section Shape
• Rectangular Beam: Simple, economical; most common in RCC construction
• T-Beam: Flange (slab) acts with web; efficient use of concrete in tension zone
avoided
• L-Beam: Edge beam at slab periphery; one side flange only
• I-Section (Steel): Universal beam; maximum material at flanges for bending
efficiency
• Box Beam: Hollow rectangular; high torsional rigidity; used in bridges
C. By Material
• RCC Beams: Reinforced cement concrete; most common in buildings; steel resists
tension
• Pre-stressed Beams: Steel tendons pre-tensioned/post-tensioned; used for long
spans
• Steel Beams: Rolled sections; high strength-to-weight ratio; industrial buildings
• Timber Beams: Traditional; lightweight; used in residential buildings
• Composite Beams: Steel beam acting compositely with concrete slab through
shear connectors

6.2 Bending Moment and Shear Force Concepts

• Bending Moment (M): Internal moment resisting bending — maximum at mid-span
(simply supported) or at support (cantilever)
• Shear Force (V): Internal force resisting transverse loads — maximum near
supports
• Neutral Axis: The plane in the cross-section where bending stress is zero
• Sagging Moment: Positive BM — beam bends concave upward; tension in bottom
fibre
• Hogging Moment: Negative BM — beam bends concave downward; tension in top
fibre

6.3 RCC Beam Reinforcement

• Main Reinforcement: High yield deformed bars placed at the tension zone (bottom
for sagging beams)
• Stirrups (Links): Vertical or inclined bars enclosing main bars; resist shear and
diagonal tension
• Hanger Bars: Bars at top to hold stirrups; carry compression in some cases
• Cover: Clear distance from stirrup to beam surface: minimum 25 mm (nominal) for
moderate exposure
• Bent-up Bars: Main bars cranked up near supports to resist shear

6.4 Important Beam Types in Buildings

Plinth Beam
• Provided at plinth level between column footings and ground floor slab
• Prevents differential settlement between footings
• Acts as a tie beam connecting foundation columns
• Prevents cracks due to unequal settlement in load-bearing walls

Tie Beam
• Connects two columns at intermediate floor level or above plinth
• Reduces effective length of columns to prevent buckling
• Transfers no floor load directly — acts purely as a restraining member
Grade Beam
• Horizontal beam at or just below ground level spanning between pile caps or spread
footings
• Transfers wall and column loads to pile foundations
• Also provides rigid connection between foundation elements

7. COLUMNS

Definition
A column is a vertical compression member that transfers loads from beams and
slabs down to the foundations. Columns are the primary vertical load-carrying
elements in a structural frame and must resist axial compression, bending moments
(due to eccentricity or lateral loads), and shear.

7.1 Classification of Columns

A. By Slenderness Ratio (λ = L_eff / r)

Type Slenderness Ratio Failure Mode

Short Column λ < 12 (RCC); λ < 50 Material crushing (compressive
(steel) failure)
Long / Slender Column λ > 12 (RCC); λ > 50 Buckling failure (lateral
(steel) instability)
Intermediate Column 12 < λ < limits Combined crushing and
buckling

B. By Shape of Cross-Section
• Square / Rectangular: Most common; efficient in two directions; easy formwork
• Circular: Excellent for axial loads; no weak axis; attractive appearance
• T-shaped / L-shaped / +Cross: Used in shear walls and special layouts
• H-section (Steel): Universal column section; strong in both axes

C. By Type of Reinforcement
• Tied Column: Main vertical bars held by horizontal ties/links at regular spacing;
most common type
 • Spirally Reinforced Column: Continuous spiral (helix) confines core concrete;
better ductility and earthquake resistance
• Composite Column: Structural steel section encased in concrete, or concrete-filled
steel tube

D. By Eccentricity of Loading
• Axially Loaded Column: Load applied at centroid — pure axial compression (ideal
case)
• Eccentrically Loaded Column: Load offset from centroid — combined axial load
and bending moment
• Biaxially Loaded Column: Eccentricity in both X and Y directions — corner
columns typically

