Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Chapter Five: Compass Surveying
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Compass Surveying
• Compass surveying is branch of surveying in which direction of survey lines are determined with a compass
and the lengths of at the lines are measured with chain or tape.
• Used for preliminary surveys, rough surveying.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
The most essential feature of magnetic compass are:-
Magnetic needle: To establish the magnetic meridian
A line of sight : To sight the other end of the line .
A graduated circle: Either attached to the box or to the needle, to read the directions of the lines .
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Surveyors compass
• Graduated ring is attached to the circular box not to the
magnetic needle .
• The graduations have 00 at N and S and 900 at E and W.
• As the graduated ring is attached to the box, it moves with
the sight.
• The graduation are marked erect.
• The instrument can not be used without a tripod.
• It observes Quadrantal bearing.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering Prismatic compass
• The graduated ring is attached with the board needle and does not rotate with the line of
sight.
• There is a prism at viewing end.
• The graduation have 00 at S, 900 at W, 1800 at N and
2700 at E.
• The graduations are engraved inverted and
graduations ring is read through the prisms.
• The instrument can be held in hand also while making
the observation (without tripod also it can be used).
• It observes WCB directly .
• Prismatic compass is light, compact & handy.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering Other types of Compass
Trough Compass Tubular Compass
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Meridian
Meridian: The fixed direction on the surface of the earth, based on which, direction of line is measured
◦ True meridian ( Constant)
◦ Magnetic meridian ( Changing)
◦ Arbitrary meridian
◦ Grid meridian
Bearing: Horizontal angle between the meridian and one of
the extremities of line
◦ True bearing
◦ Magnetic bearing
◦ Arbitrary bearing
◦ Grid Bearing
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Meridian, Bearing & Azimuths
Geographic north
pole
True meridian Observer’s
position
• Line passing through geographic north and south pole and observer’s position.
• Position is fixed.
• Established by astronomical observations.
• Used for large extent and accurate survey (land boundary).
Geographic south
pole
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Meridian, Bearing & Azimuths
Magnetic meridian Geographic North Pole
◦ Line passing through the direction shown by freely Magnetic north pole
suspended magnetic needle
◦ Affected by many things i.e. magnetic substances
◦ Position varies with time
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Meridian, Bearing & Azimuths
Assumed meridian (Arbitrary meridian)
• Line passing through the direction towards some permanent point of reference
• Used for survey of limited extent
Disadvantage
• Meridian can’t be re-established if points lost.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Meridian, Bearing & Azimuths
Grid meridian
• Any meridian that is parallel to the central meridian, used when computing points in planar rectangular
coordinate systems of limited extent.
• A grid meridian is an imaginary north - south line used in map projections as a reference for measuring
directions on a grid system. Unlike the true or magnetic meridian, it is aligned with the map’s coordinate
grid, not the geographic or magnetic north.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Designation of Bearing
• Whole Circle Bearing (WCB)
• Quadrantal Bearing (QB)
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Quadrantal (Reduced bearing)
• Either from north or south either clockwise or N NΦE B
anticlockwise as per convenience
• Value doesn’t exceed 900
Denoted as N ΦE or S Φ W W E
A
• The system of measuring this bearing is
known as Reduced Bearing System (RB N
S
System)
W E
A
SΦW S
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering Whole circle bearing (Azimuth)
• Always clockwise either from north N B
450
• Value varies from 00 – 3600
• The system of measuring this bearing is known W E
as A
• Whole Circle Bearing System (WCB System) S
N
B
3000
W E
A
S
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Conversion of WCB to R.B
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Fore bearing and Back bearing
• The bearing of a line in the direction of progress of survey is called F.B.
• The bearing of a line in the direction opposite to the direction of progress of survey is called B.B.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering FB and BB
Each survey line has F.B. & B.B.
In case of line AB,
◦ F.B. is the bearing from A to B
◦ B.B. is the bearing from B to A
Relationship between F.B. & B.B. in W.C.B.
B.B. = F.B. ± 1800
Use + sign if F.B. <1800
&
use – sign if F.B.>1800
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering FB and BB
Relationship between F.B. & B.B. in R.B. system
B.B.=F.B.
Magnitude is same just the sign changes in
Q.B. system i.e. cardinal points changes to
opposite.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Question
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering Calculation of bearing from included angles
• The included angle between two lines may either be an interior angle or exterior one.
• When traversing is done anticlockwise included angle are interior angle whereas in case of clockwise
traversing, these angles are exterior ones.
• These are always measured clockwise from preceding line to forward line.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering Calculation of Included Angle from Bearing
If the bearing of adjacent lines are known, then the included angles may be computed as
Given: WCB of lines
In a clockwise close traverse OABO, OA is the forward line and BO is the previous line at station O.
