BASIC COMMANDS AUTO-CAD

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY ROURKELA
CAD GRAPHICS CE1010
SETTINGS/FORMAT :
DIMENSION STYLE : FORMAT-DIMENSION STYLE – MODIFY-
(LINE (COLOUR)/SYMBOL AND ARROW(ARROW SIZE /DESIGN)/TEXT (HEIGHT)

/PRIMARY UNIT (DECIMAL/PRECISION) SETCURRENT-CLOSE

DYNMODE (DYNAMIC INPUT) 0/3 (By default, the value of this system
variable is set to 0-3 which keeps it off you change this system variable to 3 to
make dynamic input active. Dynamic input allows you to add information
dynamically on the cursor tooltip.)command/mouse

OS/DS(OBJECT SNAP SETTING/ DRAFTING SETTING )

SETTINGS/FORMAT :
F3- OBJECT SNAP SETTING ON/OFF (should be on for dimension /
locate start end middle points)

F8- ORTHOMODE (ON/OFF) (Toggles Ortho mode on/off. When

ortho mode is on you can make lines either horizontally or vertically only.)

F7- GRID (ON/OFF) (This status bar tool will toggle the visibility
of the background grid which is often visible in your drawing area.)

F9- SNAP MODE (ON/OFF) (should be off- Toggle Snap mode,

when the snap mode is active AutoCAD cursor will jump to specific points in
the drawing area which is defined in snap mode.)
SETTINGS/FORMAT :

F10 - Toggles Polar tracking on/off. With polar tracking active

you can make lines inclined to any angle which is defined in the
polar tracking increment angle

F11- OBJECT SNAP TRACKING (should be on)

STYLE : TEXT STYLE CHANGE
TEXT (SINGLE LINE TEXT) – SELECT THE START POINT
TEXT HEIGHT (5-7mm)/ ANGLE OF ROTATION (0 for stratight line)-
START WRITING (click any other place press esc)
PR(select the single line text write pr in command line)- TO EDIT
TEXT (add colour change height etc)
SETTINGS/FORMAT :
MTEXT (PARAGRAPH WRITING) (select start point of rectangle area )-
EDIT TEXT HEIGHT/JUSTIFY/LINESPACING/ROTATION (select the
second point of rectangle) start writing-
MTEDIT/DOUBLE CLICK ON THE TEXT- (text editor ribbon ) (can
change text height /colour / justification text height etc)
FORMAT COLOUR – (select colour of the line / line thickness / add
line type ) HOME RIBBON- PROPERTIES-LINE COLOUR /LINE TYPE/
LINE WEIGHT/ MATCH PROPERTIES.
PAN- TO MOVE THE DRAWING
ZOOM (ALL/EXTENT) to bring all content of worksheetinto one
screen
DRAW COMMANDS
ABSOLUTE CO ORDINATES METHOD
POLAR CO ORDINATE METHOD
RELATIVE CO ORDINATE METHOD
LINE- to draw line and segments of line
XLINE- to draw reference line (horizontal/vertical/ angular)
MLINE- to draw two parallel lines
PLINE – to draw line and Arc combine
SPLINE- to draw curve lines
RAY- to draw angular reference line
ARC (11 methods)- to draw different type of arc
ELLIPSE- to draw ellipse (axis , end / centre)
CIRCLE(centre,radious/ centre dia/2point/3point/tan tan radious/ tan tan tan)
– to draw different circle
POLYGON- polygon (centre/ edge)
RECTANG- to draw rectangle
FILLET – to make the corner rounded
CHAMFER- to make the corner chamfered
HATCH- to fill drawing with pattern
LINE:
Method 1 using Absolute Coordinates
Line 1 connecting (100,0) and (300,0)
Step 1: In command line type: line
Step 2: Input: 100,0
Step 3: Input: 300,0
Step 4 : Esc (to exit the command)

Method 2 using relative Coordinates

Line 2 connecting (100,0) and (300,100)
Step 1: In command line type: line
Step 2: Input: 100,0
Step 3: Input: @200,100
Step 4: Esc (to exit the command)

Method 3 using polar Coordinates

Line 3 from (100,0) making 60 deg with horizontal and of length 400
Step 1: In command line type: line
Step 2: Input: 100,0
Step 4: Input: @400<60
Step 4: Esc (to exit the command)
PLINE:
DRAW A LINE & ARC (combine) USING POLYLINE
Step 1: PLINE
Step 2 :420,110
Step 3 :460,110
Step 4: Arc/A
Step 5: select 500,150
Step 6: Esc (to exit the command)
DRAW AN ARC USING POLYLINE
Step 1: PLINE
20,70
A/ARC
S/second point
50,60
70,80
130,90
Step 8 : Esc (to exit the command)
DRAW AN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE
Step 1 :PLINE
(500,0)
(800,0)
@300<120
(500,0)
Step 6 : Esc (to exit the command)
ARC:
Step 1: ARC
Step 2 : 3POINTS
Step 3 : 140,110
Step 4: 160,140
Step 5: 210,150
Step 6: Esc (to exit the command)

Step 1: ARC
centre start end
290,140
260,120
320,120
Step 6 : Esc (to exit the command)

Step 1: ARC
Centre Start Angle
380,140
350,110
120
Step 6 : Esc (to exit the command)
CIRCLE:
Step 1: CIRCLE
Step 2 : Centre Radius
Step 3 : 180,60
Step 4: 20
Step 6: Esc (to exit the command)

Step 1: CIRCLE
Centre
Diameter
280,60
40
Step 6 : Esc (to exit the command)

Step 1: CIRCLE
3POINT/3P
select three
points
Step 5 : Esc (to exit the command)
To draw the circumscribed circle, use circle passes through three points.
Select any three points of the polygon by clicking three points
POLYGON:
Step 1: POLYGON
Step 2 : sides-8
Step 3 : 380,100
Step 4: C/circumscribe
Step 5: 20 (RADIOUS)
Step 6: Esc (to exit the command)

Step 1: POLYGON
sides=5
Edge/E
150,90
175,80
Step 6 : Esc (to exit the command)

DRAW CIRCLE INSCRIBING A POLYGON

To draw the inscribed circle, use circle which is tangent to three sides.
Select any three sides of the polygon by clicking three edges.
ELLIPSE:
Step 1: ELLIPSE
Step 3 : AXIS, END
Step 3 : 200,180
Step 4: 290,180
Step 5: 20
Step 6: Esc (to exit the command)

Step 1 : Ellipse
Center
360,180
Endpoint: @30,0
Distance to other axis: 20
Step 6 : Esc (to exit the command)
RECTANG:
Step 1: RECTANG
Step 2 : Fillet/F
Step 3 : Radius=5
Step 4 : 30,120
Step 5 : 90,150
Step 6: Esc (to exit the command)

Step 1: RECTANG
Step 2 : 30,120
Step 3 : 90,150
Step 4 : Esc (to exit the command)

HATCH:
STEP-1: HATCH
STEP 2: SELECT / CLICK A CLOSE BOUNDARY DRAWING
SELECT PATTERN
CHANGE COLOUR
CHANGE SCALE OF THE PATTERN
Esc (to exit the command)
MODIFY COMMANDS (AFTER SELECTING THE OBJECT/DRAWING
PRESS ENTER BUTTON)