7.2 Column Reinforcement Details

Element IS 456 Requirements

Minimum Longitudinal Steel 0.8% of gross cross-sectional area
Maximum Longitudinal Steel 6% of gross area (4% preferred to avoid congestion)
Minimum Number of Bars 4 bars for rectangular columns; 6 bars for circular
columns
Minimum Bar Diameter 12 mm
Lateral Ties — Diameter ≥ 6 mm or ¼ × diameter of main bar (whichever is
greater)
Lateral Ties — Pitch Min. of: 16× main bar dia, least lateral dimension, 300
mm
Clear Cover 40 mm for columns (moderate exposure conditions)
Minimum Column Size 200 × 200 mm (or 230 × 230 mm common practice)

7.3 Column Failure Modes

• Crushing: Short, stocky columns fail by direct compressive crushing of concrete
and steel yielding
• Buckling (Euler Buckling): Long columns fail laterally without material reaching
ultimate stress
• Combined Failure: Intermediate columns fail by material failure combined with
lateral bending
• Shear Failure: Horizontal shear (earthquake) causes diagonal cracking without
adequate confinement
7.4 Effective Length of Columns
Effective length (L_eff) depends on end conditions (degree of restraint against rotation and
translation):

End Conditions Effective Length (L_eff)

Both ends pinned 1.0 L
Both ends fixed 0.5 L
One end fixed, one end free (cantilever) 2.0 L
One end fixed, one end pinned 0.7 L
One end fixed + no translation; one end 0.65 L
pinned + no translation

8. LINTELS

Definition
A lintel is a horizontal structural member spanning an opening in a wall (door,
window, or ventilator) to carry the weight of the wall above the opening and transfer
it to the jambs (sides) of the opening.

8.1 Functions of a Lintel

• Supports the masonry or other loads above door/window/ventilator openings
• Transfers the load safely to the wall on each side of the opening
• Prevents cracking and failure of the wall above openings
• Maintains the structural integrity of the wall around openings
• May serve as an architectural feature on the building facade

8.2 Types of Lintels

A. Timber Lintel
• Oldest type — used in traditional and heritage construction
• Advantage: Lightweight, easy to work, good in compression
• Disadvantage: Susceptible to decay, fire, and insect attack; not for wide spans or
heavy loads
 • Not recommended in modern construction except for heritage restoration

B. Stone Lintel
• Single stone slab spanning the opening; common in stone masonry buildings
• Advantage: Durable, fire-resistant, aesthetically pleasing in stone buildings
• Disadvantage: Limited to short spans (< 1.2 m); susceptible to tensile bending
cracks; heavy
• Requires careful selection — stone must have high tensile strength relative to type

C. Brick Lintel
• Bricks laid on edge with mortar between; suitable only for very small spans (< 1.0 m)
• Types: Flat brick arch lintel; brick lintel with embedded steel bars
• Advantage: Matches surrounding brickwork appearance; economical for small
openings
• Limitation: Weak in tension; not suitable for wide openings or heavy loads

D. Steel Lintel
• Rolled steel sections (I-sections, channels) used singly or in pairs
• Advantage: Strong, suitable for large spans and heavy loads; small depth relative to
capacity
• Disadvantage: Susceptible to corrosion; requires protection/encasement; expensive
• Used in industrial buildings, commercial structures, and for wide openings

E. RCC Lintel (Most Common in Modern Construction)

• Reinforced cement concrete cast in-situ or precast; most versatile lintel type
• Reinforcement: Main bars at bottom (tension zone) + nominal top bars + stirrups
• Depth: Typically 100–150 mm for openings up to 2 m; increases with span and load
• Bearing Length: Minimum 150 mm on each side of the opening (IS 456: ≥ 150 mm)
• Advantage: Economical, durable, fire-resistant, suitable for any span and load
• Application: Universal — residential, commercial, industrial buildings