The included angle AOB = θ = FB of forward line – BB of previous line
= α – β ( negative value)
If the value is negative, add 360 to get the actual
included angle which will be the exterior included
angle.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering Calculation of Included Angle from Bearing
Department of Geomatics Engineering
• In case of the traversing is done in anticlockwise direction say OBAO, then OB is the forward line and
AO is the previous line.
• The included angle AOB = θ = FB of forward line – BB of previous line
= β - α (Positive value i.e. Interior included angle)
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering Calculation of bearing from included angle
• Knowing the bearing of a line and the various included angles of a traverse , the bearing of the other lines may
be calculated as :
• Let the observed fore bearing of a line AB be θ and the included angle with the next adjacent line be α.
• The fore bearing of the next line BC is equal to FB of the previous line plus included angle that is θ + α.
• Hence, for the bearing of the next line, the following statement may be made. Add the included angle
measured clockwise to the bearing of the previous line.
If the sum is:
More than 1800, deduct 1800
More than 5400, deduct 5400
Less than 1800, add 1800
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering Calculation of included angles from bearings
• In a closed traverse running in anticlockwise direction, the observed included angles are
interior angles.
• In a closed traverse running in clockwise direction, the observed included angles are
exterior angles.
• Included angles are measured clockwise from the preceding line to the forward line.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering Calculation of bearing from included angles
• The bearing of a side PQ of a pentagon PQRSTP is 120 degree. If the pentagon runs counter clockwise
and if the first three interior angles are 100 degree each and if the remaining angles are 120 each.
Calculate the bearing of remaining sides. Finally convert them to Reduced Bearing.
• The bearing of the side of AB of a regular pentagon ABCDE was found to be 54 degree. Compute the
bearings of the remaining sides if the pentagon is run counter clockwise.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering Calculation of Included angle from bearing
• The following were observed bearing for a closed traverse ABCDEA in clockwise
direction. Calculate the interior angles.
AB = 140°30΄
BC = 80°30΄
CD = 340°
DE = 290°30΄
EA = 230°30΄
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Magnetic Declination
• The true meridian is fixed and invariable, but its exact determination in the field requires
astronomical observations, which are tedious. On the other hand, measuring magnetic
bearings with a compass is simple and quick.
• However, the Earth’s magnetic poles are constantly changing their position with respect
to the geographical (true) poles.
• As a result, the magnetic meridian also changes with time, and so do magnetic bearings.
Therefore, magnetic bearings are not reliable over long periods.
• The horizontal angle between the true north and the magnetic north at a place, at the time
of observation, is called magnetic declination.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Magnetic Declination
• If the magnetic meridian lies to the east of the true meridian → Easterly (positive)
declination
• If the magnetic meridian lies to the west of the true meridian → Westerly (negative)
declination
• If both meridians coincide → Zero declination
Relation between bearings:
True Bearing = Magnetic Bearing ± Magnetic Declination
Add (+) if declination is east
Subtract (−) if declination is west
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
True bearing from Magnetic Bearing
• If magnetic bearing at the time of observation is known then
the true bearing of the line, say AB can be determined from its
magnetic bearing and vice versa.
• IF declination is east then,
True Bearing= Magnetic Bearing + declination
• IF declination is West, then,
True Bearing= Magnetic Bearing - declination
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Magnetic Declination
Important lines:
Isogonic lines – join places having equal magnetic declination
Agonic lines – join places having zero declination
(Along these lines, the magnetic needle indicates both true north and magnetic north.)
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Magnetic Declination
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Variation in Magnetic declination
Secular variation
Magnetic meridian swings like a pendulum.
It swings in one direction for 100-150 years and gradually comes to rest then swings in
another direction. This is secular variation.
Annual variation - Change in declination at a place over a period of one year. It is
about 1' to 2', varies from place to place and year to year due to the rotation of the earth
around the sun.
Diurnal variation-
Change in declination in a period of 24 hr.
Caused due to rotation of earth about its own axis.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Variation in Magnetic Declination
The geographical position of the place : (greatest for the places in higher latitudes and
lesser near the equator)
Season of the year : (It is comparatively more in summer than in winter at the same place)
The time of the day: It is more in day and less at night
The year of the cycle: It is different for different years in the complete cycle of secular
variation.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Variation in Magnetic declination
Irregular variation:
• Abrupt change of declinations at place due to magnetic disturbances, earthquake and other solar influences,
are called irregular variations.
• These disturbances may occur at any time at any place and cannot be predicted.