MOVE- To move a drawing inside the sheet

ROTATE- to rotate the drawing
COPY- to copy the drawing
TRIM – to trim/cut a part of the drawing
EXTEND- to extend lines
ERASE- to delete /erase the drawing
MIRROR – to create a mirror image (with/without) deleting the source object
ARRAY (rectangular/path/polar)- create number of set
OFFSET- to Draw parallel boundary/line around the drawing
SCALE- to increase or decrease the size of the drawing
DIVIDE (PTYPE)- to divide the drawing in segments (ptype to view the pointer)
FILLET – to make the corner rounded
CHAMFER- to make the corner chamfered
JOIN- to convert/ join segments of line
EXPLODE: to divide the segments to select part of the object like polyline,
rectangle, array, polygon etc
L: It can be used for making simple lines in the drawing.
C: It is the command used for making a circle in AutoCAD.
PL: This command can be used to make a Polyline in your drawing.
REC: This command will make a rectangle in AutoCAD.
POL: This command can be used to make a polygon with a minimum of 3 sides and a maximum of 1024 sides.
ARC: As the name suggests, this command can be used to make an arc in AutoCAD.
ELLIPSE: As the name suggests, this command can be used to make an ellipse with the major and minor axis.
REG: This command can be used to make a region geometry in AutoCAD.
CO: This command is used to copy the object(s) in AutoCAD.
ARRAY: Using this command you can make a Rectangular, polar, or Path array.
TR: This command is used for trimming geometry.
OP: Using this command you can open the options window which contains most of the settings of AutoCAD.
SC: This command is used to change the scale of an object.
B: This command is used for creating a block, the properties of the block can be defined using the block
definition window. I: This command can be used to insert an existing block or a drawing as a block in
AutoCAD.
ST: Using this command, you can open a text style window that controls properties of the default AutoCAD
text style.
X: This command can be used to explode objects like Polyline to simple lines, an array or a block to simple
geometry, etc.
F: This command can be used to add rounded corners to the sharp edges of the geometry, these round
corners are also called fillets.
CHA: This command can be used to add slant edges to the sharp corners, these slant edges are also called
chamfers.
LA: This command can be used to open layer properties manage palette which is a tool for creating and
managing layers in a drawing..
Ctrl + N: You can use this shortcut to open a new drawing tab in AutoCAD.
Ctrl + S: You can use this keyboard shortcut to save a drawing file.
Ctrl + Shift + S: You can use this keyboard shortcut to save the drawing as a new file, in short, this is the
hotkey for the “save as” command.
Ctrl + 0: Clears screen to show only the drawing area and hides palettes and tabs. Press it again to reset
the default AutoCAD interface.
Ctrl + 1: Select an object and press Ctrl + 1 to open the properties palette which lists the properties of the
object. You can use this palette to modify most of the properties of the object too. You can also use PR
command to open the property palette.
Ctrl + 2: You can use it to open the design center palette which contains many AutoCAD blocks that can be
used directly in your drawing.
Ctrl + 9: You can use this keyboard shortcut to toggle the visibility of the command line. If for some reason
your command line is hidden from the drawing area, then use this keyboard shortcut to bring it back.
Ctrl + C: Select objects from the drawing area and press Ctrl + C to copy to objects to the clipboard.
Ctrl + V: To paste the copied objects of the clipboard in the drawing keeping their original properties, you
can use this keyboard shortcut.
Ctrl + Shift + V: To paste the copied objects as a block you can use this keyboard shortcut, the block thus
created will have a random set of characters as names. You can use this keyboard shortcut to make blocks
quickly without going through the creative block window.
Ctrl + Z: This keyboard shortcut can be used to undo the last action in your drawing. You can press this
shortcut key multiple times to undo many actions.
Ctrl + Y: This keyboard shortcut can be used to redo the last undo action which you have performed.
Ctrl + Tab: You can use this keyboard shortcut to cycle through all open drawing tabs in AutoCAD..
 Lecture2

Lines, Arcs, Circles, Polygon

 Adjusting autocad settings
• Command line Type: os
• Object Snap: Endpoint, Midpoint, Center
• Polar Tracking: F10
 How to draw a line?

(60o) (300,100)

(100,0) (300,0)
 How to draw a line?
• Method 1 using Absolute Coordinates
• Line 1 connecting (100,0) and (300,0)
• Step 1: In command line type: line
• Step 2: Input: 100,0
• Step 3: Turn dynamic input off by clicking + symbol

• Step 4: Input: 300,0

 How to draw a line?
• Method 3 using polar Coordinates
• Line 3 from (100,0) making 60 deg with horizontal
and of length 400
• Step 1: In command line type: line
• Step 2: Input: 100,0
• Step 4: Input: @400<60
 How to draw a line?
• Method 2 using relative Coordinates
• Line 2 connecting (100,0) and (300,100)
• Step 1: In command line type: line
• Step 2: Input: 100,0
• Step 4: Input: @200,100
 Lets draw an equilateral triangle
• Method 1 using line commands
• Line
• (500,0)
• (800,0)
• @300<120
• (500,0)
 Lets draw an equilateral triangle
• Method 2 using polygon
• Type: Polygon
• No of sides: 3
• Specify Center/ Edge: Edge
• 900,0
• 1200,0
 Draw circle inscribing a polygon
• To draw the inscribed circle, use circle which is
tangent to three sides.
• Select any three sides of the polygon by clicking
three edges.
 Draw circle circumscribing a polygon
• To draw the circumscribed circle, use circle passes
through three points.
• Select any three points of the polygon by clicking
three points.
 Draw an ellipse
• Method 1
• Ellipse
• Center
• 900,500
• Endpoint: @300,0
• Distance to other axis: 200
 Lecture 3

Lettering, Dimension Lines

 Adjusting autocad settings
• Writing Text: TEXT, MTEXT
• Text Styles: STYLE, Annotative
• Dimensions: Dist, Dimlinear, Dimang, Matprop
 How to write single line text?
• Using Command Line
• Step 1: TEXT
• Step 2: Specify rotation angle: 0
• Step 3: Specify text height: 30
• Step 4: Start typing
 How to write single line text?
• Modifying the properties of the text
• Step 1:Select the text using mouse by specifying a
window TEXT
• Step 2: Command line: Properties
• Step 3: Specify text height: 300, Enter
• Step 4: Specify oblique: 30, Enter
• Step 5: Specify rotation: 30, Enter
• Step 6: Specify width: 2,Enter
 How to write multi line text?
• Using Command Line
• Step 1: MTEXT
• Step 2: Specify a corner by left clicking them mouse
• Step 3: Specify height: h
• Step 4: Specify height: 300
• Step 5: Start typing, Press enter to move to next
line
 How to write multi line text?
• Modifying the properties of the text
• Step 1:Select the text using mouse by specifying a
window
• Step 2: Command line: Properties or Pr
• Step 3: Specify text height: 300, Enter
• Step 4: Specify rotation: 30, Enter
• Step 5: No oblique available unlike single line
 How to write multi line text?
• Modifying the properties of the text
• Step 1: If you want to edit text, Command line: mtedit
• Step 2: Justification: TL, TR, TC, BL, BR, BC
• Step 3: Write symbols:
– Degree: %%d
– PlusMinus: %%p
– Diameter: %%c
– Almost Equal: \U+2248
• Step 4: Columns
 How to create text styles?
• Using Command Line
• Step 1: STYLE
• Step 2: Create new style: Font, FontStyle, Width
Factor, Oblique angle
• Step 3: Specify text height: Annotative, Non-
Annotative
• Step 4: Create two styles: <ANN_ROMAN>,
<NonAnn_ROMAN>
 Difference between Annotative and Non-
Annotative
• Step 1: Write two texts separately
• Step 2: Apply style <ANN_ROMAN> to one text and
<NonAnn_ROMAN> to another text
• Step 3: Annotative text height will be same
regardless of the paper space.
 How to find dimension?
• Using Command Line
• Step 1: DIST
• Step 2: Specify the first point
• Step 3: Specify the next point.
 How to write dimension?
• Using Command Line
• Step 1: DIMLINEAR
• Step 2: Specify the first point
• Step 3: Specify the next point.
• Step 4: Apply Text style
 How to write dimension?
• Using Command Line
• Step 1: DIMANG
• Step 2: Specify the first line
• Step 3: Specify the next line
• Step 4: Apply Text style
 Lecture 4

Scales

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 1 of 29

 Reducing and Enlarging Scales

Full scale
Reduced Scale
Enlarged Scale

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 2 of 29

 Full Scale

Drawing Size = Actual Size

RF = 1

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 3 of 29

 Reduced Scale

Drawing Size < Actual Size

R.F<1

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 4 of 29

 Enlarged Scale

Drawing Size > Actual Size

R.F > 1

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 5 of 29

 What is scale?