F. Reinforced Brick Lintel

• Bricks laid in cement mortar with steel bars in every alternate course or in grooves
• Depth: multiple of brick course height (typically 2–4 courses)
• Advantage: Better appearance than RCC lintel in brick buildings; economical for
medium spans
• Application: Openings up to 2 m span in brick masonry buildings

8.3 Lintel vs. Arch — Comparison

Feature Lintel Arch

Load Action Bending — tension at bottom Compressive thrust — no
tension ideally
Material Efficiency Less efficient (tension in Highly efficient (all
concrete/stone) compression)
Span Limited for heavy loads Can span large distances
Construction Simple; formwork needed Centring (temporary support)
required
Cost Lower for small spans Higher due to complex
formwork
Horizontal Thrust None Significant lateral thrust on
supports
Application Most modern buildings Historic and aesthetic
structures

8.4 Design Considerations for RCC Lintels

• Effective Span: Clear opening + bearing length on each side
• Load: Triangular load from masonry above (45° dispersion angle assumed) +
floor/roof loads if applicable
• Deflection: Span/250 maximum under service load
• Cover: Minimum 15 mm for lintels in sheltered conditions; 25 mm for exposed
• Continuity: Continuous lintels over multiple openings reduce midspan moments

9. RAIN WATER HARVESTING (RWH)

Definition
Rainwater harvesting is the collection, storage, and utilisation of rainwater from
rooftops, land surfaces, and other catchments for domestic, agricultural, and
industrial purposes — replenishing groundwater and reducing dependence on
surface water and municipal supplies.

9.1 Need and Importance

• Water Scarcity: Rapid urbanisation and population growth are depleting water
resources globally
• Groundwater Depletion: Over-extraction of groundwater causes subsidence and
dried wells
 • Flood Mitigation: Capturing rainwater reduces peak surface runoff and urban
flooding
• Water Quality: Harvested rainwater is generally clean and soft — good for most
uses
• Cost Savings: Reduces municipal water bills significantly for large buildings
• Regulatory Compliance: Mandatory in many states of India and countries
worldwide for new buildings

9.2 Components of a Roof-Top Rainwater Harvesting System

Component Function Materials

Catchment Area Collects falling rainwater RCC slab, GI sheet, clay tiles
(Roof)
Gutters/Eaves Collects runoff from roof PVC, GI, HDPE pipe/channel
Channel edges and carries to
downpipes
Downpipes Conveys water from gutter to PVC 100–150 mm dia
(Leaders) ground level
First Flush Diverter Diverts first 1–2 mm of rain PVC diverter valve
carrying dust and bird
droppings
Filter Unit Removes suspended Sand, gravel, charcoal filter
particles and impurities layers
Storage Tank / Stores filtered water for use RCC cistern, PVC tank, HDPE
Sump tank
Overflow Pipe Safely drains excess water PVC pipe to drain
to sewer or recharge pit
Recharge Pit / Well Diverts water underground to Brick-lined pit with gravel fill
replenish aquifer (for
groundwater recharge)

9.3 Methods of Rainwater Harvesting

1. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting (Direct Use)
• Rainwater collected from roof → gutters → filter → storage tank
• Water used for non-potable purposes: toilet flushing, gardening, car washing
• With adequate filtration and UV treatment, suitable for drinking
• Easily retrofittable to existing buildings
 • Most common method in urban residential and commercial buildings

2. Surface Runoff Harvesting

• Collects rainwater flowing over ground, roads, and open areas
• Channelled into tanks, ponds, or check dams
• Suitable for rural areas, farms, and large campuses
• Requires treatment before drinking due to higher contamination risk

3. Groundwater Recharge Systems

• Recharge Pit: Shallow excavation filled with gravel/boulders to infiltrate water to
shallow aquifer
• Recharge Trench: Long, narrow excavation — used where hard rock is shallow
• Recharge Well: Existing or new well used to recharge deep aquifer; requires proper
filter to prevent contamination
• Percolation Tank: Earthen bund creating pond to allow water to percolate into
ground
• Modified Nala Bund: Check dams on streams to slow flow and increase infiltration

9.4 Filter Design for RWH

A typical gravity filter (top to bottom) contains:
1. 100 mm layer of fine sand (top)
2. 100 mm layer of coarse sand
3. 100 mm layer of fine gravel
4. 100 mm layer of coarse gravel
5. 100 mm layer of pebbles/boulders (bottom)
6. Perforated bottom plate/pipe for filtered water outlet
First flush diverter ensures the first 1.0–2.5 litres per m² of roof area is discarded before
clean water enters the filter.

