General Guidelines:

Question 1:

Whenever you have to calculate length/measurements in Q1 part a remember these

2 points:

1) Give Value to the nearest decimal place that the instrument offers.

2) Take Average of multiple values.

Meter Rule:

• No Decimal Place. ±1mm e.g. 78mm

• 1 Decimal Place. ± 0.1 cm e.g. 8.9cm
• 3 Decimal Place. ± 0.001m e.g. 0.254m

Stopwatch:

Human Reaction Time = ± 0.5s

Protractor:

Error = ± 1 °

Vernier Caliper:

• 2 Decimal Place e.g. 0.05 mm

• 3 Decimal Place e.g. 0.005 cm
Micrometer Screw Gauge:

• 2 Decimal Place e.g. 0.05 mm

Digital Multimeter (Voltmeter):

• Voltmeter set on 20 V. ± 0.01 V e.g. 30.11 V

• Voltmeter set on 2000 mV. ± 1 V e.g. 3032 V

Digital Multimeter (Ammeter):

• Ammeter set on 20 mA. ± 0.01 mA e.g. 20.56 mA

• Ammeter set on 200 mA. ± 0.1 mA e.g. 200.5 mA
• Ammeter set on 10 A. ± 0.01 A e.g. 15.05 A

Newton Meter (0-10N):

• ± 0.2 N

Thermometer:

• Least count ± 1 ℃

Key Points:
1. All measured Quantities should be averaged out and is controlled by decimal
places of the instrument.
2. All Calculated values are controlled by significant figures. If measured value
is to 2 significant figures, then calculated values should be to 2-3 significant
values.
3. Uncertainty in time is equal to human reaction time. It can vary from 0.2s to
0.5s.
Table Question:

Important Points:

6 readings collected with correct trend 5 marks

80% of the range of Independent variable should be 1 mark
covered
Heading in correct Format (Symbol/unit) 1 mark
Decimal points of measured values are same and 1 mark
consistent with the instrument used
Significant Figures of Calculated Values should be 1 mark
correct (same or +1 of the calculated values)
All Calculations Correct 1 mark

For the Above Question a Table Like This will Guarantee Highest Marks:

x/cm Q° cosQ
5.0 cm 75° 0.259
15.0 cm 62° 0.469
25.0 cm 55° 0.574
35.0 cm 42° 0.743
40.0 cm 35° 0.819
55.0 cm 30° 0.866

Remember:

• Measurements of “x” are taken from meter rule. Hence 1 decimal place after cm.
• Measurements of “Q” are taken from protractor. Hence no decimal places
• X can be varied from 0-55cm.
• The values of “CosQ” can be to 2-3 significant figures because “Q” is to 2 significant
figures.
• All Calculations should be correct
Graph Question:

Important Points:

1) Scale Chosen for the graph must be such that the plotted points cover
at least 75 percent of the graph.

Not Acceptable Acceptable

2) The axis should be linear i.e. the change in the magnitude of property
per unit change in axis should remain the same. However, both the
axis can have different distributions.

Non-Uniform plotting Uniform Plotting

3) An easy scale/readable scale should be used. Multiples of 2 and 5 are

preferred. Avoid multiples of 3.

Middle values are easily readable Middle values are not easily readable

4) Axis should be labelled in this format:

“Symbol/unit”
e.g
L/cm
 5) While plotting points either use a “x” or “.”

6) Start the graph from the values instructed by the examiner. It is not
necessary to always initiate the graph from the origin i.e. (0,0).
Generally, the examiner marks the initial points on the graph himself.

7) Examiner will always instruct you to either draw “line of best fit” or
“curve of best fit”

A best fit line is a balanced line that has equal number of points above
and below it.

Curve of Best fit

If there is an Anomalous point mark it with a circle and label it on the graph.
8) While plotting the points remember these three things:
• Make sure all observations are plotted
• Plotted points must be accurate to better than one half of a
small square of the graph grid.
• Draw the graph with a thin and light pencil. (But not too light)

9) While calculating gradient of a best fit line do remember these things:

• Select two points that lie on the line
• 2 points taken should be far away that is they must cover at
least half of the graph
• Draw a dotted triangle to show which point s you have taken.

Gradient Acceptable:

• Points marked
• Dotted triangle made
• Points cover 50% of graph
• It is preferred to label the points as (x1,y1) and (x2,y2)

Gradient not Acceptable:

• Points don’t cover half of the graph.

Apply Gradient’s formula:

10) To calculate the gradient of a curve:

• Draw a tangent at the specific point where you want the

gradient
• Take 2 points on the tangent that are far away
• Apply gradient formula.