A scale is
constructed such
that the distance
measured on
drawing sheet
gives the actual
distance rather
than the paper
space distance.

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 6 of 29

 Types of Scales

Plain Scale
Diagonal Scale
Vernier Scale
Scale of Chords

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 7 of 29

 Plain Scale

A plain scale is simply a line which is

divided into a suitable number of equal
parts.
The first part is further sub-divided into
small parts.
1 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
0

It is used to represent either two units or a

unit and its fraction.
Example: km and hm, m and dm, cm and
mm etc.

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 8 of 29

 Example 1

Construct a plain scale to show meters

when 1cm represents 4m and long
enough to measure 50m.
Find the R.F.
Mark on your scale a distance of 36 m.

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 9 of 29

 Example 1: solution

Maximum distance to be measured =

50m
Length of the scale = R.F x Max. Distance
L= 12.5 cm

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 10 of 29

 Example 1: solution
Draw a horizontal line of length L = 12.5 cm.
Complete a rectangle of size 12.5 cm x 0.5 cm on the
horizontal line above.
Divide the length into 5 equal divisions, each division
representing 10m.
Mark 0 at the end of the first main division . From 0,
number 10,20,30, and 40.
Then subdivide the first main division into 10 sub-
divisions to represent 1 metre each.
Write the main units and subunits in capitals below the
scale.
Also indicate R.F value.
Indicate on the scale a distance of 36 m.

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 11 of 29

 Example 1: Solution

Draw a horizontal line of length L = 12.5

cm.
Complete a rectangle of size 12.5 cm x
0.5 cm on the horizontal line above.

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 12 of 29

 Example 1: Solution

Divide the length into 5 equal divisions,

each division representing 10m.
Mark 0 at the end of the first main division
. From 0, number 10,20,30, and 40.

0 10 20 30 40

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 13 of 29

 Example 1: Solution

Then subdivide the first main division into

10 sub-divisions to represent 1 metre
each.
Write the main units and subunits in
capitals below the scale.

10 5 0 10 20 30 40
METERS

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 14 of 29

 Example 1: Solution

Also indicate R.F value.

Indicate on the scale a distance of 36 m.

36 m

10 5 0 10 20 30 40
METERS R.F. = 1/400

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 15 of 29

 Diagonal Scale

Diagonal scales are used to represent

either three units of measurements.
or to read to the accuracy correct to two
decimals.
Example: metres, decimetres, centimetres

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 16 of 29

 Principle of Diagonal Scale
C D
Draw a horizontal
line AB
Draw CD at a
distance of 5 cm
from AB
Divide BC into 10
parts
Joint Diagonal AC B A

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 17 of 29

 Principle of Diagonal Scale
C D
Using Similar
Triangles

4’ 4

B A

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 18 of 29

 Principle of Diagonal Scale
R S
Actual Implementation

Q P

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 19 of 29

 Example:2

Construct a diagonal scale of R.F. =1:

32,00,000 to show kilometers and long
enough to measure upto 400 km.
Show distances of 257 km and 333 km on
your scale.

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 20 of 29

 Example 2: solution

Maximum distance to be measured = 400

km
Length of the scale = R.F x Max. Distance
L= 12.5 cm

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 21 of 29

 Example 2: Solution

Draw a horizontal line of length L = 12.5

cm.
Complete a rectangle of size 12.5 cm x
0.5 cm on the horizontal line above.

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 22 of 29

 Example 2: Solution

Divide the line into 4 main divisions

Mark 0 at the end of the first main division
. From 0, number 100,200, and 300.

0 10 20 300
0 0

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 23 of 29

 Example 2: Solution

Sub-Divide the main division into 10 sub-

divisions
Sub-Divide the vertical line to 10
horizontal sub-divisions

0 10 20 300
100 50
0 0

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 24 of 29

 Example 2: Solution

Draw a diagonal as shown

Draw parallel lines to these diagonal from
each division

0 10 20 300
100 50
0 0

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 25 of 29

 Example 2: Solution

Distance of XY= 257 kms

257 km

0 10 20 300
100 50
0 0

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 26 of 29

 Example 2: Solution

Distance of XY= 333 kms

333 km

0 10 20 300
100 50
0 0

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 27 of 29

 Scale of Chords
Draw a line AB C
At B draw a
perpendicular to A
With B as center and
AB as radius, draw an
arc to intersect the
perpendicular at C.
Divide the arc into 9 A B
equal units each
subtending 10deg angle
at the center C.
Complete the rectangle
below AB

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 28 of 29

 Example 2: Solution

Sub-Divide the main division into 10 sub-

divisions
Zooming in on the sub divisions

0 0 10 20 300
0 0

3. Scale Part [Link] Page 29 of 29

<number> @ McGraw-Hill Education

SCALE

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008

3. Scale part [Link] Page 1 of 25

<number> @ McGraw-Hill Education
ENGINEERING DRAWING
Introduction to AutoCAD basic commands, Code provision of IS-696 regarding Lines,
Lettering and Dimensioning. Drawing of Scales (Plane Scales, Diagonal Scales and Vernier
Scales), Construction of simple geometrical figures and Engineering curves; Orthographic
Projections: Projection of a point situated in various quadrants, projections of straight
lines, true length, true inclinations and traces of a straight lines, auxiliary projections,
auxiliary inclined and Auxiliary vertical planes, projection of plane figures. Projection of
simple solids, Auxiliary projection of solids, section of solids, true shape of section;
Development of surfaces: prisms, pyramids, cylinders, cones, spheres, pipe bends;
Isometric projection: Principles, Isometric scales, Isometric projection of plane figures and
simple solids.
Essential Reading:
K. Venugopal, Engineering Drawing and Graphics + AutoCAD, New Age
International (P) Limited. 4th Reprint: June, 2008.
N. D. Bhatt, Geometrical Drawing, Charotar Book Stall, 2002.
Supplementary Reading:
K. L. Narayana and P. Kannaiah, Engineering Graphics, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing
Co. Ltd.
J. D. Bethune, Engineering Graphics with AutoCAD, Pearson Education.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008

3. Scale part [Link] Page 2 of 25

<number> @ McGraw-Hill Education

SCALE

The proportion by which the drawing of a given object is enlarged or reduced

indicated by a ratio, called the Representative Fraction (RF) or Scale Factor.
RF is a ratio of the length of an object on a drawing to the actual length of the
object.
i.e., RF = (Length on drawing)/(Actual length)
The terms ‘scale’ and ‘RF’ are synonymous.
The scale is most commonly expressed in the format X :Y while RF is expressed in
the format X/Y.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008

3. Scale part [Link] Page 3 of 25

<number> @ McGraw-Hill Education

Enlarging or Enlargement Scales

For drawing smaller objects by enlarging them
Length of an object on the drawing is more than the corresponding actual length of
the object.
Enlarging scales are mentioned in the format X : 1, where X is greater than 1.
Clearly, RF > 1.
Used for objects like screws and gears used in small electronic gadgets, wrist watch
parts, resistors, transistors etc.