• The displacement of a needle, may vary in extent from 10 to 20.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering Questions
1. Magnetic bearing of line AB is 85° 45΄. Calculate the true bearing if:
• Magnetic declination is 5° 30΄East
• Magnetic declination is 4° 45΄West
2. A line is drawn to have magnetic bearing 25° 30΄in an old map when the
declination was 2° 30΄E. Determine the present magnetic bearing of line if the
present declination is 5° 30΄W°
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Local Attraction
• A magnetic needle normally aligns itself along the Earth’s magnetic field and points in the north–south
direction. However, when it is influenced by nearby magnetic materials, it gets deflected from its normal
position. This disturbance is called local attraction.
Common causes of local attraction:
• Iron pipes and steel structures
• Rails, electric cables, fences
• Chains and arrows used in surveying
• Underground mineral deposits
Effects:
• Causes wrong bearing observations.
• Produces inconsistent values of fore and back bearings.
• Local attraction is measured by the amount of deflection of the magnetic needle from its normal position.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering Detection of Local Attraction
• Local attraction at a station is detected by comparing the Fore Bearing (FB) and Back Bearing (BB) of
a line.
• If the difference between FB and BB is exactly 180°, then both stations are free from local attraction
(assuming the compass has no instrumental error).
• If the difference is not 180°, then the discrepancy may be due to:
• Error in observation of FB or BB
• Presence of local attraction at one or both stations.
Condition for no local attraction:
FB − BB = 180∘
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering Elimination of Local Attraction
A) By Calculating Local Attraction at Each Station
Steps:
• Identify a line whose FB and BB differ exactly by 180°.
• The end stations of that line are considered free from local attraction and the bearings observed at these stations are taken as
correct.
• The back bearing of preceding and fore bearing of next line will also be correct since these are observed at the stations free from
local attraction.
• The correct fore bearing of the preceding line or back bearing of next line is found by adding or subtracting 180°.
• The local attraction (error) at a station is:
• Local Attraction = Observed Bearing − Correct Bearing
• If observed bearing > correct bearing → Error is positive → Apply negative correction
• If observed bearing < correct bearing → Error is negative → Apply positive correction
• Apply corrections successively to all remaining bearings.
• Note:
This method may not work properly in a closed traverse if the sum of included angles does not match their theoretical value. So,
only suitable for open traverse.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering Elimination of Local Attraction
(B) By Included Angles Method
• Local attraction affects all bearings at a station by the same amount and in the same direction,
• Therefore, the included angles deduced even from the bearings affected by local attraction will be true included angles at
the affected stations.
• To correct the affected bearings, following process is carried out:
Steps:
• Calculate the interior angles of the traverse.
• Check the sum using:
• For a closed traverse:
• Theoretical sum = 𝟐𝒏 − 𝟒 right angles
• where n = number of sides
• If there is an error, distribute it equally among all angles.
• Find a line whose FB and BB differ by 180° (or nearest to 180°). Take its bearing as correct.
• Using the corrected included angles, calculate the correct bearings of all other lines.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering Field Procedure
• Reconnaissance
• Preparation of field sketch
• Marking the station on the ground
• Measurement of bearings
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Sources of error in compass traversing
1. Instrumental Errors
• Sluggish magnetic needle: The needle of the compass gets sluggish due to dullness of the pivot. The pivot
gets dull when the magnetic needle is un-necessarily allowed to swing even when not in use.
• The eccentricity of the pivot: If the pivot is not at the center of the graduated ring, reading will have error
• Non-verticality of the sight vanes: The sight vane, object vane and the pivot may not be in the same vertical
plane
• Non-horizontality of the graduated ring
• Un-equal division of the graduated ring
• The line of sight may not be passing through the center of the graduated circle
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Sources of error in compass traversing
2. Observational Errors:
• Incorrect bisection of the ranging rods
• Incorrect reading of compass
• Incorrect recording of readings
• Presence of magnetic substances in the vicinity of stations
• Magnetic changes in the area
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Sources of error in compass traversing
Precautions to be taken
• Set up and level the compass carefully
• Stop vibrations of the needle
• Always look along the needle and not across it to avoid parallax
• When instruments are not in use, its magnetic needle should be kept off the pivot to prevent unnecessary
wear.
• Before taking a reading, the compass box should be gently tapped to ensure that the magnetic needle is
freely swinging and has not come to rest due to friction.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Sources of error in Compass Traversing
• Stations should be selected in a way to prevent the compass from sources of local attraction
• Never carry iron items such as bunch of key while going for compass surveying
• Fore bearing and back bearing of each line should be taken
• Two set of reading should be taken for important details
• Do not wipe glass cove with handkerchief, the glass gets charged with electrostatic current
• Object vane and eye vane must be straightened before making observations.
Kathmandu University
School of Engineering
Department of Geomatics Engineering
Thank You