11) Dependent variable comes on the y axis whereas independent variable

comes on the x-axis.

12) The Quality of data is also checked and it is confirmed by a consistent

trend.
13) Calculating Y -intercept

Method 1: If X-axis starts from zero

➔ Extend the line

➔ The point where the line cuts the y-axis that is x=o is your y-intercept.

Method 2: If X-axis starts from non-zero

➔ Use the equation y= mx +c

➔ Choose any point and gradient and plug in the values
➔ The only unknown variable will be the y-intercept.
“Comparing with Equation of Line” Question:

Important Points:

➔ Compare the Given Equation with the equation of the line (y=mx+c)
and give the answer of the constants.
➔ For this case after comparing:
a = gradient
b – y intercept
➔ Do remember to put in the units as well.
Question 2:
General Rules:

If you have to measure anything in Q2 remember the same 2 rules:

1) Give Value to the nearest decimal place that the instrument offers.

2) Take Average of multiple values.

To Calculate Absolute Uncertainty:

There are 3 ways to calculate Absolute Uncertainty:

1) For Analog Instruments:

➔ The absolute uncertainty is half the smallest division.

➔ Analog instruments include Rulers, Vernier Calipers, Micrometer Screw
Gauges, Thermometers etc.

In Exams we take a complete small division as the absolute uncertainty.

Why?

Because in exams we are usually taking 2 measurements for each reading.

This increases the uncertainty.

For this case its ± 0.2 cm

Actual Length = 3.1 cm

Final answer = 3.1 ± 0.2 cm

2) Stopwatches usually have an uncertainty of 0.2-0.5s due to
human Reaction time.

3) Digital Instruments:

➔ The absolute uncertainty is equal to the smallest division.

➔ Digital instruments include multimeter, top pan balance, CRO.

Smallest division = 0.1 mV

Hypothetical reading = 29.2 mV

Final Reading = 29.2 ± 0.1 mV

To Calculate Percentage Uncertainty:

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
𝑥 100
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Direct and Inverse Proportionality:
Direct Proportionality:

If “p” is directly proportional to “q”.

p∝q

You can remove the proportionality sign and form an equation like:

p = kq

where “k” is a constant.

Inverse Proportionality:

If “p” is inversely proportional to “q”.

1
p∝
𝑞
You can remove the proportionality sign and form an equation like:

𝒌
p=
𝒒
where “k” is a constant.
 1
However, if you plot a graph of p vs It will be a straight line.
𝑞
Justifying/Supporting the relationship Question:

Important Points:

• Calculate the two values of K

• We calculate the percentage difference using the formula:

𝑘1 − 𝑘2
𝑋 100
𝑘𝑎𝑣𝑔
• If percentage difference is greater then 15 reject the hypothesis and if it is less
than 15 accept it.
Error Sources & Improvements:

Here is a List of some General Sources of Error and their improvements.

1) Equipment:

Limitations and Sources of Error Improvements

Only 2-3 sets of data recorded – not Take more reading and plot a graph or
enough to draw a valid conclusion. calculate ratios of k.
Difficult to check whether a meter rule is Hold a set square on the bench against
vertical. the ruler.
Difficult to check whether a wooden Measure the height of the wooden strip
strip is horizontal. above the bench at both ends and
check they are same.
Difficult to hold a Ruler or protractor Clamp the ruler or protractor using a
steady when making a measurement. clamp and stand.
Friction at pulley not negligible. Apply oil to lubricate the pulley.
Resistance of Contacts (Electrical Clean the contacts to get rid of dust.
components)

2) Length

Limitations and Sources of Error Improvements

Large % uncertainty to measure small Use more precise instrument (e.g.
quantity (such as the diameter of a Vernier Calipers or a micrometer)
wire or coin thickness) instead of ruler.
Difficult to measure small change in Use a travelling microscope
length (e.g. when stretching a metal
wire)
Hard to see where moving object Use sensor to stop timer once marker is
passes a marker. passed. Or use an assistant.
Difficult to measure volume of liquid as Add Colored dye to the liquid.
liquid is clear/transparent

3) Time Related

Limitations and Sources of Error Improvements

Difficult to time an event because the Video the experiment, then play back
event is short or there is a large human frame-by-frame and see clock in the
error in timing. video/ use light gate.
Difficult to release an object without Hold the object against a stop (e.g.
exerting some external force. piece of card) and release.
Difficult to judge the start or end of an Place marker at end or center of
oscillation because it moves too fast. oscillation. Start/Stop stopwatch when
oscillator passes the marker.
Object movement affected by wind or Turn off fans/air conditioning or make a
draught. wind shield.

**You can also include other Errors and Improvements**