Reducing or Reduction Scales

For drawing huge objects by reducing them
Length of the object on the drawing is less than the actual length of the object.
Reducing scales are mentioned in the format 1 :Y, where Y is greater than 1. Hence,
RF < 1.
Used for objects like multistoried buildings, bridges, boilers, huge machinery, ships,
aeroplanes, etc., are drawn to reducing scales.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008

3. Scale part [Link] Page 4 of 25

<number> @ McGraw-Hill Education

Full Scale
For drawing objects in its actual size.
Length on the drawing is equal to the actual length of the object,
Full scale is expressed as 1:1. Obviously, for full scale, RF = 1.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008

3. Scale part [Link] Page 5 of 25

<number> @ McGraw-Hill Education

TYPES OF SCALES

The following scales are used by engineers:

1. Plain Scales
(When measurements are required up to first decimal, for example 2.3 m or 4.6 cm
etc.)

2. Diagonal Scales
(Used when very small distances such as 0.1 mm are to be accurately measured or
when measurements are required upto second decimal.
For example: 2.35dm or 4.68km etc.)

3. Vernier Scales
(e.g. Similar to Diagonal scale, Vernier scale is used for measuring up to second
decimal)

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008

3. Scale part [Link] Page 6 of 25

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CONSTRUCTION OF SCALES : GENERAL PROCEDURE

All the scales are constructed by drawing a line of length equivalent to the
actual distance to be represented. This length is called length of scale (LOS).
LOS is calculated by the formula
LOS = RF * Maximum distance to be represented
LOS is usually calculated in terms of centimetre or millimetre.
If the maximum distance to be represented is not known, it may be taken equal
to the maximum measurement.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008

3. Scale part [Link] Page 7 of 25

<number> @ McGraw-Hill Education

The general procedure to construct the scales is explained below.

1. Calculate RF, if not given.
2. Calculate LOS.
3. Draw a line = LOS. Divide this line into the required number of equal parts. The
divisions thus obtained are called main divisions. Each main division will indicate the
main unit of measurement, say metre.
4. Mark zero (0) at the end of the first main division. Number the main divisions
rightward from zero.
5. Divide the first main division into the required number of equal parts. The subdivisions
thus obtained will indicate subunits of the main unit, say decimetre. Number the
subdivisions leftward from zero.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008

3. Scale part [Link] Page 8 of 25

<number> @ McGraw-Hill Education

PLAIN SCALES
Used to indicate the distances in a unit and its immediate subdivision, e.g. m and
dm, or yards and feet.

Example: Construct a plain scale of RF = 1/100 to read metres and decimetres and
long enough to measure 10 metres. Show a distance of 7.6 metres on it.
Solution RF = 1 _
100
LOS = RF x maximum distance to be measured
= 1 x (10 x 100) cm = 10 cm
100

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008

3. Scale part [Link] Page 9 of 25

<number> @ McGraw-Hill Education

Draw a 10 cm long line and divide it into 10 equal parts.

Each main division will indicate 1 metre.
Mark zero (0) at the end of the first main division and number the main divisions on
the right of zero as 1, 2, 3, …, 9.
Divide the first main division into 10 equal parts. Each subdivision will represent 1
decimetre.
Number the subdivisions on the left of zero as 1, 2, 3 …, 10.
The distance of 7.6 metres can be shown in 5.7 two parts, i.e., 7 metre + 0.6 metre. 7
metre is shown on the main divisions and 0.6 metre (i.e., 6 decimetres) on the
subdivisions.

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VERNIER SCALES
Used to indicate the distances in a unit and its immediate two subdivisions, e.g., m,
dm and cm.
Consists of two parts—a main scale and a vernier. The main scale is similar to a
plain scale. It shows length in a unit and its immediate subunit.
Vernier is an auxiliary scale constructed above the first main division of the main
scale. Its length is either more or less by a fixed amount than that of a main
division.
Subdivision on the main scale- main scale division (MSD), and that on the vernier -
vernier scale division (VSD).
LC is the minimum length that can be measured precisely by a given vernier scale.
LC = MSD – VSD (if MSD > VSD)
= VSD – MSD (if VSD > MSD)
Two types of vernier scales:
(i) Forward vernier or Direct vernier
(ii) Backward vernier or Retrograde vernier

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Forward Vernier Scales

If MSD > VSD then forward vernier scale.
LC = MSD – VSD.

Backward Vernier Scales

If VSD > MSD then backward vernier scale.
LC = VSD – MSD.
Example: On a map, the distance of 11 kilometres is shown by a 22 cm long line.
Find the RF. Construct the forward vernier scale and backward vernier scale of this
RF to read decametres and measure up to 4 kilometres. On both the scales, show
the following distances: (i) 0.35 km (ii) 1.19 km (iii) 2.57 km.
Solution

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(a) Forward Vernier Scale

Refer Fig.
Sol. Construct the main scale as shown. Divide the LOS into 4 equal parts to show 1
kilometre by one division. Each main division is then divided into 10 equal parts to
represent 1 hectometre.
MSD = 1 hm
LC = 1 dam = 1/10 MSD
LC = MSD – VSD
1/10 MSD = MSD – VSD
i.e. 10 VSD = 9 MSD
 Length of vernier = 9 MSD
Construct a vernier of length = 9 MSD above the first main division of the main scale
as shown. Divide the vernier length into 10 equal parts so that each VSD will represent
0.9 hm = 9 dam. Number the VSDs as shown.

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To Show the Distances

Split up the given distances into two parts as shown below:
(i) 0.35 km = 0.45 km – 0.1 km
(ii) 1.19 km = 0.09 km + 1.1 km
(iii) 2.57 km = 0.27 km + 2.3 km
Note that the first part of each distance is in the multiple of 0.09 km, i.e., LC. On the
scale, mark each part, adjoining to other, between appropriate divisions/subdivisions
so that their addition or subtraction will give the required distance.

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(b) Backward Vernier Scale

Refer Fig.
The main scale is constructed in the same way as that in the forward vernier scale. The
numbering is done as explained in Example
LC = VSD – MSD
i.e,. 1/10 MSD = VSD – MSD
i.e., 10 VSD = 11 MSD
 Vernier length = 11 MSD
1. Draw a vernier of length = 11 MSD and divide it into 10 equal parts so that each
VSD = 1.1 hm = 11 dam. Number the VSDs as shown.
2. To Show the Distances Split up the given distances as shown below:
(i) 0.35 km = 0.55 km – 0.2 km
(ii) 1.19 km = 0.99 km + 0.2 km
(iii) 2.57 km = 0.77 km + 1.8 km
The first part of each distance is always the multiple of 0.11 km. Here also, the two
parts of eachdistance are shown adjoining to each other.

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DIAGONAL SCALES
Used to indicate the distances in a unit and its immediate two subdivisions.
Better than vernier scales—any distance can be measured easily on them.
Consists of a plain scale and a diagonal construction.
Principle of Diagonal Scale
1. Construction based on the principle of similarity of triangles.
2. Let line AB represent any length, say 1 cm, Fig. 5.8.
3. To divide line AB into 10 equal parts, draw a line BC, of any length, perpendicular
to AB and complete the rectangle ABCD. Draw diagonal BD.
4. Now divide BC into 10 equal parts. Through 1, 2, 3, …, 9, draw lines parallel to
AB intersecting BD at 1’, 2’, 3’, …, 9’ respectively. From the geometry of the
figure, it is clear that triangles B–1–1’, B–2–2’, B–3–3’, …, BCD are similar
triangles.
As B–5 = ½(BC ), 5–5’ = ½(AB )
Similarly 1–1’ = 0.1(AB ), 2–2’ = 0.2(AB), 3–3’ = 0.3(AB ), and so on.