9.5 Harvesting Potential Calculation

Parameter Formula / Value

Harvesting Potential (Q) Q = A × R × C_r (litres/year)
A — Catchment Area Roof plan area in m²
R — Annual Rainfall Local average in mm/year (mm = litres/m²)
C_r — Runoff Coefficient RCC roof: 0.85–0.90; tiles: 0.75–0.80; gravel: 0.60;
grass: 0.35–0.55
Example 200 m² RCC roof, 800 mm rain, Cr=0.85 →
200×800×0.85 = 136,000 litres/year
9.6 Benefits of Rainwater Harvesting
• Water Conservation: Reduces demand on over-stressed municipal supply by 30–
50%
• Groundwater Recharge: Combats falling water tables in rapidly urbanising areas
• Flood Prevention: Reduces peak runoff, lowering risk of urban flooding
• Energy Savings: Less water pumped from deep wells = less electricity consumed
• Sustainability: Reduces carbon footprint of water supply chain
• Economic Benefit: Payback period typically 2–5 years for urban buildings

10. CONCEPT OF GREEN BUILDINGS

Definition
A green building (also called a sustainable building) is one that has been designed,
constructed, operated, and decommissioned in a manner that minimises its negative
impact on the environment, conserves resources (energy, water, materials),
improves indoor environment quality, and enhances occupant health and
productivity — throughout its entire lifecycle.

10.1 Why Green Buildings?

The built environment globally accounts for:
• ~40% of total energy consumption
• ~33% of CO₂ greenhouse gas emissions
• ~40% of raw material consumption
• ~20% of total freshwater use
• ~30% of solid waste generation
Green buildings directly address all these impacts through intelligent design, efficient
systems, and sustainable materials.

10.2 Key Principles of Green Building Design

1. Energy Efficiency
• Passive Design: Building orientation, shading, insulation to reduce heating/cooling
loads
• High-Performance Envelope: Double-glazed windows, insulated walls, reflective
roofing
 • Efficient HVAC Systems: Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF), heat recovery
ventilation
• LED Lighting: Combined with occupancy sensors and daylight harvesting controls
• Renewable Energy: Solar PV panels, solar water heaters, wind turbines on-site
• Energy Monitoring: Building Energy Management Systems (BEMS) for real-time
optimisation

2. Water Conservation
• Low-Flow Fixtures: Dual-flush toilets, aerated taps reducing consumption by 30–
50%
• Rainwater Harvesting: Rooftop and surface collection for non-potable uses
• Greywater Recycling: Treated bathroom/laundry water reused for toilet flushing
and irrigation
• Efficient Landscaping: Native drought-resistant plants; drip irrigation
• Water Metering: Monitoring consumption by zone to detect leaks and waste

3. Sustainable Site and Land Use

• Site Selection: Brownfield (previously developed) sites preferred over greenfield
• Urban Heat Island Mitigation: Green roofs, high-albedo (reflective) paving, tree
planting
• Stormwater Management: Permeable pavements, bioswales, retention ponds
• Minimising Disturbance: Protect topsoil, natural drainage, and existing vegetation
• Transport Links: Proximity to public transport reduces occupant vehicle use

4. Materials and Resources

• Recycled Content: Fly ash bricks, recycled steel, crushed concrete aggregate
• Local/Regional Materials: Reduces transportation energy and supports local
economy
• Rapidly Renewable Materials: Bamboo, cork, linoleum — replace themselves
within 10 years
• Low Embodied Energy: Minimise energy used in manufacturing and transporting
materials
• Construction Waste Management: Separate, reuse, and recycle minimum 75% of
construction waste
• Durable Materials: Longer service life means fewer replacements and less
resource use

5. Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)

• Daylighting: Large windows, skylights, light shelves maximising natural light
• Natural Ventilation: Stack effect and cross-ventilation reducing mechanical cooling
needs
• Low-VOC Materials: Paints, adhesives, and flooring with low volatile organic
compound emissions
• Thermal Comfort: Maintain 20–26°C with adequate humidity (40–60%) control
• Acoustic Comfort: Sound insulation, noise control in occupied spaces
 • Views and Biophilia: Access to views of nature improves wellbeing and productivity

6. Waste Management
• Segregated waste collection facilities for recyclables, organics, and landfill waste
• On-site composting for organic kitchen and garden waste
• E-waste collection and safe disposal
• Construction and demolition waste recycling plans

10.3 Green Building Rating Systems

Rating System Country/Region Key Focus Areas Certification

Levels
LEED (Leadership in USA / Global Energy, water, Certified, Silver,
Energy and materials, site, IEQ Gold, Platinum
Environmental
Design)
GRIHA (Green India Energy, water, waste, 1-Star to 5-Star
Rating for Integrated health, site
Habitat Assessment)
IGBC (Indian Green India Energy, water, Certified, Silver,
Building Council) materials, innovation Gold, Platinum
BREEAM (Building UK / Europe Energy, health, Pass, Good, Very
Research Estab. materials, water, land Good, Excellent,
Environmental Outstanding
Assessment Method)
WELL Building Global Air, water, Bronze, Silver,
Standard nourishment, light, Gold, Platinum
fitness, comfort, mind
Green Star Australia Design, construction, 1–6 Star
performance

10.4 Passive Design Strategies

Building Orientation
In India (Northern Hemisphere), the long axis of the building should run East-West to
minimise heat gain on east and west facades while maximising solar access on south-
facing surfaces in winter.
Thermal Mass
Heavy materials (concrete, brick, stone) absorb heat during the day and release it at night
— moderating temperature swings and reducing air conditioning load by 10–20%.

Shading Devices
• Horizontal Chajjas / Overhangs: Block high summer sun on south-facing windows
• Vertical Fins: Shade east and west-facing windows
• Deciduous Trees: Provide summer shade, allow winter sun after leaf fall
• External Venetian Blinds: Adjustable shading reducing solar gain by 40–70%

Green Roof
Vegetated roof systems providing insulation, reducing urban heat island effect, managing
stormwater, and creating biodiversity habitat.
• Extensive Green Roof: Shallow (50–150 mm soil), low maintenance, drought-
tolerant sedums
• Intensive Green Roof: Deep (150–1000 mm), supports shrubs and trees, roof
garden
• Benefits: Reduces cooling load by 15–25%, extends roof waterproofing life by 2×

10.5 Green Building Technologies

Technology Application Benefit

Solar PV Panels Roof/facade mounted Net-zero energy; feed-in to grid
electricity generation
Solar Water Domestic hot water for 60– Reduces water heating energy
Heaters 80% of needs by 70%
Geothermal Heat Ground source heating and 300–500% efficiency vs
Pumps cooling conventional HVAC
Phase Change In walls/ceilings to absorb Reduces peak temperature
Materials and release heat fluctuation
BIPV (Building PV cells integrated into glass Dual function: structure +
Integrated PV) facades/roofing energy generation
Smart Building IoT sensors controlling all 15–30% energy saving through
Automation building systems optimisation
Electrochromic Tinting of glass in response Reduces solar gain without
Glass to light/heat blocking view
Constructed Natural grey/blackwater Low-energy biological water
Wetlands treatment system purification
10.6 Benefits of Green Buildings

Category Benefit Typical Improvement

Energy Reduced energy consumption 30–60% below conventional
building
Water Reduced water use 30–50% reduction
Carbon Lower greenhouse gas 35–50% reduction
emissions
Occupant Health Improved productivity and 10–25% productivity increase
wellbeing
Asset Value Higher resale/rental value 7–15% premium over
conventional
Operating Cost Lower utility and maintenance 20–30% reduction over
bills lifecycle
Certifications LEED/GRIHA — marketing and Preferential financing and
compliance advantage permits