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Example: Construct a diagonal scale of RF = 2/125 and LC of 1 centimeter. Show the

lengths of 5.99 metres, 3.31 metres and 2.7 decimetres on it.

Solution: In this example, the maximum distance to be measured is not given.

Therefore, we will round off the maximum distance to be shown on this scale to next
whole number, i.e., 6 metres.

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3. Scale part [Link] Page 19 of 25

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Procedure
1. Draw a line AB = 9.6 cm and divide it into 6 equal parts so that each division will represent 1
metre.
2. Mark zero at the end of the 1st division and number the remaining divisions as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.
3. Divide the first division into 10 equal parts so that each subdivision will show 1 decimetre.
4. Number the subdivisions leftward as 1, 2, 3, …, 10.
5. To obtain the LC of 1 cm, we need to divide each subdivision into 10 equal parts. This is achieved
by diagonal construction explained below.
Through A, erect a vertical line AD of any suitable length. Complete rectangle ABCD.
Draw vertical lines through each division. Divide AD into 10 equal vertical divisions and
number them as 1, 2, 3, …, 10, starting from A and ending at D.
Through all these divisions, draw horizontal lines ending on BC. Now join the 10th vertical division
(i.e., D) with the 9th horizontal subdivision.
Through all remaining horizontal subdivisions, draw lines parallel to diagonal D–9 as shown.

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Note that D0– EF can be compared to D BCD in Fig. 5.8. Obviously, each
horizontal line within D0– EF will be 0.1 dm (i.e., 1 cm) longer than the horizontal
line below it. For example, the lengths GH and IJ will be equal to 0.9 dm and 0.4
dm respectively.

To Show the Distances

i. 5.99 metres, i.e., 5 metres 9 decimetres and 9 centimetres
Look at the 5 m division (i.e., 5th main division), 9 dm division (i.e., 9th horizontal
division) and 9 cm division (i.e., 9th vertical division).
Locate point P where the vertical through the 5 m division meets the horizontal
through the 9 cm division and locate point Q where the diagonal through the 9 dm
division meets the same horizontal.
The length PQ represents 5.99 metres.

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ii. 3.31 metres, i.e., 3 metres, 3 decimetres and 1 centimetre

Look at the 3 m division, 3 dm division and 1 cm division.
Locate point R at the intersection of vertical through the 3 m division and
horizontal through the 1 cm division.
Locate point S at the intersection of the diagonal through the 3 dm division and the
horizontal through the 1 cm division. The length RS = 3.31 metres.

i. 2.7 decimetres, i.e., 0 metre, 2 decimetres and 7 centimetres

Look at the 0 m division, 2 dm division and 7 cm division.
Mark points T and U respectively where the vertical through 0 m division meets the
horizontal through 7 cm division and diagonal through the 2 dm division meets to
the same horizontal. TU = 2.7 decimetres.

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PROBLEMS
Q.1 Construct a plain scale of R. F. 1:50,000 to show
kilometers and hectometers and long enough to measure
upto 7 kilometers. Measure a distance of 54
hectometers, 32 hectometers and 11 hectometers on
your scale.

Q.2 A room of 1000 m³ volume is represented by a block

of 125 cm³ volume. Find R. F. and construct a plain scale
to measure upto 30m. Measure a distance of 18m on the
scale.

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PROBLEMS
Q.3 Construct a Vernier scale to read meters, decimeters
and centimeters and long enough to measure upto 4m.
R. F. of the scale is 1/[Link] on your scale a distance
of 2.28m.

Q.4 On a building plan a line 10cm long represents a

distance of 5m. Construct a diagonal scale for the plan to
read upto 6m, showing meters, decimeters and
centimeters. Indicate on your scale, the lengths 3.24m
and 5.57m.

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3. Scale part [Link] Page 25 of 25

 LINEAR SCALE
FULL SCALE
PLAIN SCALE
REDUCED SCALE
DIAGONAL SCALE
ENLARGED SCALE
VERNIER SCALE
ANGULAR SCALE
SCALE OF CHORD

DRAW THE SCALE OF CHORD OF 90° DRAW A PLAIN SCALE OF RF 1:200 AND
MAXIMUM LENGTH TO MEASURE IS 40MT
90° 80°70° SHOW 37MT AND 29MTR ON THE SCALE
60° LENGTH OF SCALE : RF x MAXIMUM LENGTH
50°
40° LOS: 1/200x40x1000=200mm
45°
30° 29.00
20° 37.00
0'0

10° 10mt 5 21 0mt 10mt 30mt

"

20mt
SCALE OF CHORD PLAIN SCALE

DRAW A DIAGONAL SCALE OF RF 1:50 DRAW A VERNIER SCALE OF RF 1:50

AND MAXIMUM LENGTH TO MEASURE IS 10MTR AND MAXIMUM LENGTH TO MEASURE IS 10MTR
SHOW 8.97MT AND 3.54 MTR ON THE SCALE SHOW 8.97MT AND 3.54 MTR ON THE SCALE
LENGTH OF SCALE = RFXMAXIMUM LENGTH LENGTH OF SCALE = RFXMAXIMUM LENGTH
LOS= 1/50x10x1000MM= 200MM LOS= 1/50x10x1000MM= 200MM
DIRECT/FORWARD VERNIER
0.1M 2.1M 3.1M 4.1M 5.1M 6.1M 7.1M 8.1M 9.1M
1.1M

3.54 8.97
3.54
2M 6M 6M
0M 1M 3M 4M 5M 7M 8M 9M 0M
3.54
1M 3M 4M 5M 7M 8M 9M
RETROGRADE/BACK WARD VERNIER
DIAGONAL SCALE
VERNIER SCALE
8.97 8.97
Conic Sections

Engineering Drawing
Fig. Development of conic sections
Fig. Development of conic sections
 The Ellipse

The plane that intersects the cone is neither parallel nor

perpendicular to the axis of symmetry of the cone and cuts
through 2 “sides”.
 An ellipse is the set of all points in the plane for which the sum
of the distances to two fixed points (called foci) is a positive
constant

The major axis is the line segment passing

through the foci with endpoints (called vertices)
on the ellipse. Ellipse
d1 + d2 = constant
d1
The midpoint of the major focus d2 focus major axis
axis is the center of the ellipse. vertex
vertex center
The minor axis is the line segment
perpendicular to the major axis minor axis
passing through the center of the
ellipse with endpoints on the
ellipse.
Ellipse
Major axis - longer axis contains foci
Minor axis - shorter axis
Semi-axis - ½ the length of axis
Center - midpoint of major axis
Vertices - endpoints of the major axis
Foci - two given points on the major axis

Focus Center Focus

 The standard form for the equation of an ellipse with center
at the origin and a major axis that is horizontal is:
x2 y 2
2
 2 1
a b

vertices: (–a, 0), (a, 0) and

foci: (–c, 0), (c, 0)
y
(0, b) x2 y 2
where c2 = a2 – b2 2
 2 1
a a b
b
c a x
(– a, 0) (–c, 0) (0, 0) (c, 0) (a, 0)

(0, – b)

Ellipse with Major Axis Horizontal.

 The standard form for the equation of an ellipse with center at
the origin and a major axis that is vertical is:

x2 y 2 with, vertices: (0, –a), (0, a) and foci: (0, –c), (0, c)
  1
b2 a 2
y (0, a)
Where , c2 = a2 – b2
x2 y 2
(0, c) b 2  a 2  1
a
c
(0, 0) x
(– b, 0) b b (b, 0)
a
(0, -c)

(0, – a)
Ellipse with Major Axis Vertical.
Parabola

A parabola is the set of all points in the plane that

are equidistant from a fixed line (directrix) and a
fixed point (focus) not on the line.
The plane that intersects the cone is parallel to
an element of the cone.
The fixed line is the directrix. axis
The fixed point is the focus.
parabola
The axis is the line passing
through the focus and focus
perpendicular to the directrix.

The vertex is the midpoint directrix

of the line segment along
the axis joining the directrix
to the focus. vertex
The standard form for the equation of a parabola with
vertex at the origin and a vertical axis is:
x2 = 4py where p  0

vertical axis: x = 0 directrix: y = –p, focus: (0, p)

(0, p) x2 = 4py
p
x
(0, 0)
y = –p

Parabola With Vertical axis

 The standard form for the equation of a parabola with
vertex at the origin and a horizontal axis is:
y2 = 4px where p  0

y
horizontal axis: y = 0, directrix: x = –p
y2 = 4px
focus: ( p, 0)
(0, 0) x
p (p, 0)
x = –p

Parabola With Horizontal axis

.
Hyperbola
Definition: set of all points in a plane, the difference
between whose distances from two fixed points (foci) is a
positive constant.
The plane that intersects the cone is parallel to the axis
of symmetry of the cone.
Parts of hyperbola
Transverse axis (look for the positive sign)
Conjugate axis
Vertices
Foci (will be on the transverse axis)
Center
Asymptotes
 A hyperbola is the set of all points in the plane for which the
difference from two fixed points (the foci) is a positive
constant.
.

hyperbola
The line through the foci transverse axis
intersects the hyperbola at
two points called vertices.
vertex vertex focus
focus
d1
The line segment joining d2
the vertices is the transverse axis.
Its midpoint is the center of the
center
hyperbola.
d1 – d2 = constant
Hyperbola with horizontal transverse axis
 The standard form for the equation of a hyperbola with a
horizontal transverse axis is: x 2 y 2 with: vertices: (– a, 0),
 2 1
a 2
b (a, 0)

foci: (– c, vertex y asymptote

b
0), (c, 0) (– a, 0) (0, b) y x
a
vertex (a, 0)
where b2 = c2 – a2 focus focus x
(–c, 0) (c, 0)
asymptote
b
(0, –b) y x
a
A hyperbola with a horizontal transverse axis has asymptotes
with equations y  b x and y   b x.
a a
Hyperbola with Vertical Transverse Axis
 The standard form for the equation of a hyperbola with a
vertical transverse axis is: y 2 x 2 with: vertices: (0, – a),
  1
a 2 b2 (0, a) and

foci: (0, – c), (0, c) y asymptote

focus a
where b2 = c2 – a2 vertex
(0, c) y x
b
(0, a)
x
(–b, 0) (b, 0)
vertex asymptote
a
(0, – a) (0, -c) y x
focus b
A hyperbola with a vertical transverse axis has asymptotes
with equations y  a x and y   a x.
b b
PROBLEMS
 Ellipse
Construct an ellipse when the distance between focus and
directrix is 30 mm and e is ¾.
Sol:-
• Draw a vertical line DD to represent the directrix . At point
C , draw a line perpendicular to directrix to represent axis .
• Distance between F and directrix is 30 mm. so, mark CF1
as 30 mm.
• For ellipse, e = 3/4 , so construct right angled triangle
CXY such that XY / CX = ¾ .
0
• From F1 draw a 45 line to intersect CY at S . From S
erect vertical to intersect CF1 at V1 , the vertex. SV1 =F1V1
Triangle CXY is similar to triangle CV1S .
From F1 draw another 450 line to intersect extension of
CY at T. From T erect vertical to intersect axis at V2.
V1V2 = MAJOR AXIS
Along major axis mark points 1,2, ……10 etc. at equal
intervals. Through these points erect verticals to intersect
CY at 11, 21,31,…101 etc. respectively.
With 111 as radius and F1 as centre draw two arcs on either
side of the axis to intersect the vertical line through1 at P1
and P11
With 221 as radius and F1 as centre draw two arcs on either
side of the axis to intersect the vertical line through2 at P2
and P21
Similarly get other points corresponding to points 2 , 3,
4,…..10. Draw a smooth ellipse through
1
V1,P1…..…P10,V2,P101….P1 ,V1 .
 Parabola
Construct a parabola when the distance between focus and
directrix is 40 mm.
Sol :-
• Draw the directrix DD. At any point C on it draw a line
CA perpendicular to DD to represent the axis.
• Distance between focus and directrix is 40 mm . Mark F as
focus and CF as 40 mm .
• For parabola, e =1 , so construct right angled triangle CXY
such that XY / CX =1.
0
• From F draw a 45 line to intersect CY at S . From S erect
vertical to intersect CF at V , the vertex. SV =FV
Triangle CXY is similar to triangle CVS .
Along axis CA mark points 1,2, ……5 etc. at equal
intervals. Through these points erect verticals to intersect
CY at 11, 21,31,…51 etc. respectively.
With 111 as radius and F as centre draw two arcs on either
side of the axis to intersect the vertical line through1 at P1
and P11
Similarly get other points corresponding to points 2 , 3,
4,….. Draw a smooth parabola through P5,….P1,V,P11 etc.
 Hyperbola
Construct a hyperbola when the distance between focus
and directrix is 40 mm and e is 4/3 .
Sol:-
• Draw the directrix DD. At any point C on it draw a line
CA perpendicular to DD to represent the axis.
• Distance between focu and directrix is 40 mm . Mark F as
focus and CF as 40 mm .
• For hyperbola, e = 4/3 , so construct right angled triangle
CXY such that XY / CX = 4/3 .
• From F draw a 450 line to intersect CY at S . From S erect
vertical to intersect CF at V , the vertex. SV =FV
•
Triangle CXY is similar to triangle CVS .
Along axis CA mark points 1,2, ……5 etc. at equal
intervals. Through these points erect verticals to intersect
CY at 11, 21,31,…51 etc. respectively.
With 111 as radius and F as centre draw two arcs on either
side of the axis to intersect the vertical line through1 at P1
and P11
Repeat the above and obtain points P2 and P21 , …P5 and
P51 corresponding to 2,3,4 and 5 . Draw a smooth
hyperbola through P5 ,P4 ,…P1 , V ,P11,…P51.
SPECIAL CURVES
Types Of Special Curves:

1. Cycloidal

2. Involutes

3. Spirals

4. Helices
 Special curves

Cycloidal Spirals Helices

Involutes
curves

Archimedian Logarithmic

Cycloid Trochoids(Superior & Inferior)

Cylindrical
Epicycloid Epitrochoids (Superior & Inferior)
Conical
Hypocycloid Hypotrochoids(Superior & Inferior)
Cycloid :
 A cycloid is a curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle as the
circle roles along a straight line without slipping
 The moving circle is called a generating circle and the straight line is called a
directing line or base line
 The point on the generating circle which traces the curve is called the generating
point.