10.7 Examples of Green Buildings in India

• CII-Godrej GBC, Hyderabad: India's first LEED Platinum building (2004); 55%
energy saving; 100% rainwater harvested
• ITC Green Centre, Gurgaon: Largest LEED Platinum certified building in world (at
time of certification); 30% water saving
• Infosys Campus, Pune: Multiple LEED Platinum buildings; 60% energy saving;
zero liquid discharge
• TERI (The Energy and Resources Institute), Delhi: GRIHA 5-Star; extensive
passive design; natural ventilation
• Wipro Technologies, Gurgaon: LEED Platinum; 35% energy below ASHRAE
baseline; green roof
11. SUMMARY, KEY DEFINITIONS, AND REVISION NOTES

11.1 Quick Revision — All Topics

Topic Core Concept Key Points to Remember

Foundations Transfers loads to soil Shallow (strip, isolated, combined, raft)
safely vs Deep (pile, pier, well)
Bearing Soil's ability to carry Terzaghi's equation; FOS = 2.5–3;
Capacity loads without failure allowable = governs
Settlement Downward movement Immediate + primary consolidation +
under load secondary creep
Brick Masonry Bricks + mortar in bond English bond (strongest); Flemish
patterns (attractive); courses/headers/stretchers
Stone Natural stone in mortar Rubble (rough) vs Ashlar (dressed); lay
Masonry on natural bed
Beams Horizontal members Classified by support, shape, material;
resisting bending BM + SF diagrams
Columns Vertical compression Short (crush) vs Long (buckle); tied vs
members spiral; min 0.8% steel
Lintels Spans openings in walls RCC most common; min 150 mm
bearing; load from 45° triangle
RWH Collect and Roof → gutter → first flush → filter →
store/recharge rainwater tank/recharge pit
Green Sustainable, efficient LEED/GRIHA ratings; energy + water +
Buildings buildings materials + IEQ + site

11.2 Important Formulae

Formula Application
qu = c·Nc + q·Nq + 0.5γBNγ (strip) Terzaghi's ultimate bearing capacity —
strip footing
FOS = qu / q_applied (= 2.5 to 3.0) Factor of safety against bearing failure
Slenderness Ratio λ = Leff / r Column classification (r = radius of
gyration)
Q = A × R × Cr RWH potential (Q litres, A m², R mm, Cr
runoff coefficient)
σmax = P/A + M/Z Combined stress in eccentrically loaded
column
Settlement = mv × Δσ × H Primary consolidation settlement (mv =
vol. compressibility)

11.3 Glossary of Key Terms

Term Definition
Bearing Capacity Maximum pressure soil can carry without shear failure or
excessive settlement
Differential Settlement Unequal settlement of different parts of a structure — cause
of structural cracking
Bond (Masonry) Arrangement of bricks/stones in overlapping courses to
ensure structural integrity and avoid vertical joint alignment
Stirrup Vertical or inclined lateral tie in beams resisting shear and
diagonal tension
Cover (Concrete) Minimum distance from outermost steel bar to concrete
surface; protects steel from corrosion
Effective Length Length used in buckling calculations based on actual end
conditions of column
DPC Damp Proof Course — horizontal waterproof barrier in
masonry at plinth level
First Flush Initial rainfall carrying dust and contamination; diverted
away from RWH storage
Passive Design Utilising building form, orientation, and materials to reduce
energy use without mechanical systems
LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design —
international green building rating system by USGBC
GRIHA Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment — India's
national green building rating system
Ashlar Finely dressed stone with accurately worked faces used in
quality masonry construction
Pile Long, slender structural element driven or cast into ground
to support loads in deep foundations
Lintel Horizontal structural beam spanning opening in a wall to
carry load above
Raft Foundation Large RCC slab under entire building distributing loads over
full footprint area