 Used for design of gear tooth profile

Epicycloid :
 Epicycloid is a curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls
without slipping on the outside of another circle
Hypocycloid:
 The curve traced by a point on a circle which rolls on the inside of a circle or base
surface.
Trochoids(Superior & Inferior):
 A trochoid is a curve generated by a point either inside or outside the circumference
of a circle that rolls along a straight line without slipping

 When the point is inside the circumference of the circle ,it is called inferior trochoid. If it
is outside the circumference of the circle, it is called superior trochoid

 A epitrochoid is a curve generated by a point either inside or outside the

circumference of a circle that rolls along the outside of an circle without slipping

 When the point is inside the circumference of the circle ,it is called inferior epitrochoid.
If it is outside the circumference of the circle, it is called superior epitrochoid
Hypotrochoids(Superior & Inferior):

 A hypotrochoid is a curve generated by a point either inside or outside the

circumference of a circle that rolls along the inside of an circle without slipping

 When the point is inside the circumference of the circle ,it is called inferior
hypotrochoid. If it is outside the circumference of the circle, it is called superior
hypotrochoid.
Involute:
 It is a locus of a free end of a string when it is wound round a circle or polygon
 The concerned circle or polygon is called as evolute.

Involute of a Triangle Involute of a circle

 Used as profile of gear teeth and CAM [Computer-aided manufacturing: is the use of
computer software to control machine tools and related machinery in the
manufacturing of workpieces].
Spiral:
 defined as the locus of a point which revolves around a centre, called pole, while
moving towards or away from the centre
 Spirals are classified into two types –
1. Archimedian spiral
The locus of a point, which moves with uniform linear velocity along the
radius vector while the radius vector itself rotates with uniform angular velocity is called
the Archimedian spiral.
2. Logarithmic spiral
In a logarithmic spiral , the ratio of the lengths of consecutive radius
vectors enclosing equal angles is always constant. The logarithmic spiral is also known
as equi-angular spiral because of its property that the angle which the tangent at any
point on the curve makes with the radius vector at that point is constant
Fig. Archimedian spiral Fig. Logarithmic spiral
Helix:
 defined as a curve generated by a point moving around the surface of a right
circular cylinder or cone with a uniform angular velocity about the axis and with a
uniform linear velocity in the direction of axis
 Used in screw threads, springs, spiral stairways etc.

CYLINDRICAL HELIX CONICAL HELIX

 K. Venugopal, Engineering Drawing and Graphics + AutoCAD,
New Age International (P) Limited. 4th Reprint: June, 2008.

 N. D. Bhatt, Geometrical Drawing, Charotar Book Stall, 2002.

 R7

R6 DRAW A HYPERABOLA OF ECCENTRICITY 1.5

WITH FOCUS DISTANCE 70MM
R5

192.00
DRAW A PARABOLA OF ECCENTRICITY 1 R4

162.00
WITH FOCUS DISTANCE 70MM

132.00
R3

175.00

102.00
155.00
R2 135.00

72.00
115.00

R1
95.00
75.00

PARABOLA F
V
55.00
35.00

DIRECTIX 42.00
70.00 200.00
V F
35.00

DRAW A CYCLOID CURVE OF ROLLING CIRCLE DIA 60MM

R3 4
0.0 4
0 5 3 5
3
R3
0

6 2
.00

2 6

7 1 7 1

P 4 5 P
1 2 3 188.46 6 7
CYCLOID
THE END OF A STRING OF COIR UNWOUND FROM A DRUM OF DIA 60MM
DRAW THE PATH TRACED OUT BY THE END POINT OF COIR
A POINT TRAVEL A DISTANCE OF 60MM
TO REACHES TO POINT O, DURING THE SAME
TIME P TRAVEL AROUND ITS AXIS TO REACHES P
INVOLUTE THE LINEAR VELOCITY AND ANGULAR VELOCITY
CONSTANT . DRAW THE PATH TRACED OUT BY POINT O
141.35

94.23 3
1
0

60.00
.0
60

4
Ø

EVOLUTE
47.12 O 12 7 P
47.12

P P
1 2 3
188.46
5
141.35 7
94.23
6
ARCHMEDIAN SPIRAL
 Lecture 5

Orthographic Projections
 Perspective view of the object
• Object between observer and the plane of
projection Convergent
Projection of
object projection

converging rays

object
observer
Plane of
Projection
 Orthographic Projection
• The observer is located at infinity.
• The rays are parallel to each other
• The rays are perpendicular to the front surface of
the object and the plane.
 PRINCIPAL PLANES
• A Plane of Projection (POP) is a plane on which a particular view is
projected. In multiview orthographic projections, we need different
POPs to draw different views of an object. Three such planes,
perpendicular to each other, are called principal planes or reference
planes (RP). These are as follows:
• Horizontal Plane: A plane parallel to the ground (or horizon) is called
horizontal plane (HP) or horizontal reference plane (HRP).
• Vertical Plane: A plane perpendicular to the ground and intersecting
the HP is called vertical plane (VP) or frontal reference plane (FRP).
• Profile Plane: A plane perpendicular to the HP and the VP and
intersecting both of them is called profile plane (PP) or profile
reference plane (PRP).
 Four Quadrants
• 1st Angle Projection
• Object lies between
observer and plane of
projection
• BIS Specification
Orthographic Projection
Orthographic Projection
 Projected Planes in 2-D
Vertical Profile
Front View Left Side View
Plane Plane

Horizontal
Plane Top View
 3rd Angle Projection
• In third-angle projection, an object is placed in the
third quadrant, i.e., below the HP and behind the
VP.
 Projected Planes in 2-D

Top View
Horizontal
Plane

Left Side View Vertical

Front View
Plane

Side H
Plane
L
 Projected Planes in 2-D

Top View
Horizontal
Plane

Vertical
Front View Right Side View
Plane
Profile
H
Plane
L
 3rd Angle Projection
• The RPs are rotated as in first-angle method, i.e.,
the HP in clockwise direction and the PP away from
the object. Obviously, TV is placed above FV, LHSV
on the left side of FV and RHSV on the right side of
FV.
 Projection of a point

• A solid is made of three dimensions.

• Make one dimension to zero, the solid becomes plane
surface.
• If one more dimension is made again to zero, the
surface becomes a line.
• If the length of the line goes to zero, the line becomes
a point.
Projection of a point: BIS convention

• The actual points are denoted by A, B, C etc in pictorial

view.
• In the front view, the points are denoted by
corresponding case letter with dash as a’, b’ , c’.
• In top view, the points are denoted by lower case letters
a, b, c.
• In side view, the points are denoted by a”, b”, c”
• The intersection line of HP and VP is shown by reference
line XY.
• Projectors are necessarily shown in the orthographic
view with thin lines.
Projection of point

A
 Example 1

• Point A is 50 mm above
HP and 30 mm in front of
VP. Draw its Front View
and Top View
• Solution: Which quadrant
the point lies?
• Quadrant 1
Projection of point

A
 Example 1

• Point A is 50 mm above HP
and 30 mm in front of VP.
Draw its Front View and Top
View
• Solution: Which quadrant
the point lies?
• Quadrant 1
• Front view of point above
XY at a distance of 50 mm
• Top view below XY at a
distance of 30mm.
 Example 2

• Point B is 50 mm above
HP and 30 mm behind VP.
Draw its Front View and
Top View
• Solution: Which quadrant
the point lies?
• Quadrant 2
 Projection of point

B
 Example 2

• Point B is 50 mm above HP
and 30 mm behind VP.
Draw its Front View and Top
View
• Solution: Which quadrant
the point lies?
• Quadrant 2
• Front view of point above
XY at a distance of 50 mm
• Top view above XY at a
distance of 30mm.
 Example 3

• Point C is 50 mm below
HP and 30 mm behind VP.
Draw its Front View and
Top View
• Solution: Which quadrant
the point lies?
• Quadrant 3.
Projection of point

C
 Example 3

• Point C is 50 mm below HP
and 30 mm behind VP.
Draw its Front View and Top
View
• Solution: Which quadrant
the point lies?
• Quadrant 3
• Front view of point below
XY at a distance of 50 mm
• Top view above XY at a
distance of 30mm.
 Example 4
• Point D is 50 mm below HP
and 30 mm in front VP.
Draw its Front View and Top
View
• Solution: Which quadrant
the point lies?
• Quadrant 4
• Front view of point below
XY at a distance of 50 mm
• Top view below XY at a
distance of 30mm.
 Quiz
• Mention the position of the following points shown in
figure

P: Quadrant 1
X Y
 Quiz
• Mention the position of the following points shown in
figure

Q: Quadrant 2

X Y
 Quiz
• Mention the position of the following points shown in
figure

X Y

R:
Quadrant 3
 Quiz
• Mention the position of the following points shown in
figure

X Y

S:
Quadrant 4
 Quiz
• Mention the position of the following points shown in
figure

X Y

T: Horizontal Plane
behind VP
 Quiz
• Mention the position of the following points shown in
figure

X Y

U: Vertical Plane
below HP
 Quiz
• Mention the position of the following points shown in
figure

X Y

V: Vertical Plane
above HP
Quiz
Projection of Straight Lines

1
 PROJECTIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES.
Information regarding a line means
It’s length,
Position of it’s ends with hp & vp
It’s inclinations with hp & vp will be given.
Aim:- to draw it’s projections - means fv & tv.

SIMPLE CASES OF THE LINE

1. A VERTICAL LINE ( LINE PERPENDICULAR TO HP & // TO VP)

2. LINE PARALLEL TO BOTH HP & VP.

3. LINE INCLINED TO HP & PARALLEL TO VP.

4. LINE INCLINED TO VP & PARALLEL TO HP.

5. LINE INCLINED TO BOTH HP & VP.

2
 For Tv Orthographic Pattern
(Pictorial Presentation) V.P.
a’
Note: a’
Fv is a vertical line
A Showing True Length Fv
1.
FV &
Tv is a point. b’
A Line b’
perpendicular Y
X Y
to Hp B

& TV a b
Tv a b
// to Vp X

H.P.
Orthographic Pattern
(Pictorial Presentation) For Tv Note: V.P.
Fv & Tv both are
2. // to xy a’ Fv b’
b’ &
A Line B both show T. L.
// to Hp a’
& A Y X Y
// to Vp
b a b
Tv
X
a
H.P.
3
 Fv inclined to xy V.P.
3. b’
Tv parallel to xy. b’

A Line inclined to Hp B
a’ 
and  Y
parallel to Vp a’ X Y

(Pictorial presentation) A b
a
T.V. b
X
a

H.P.
Orthographic Projections

Tv inclined to xy V.P.
4. Fv parallel to xy.
a’ Fv b’
A Line inclined to Vp b’
and a’
parallel to Hp Ø
A B X Y
(Pictorial presentation) a Ø

Ø Tv
a b
b
H.P. 4
 For Tv For Tv
5. A Line inclined to both
b’ Hp and Vp b’
(Pictorial presentation)
B
B

 Y
Y
On removal of object a’
a’ i.e. Line AB
Fv as a image on Vp.
Tv as a image on Hp, A
A 
 X
X a T.V. b
a T.V. b
V.P.
b’
FV
a’ 

X Y
Orthographic Projections Note These Facts:-
Fv is seen on Vp clearly. Both Fv & Tv are inclined to xy.
To see Tv clearly, HP is a  (No view is parallel to xy)
rotated 900 downwards, Both Fv & Tv are reduced lengths.
Hence it comes below xy. TV (No view shows True Length)

H.P. b 5
 Orthographic Projections Note the procedure Note the procedure
Means Fv & Tv of Line AB When Fv & Tv known, When True Length is known,
are shown below, How to find True Length. How to locate Fv & Tv.
(Views are rotated to determine (Component a-1 of TL is drawn
with their apparent Inclinations
True Length & it’s inclinations which is further rotated
& to determine Fv)
with Hp & Vp).
V.P. V.P. V.P.
b’ b’ b1 ’ b’ b1’

FV FV
TL 
a’  a’  a’  1’

X Y X Y X Y

1
a  b2 a
a  TV
Ø


TV TV

H.P. b H.P. b H.P. b b1

Here TV (ab) is not // to XY line In this sketch, TV is rotated Here a -1 is component

Hence it’s corresponding FV and made // to XY line. of TL ab1 gives length of Fv.
a’ b’ is not showing Hence it’s corresponding Hence it is brought Up to
True Length & FV a’ b1’ Is showing Locus of a’ and further rotated
True Length to get point b’. a’ b’ will be Fv.
True Inclination with Hp. Similarly drawing component
&
True Inclination with Hp. of other TL(a’ b1‘) Tv can be drawn.
6
The most important diagram showing graphical relations 1) True Length ( TL) – a’ b1’ & a b
among all important parameters of this topic. 2) Angle of TL with Hp -  Important
TEN parameters
Study and memorize it as a CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 3) Angle of TL with Vp – Ø to be remembered
And use in solving various problems.
4) Angle of FV with xy –  with Notations

used here onward
V.P. 5) Angle of TV with xy –
Distance between
End Projectors. 6) LTV (length of FV) – Component (a-1)
’
b’ b1
7) LFV (length of TV) – Component (a’-1’)
8) Position of A- Distances of a & a’ from xy
9) Position of B- Distances of b & b’ from xy
 10) Distance between End Projectors
 1’
a’
LTV
NOTE this
X Y &  Construct with a’
LFV
a 1 Ø& Construct with a
Ø
b’ & b1’ on same locus.

b & b1 on same locus.

Also Remember
b b1
H.P. True Length is never rotated. It’s horizontal component is drawn
& it is further rotated to locate view.

Views are always rotated, made horizontal & further extended to

locate TL,  & Ø
7
 GROUP (A)
GENERAL CASES OF THE LINE INCLINED TO BOTH HP & VP
( based on 10 parameters).
PROBLEM 1)
Line AB is 75 mm long and it is 300 &
400 Inclined to Hp & Vp respectively.
End A is 12mm above Hp and 10 mm b’ b’1
in front of Vp.
Draw projections. Line is in 1st quadrant.
FV
SOLUTION STEPS: TL
1) Draw xy line and one projector.
2) Locate a’ 12mm above xy line
& a 10mm below xy line. 
3) Take 300 angle from a’ & 400 from
a and mark TL I.e. 75mm on both
a’
lines. Name those points b1’ and b1
respectively.
X Y
4) Join both points with a’ and a resp. a LFV
5) Draw horizontal lines (Locus) from Ø 1
both points.
6) Draw horizontal component of TL
a b1 from point b1 and name it 1.
( the length a-1 gives length of Fv as we
have seen already.) TV TL
7) Extend it up to locus of a’ and rotating a’
as center locate b’ as shown. Join a’
b’ as Fv.
8) From b’ drop a projector down ward &
get point b. Join a & b I.e. Tv.
b b1
8
 PROBLEM 3: Fv of
line AB is 500 inclined to xy and measures 55 mm
long while it’s Tv is 600 inclined to xy line. If
end A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of
Vp, draw it’s projections,find TL, inclinations of b’ b’1
line with Hp & Vp.
SOLUTION STEPS:
[Link] xy line and one projector.
[Link] a’ 10 mm above xy and
a 15 mm below xy line.
[Link] locus from these points. 500
[Link] Fv 500 to xy from a’ and 
mark b’ Cutting 55mm on it. a’
[Link] draw Tv 600 to xy
X
from a & drawing projector from b’
y
Locate point b and join a b.
[Link] rotating views as shown, a
locate True Lengths ab1 & a’b1’

600
and their angles with Hp and Vp.

b1
b 9
PROBLEM 2:
Line AB 75mm long makes 450 inclination with Vp while it’s Fv makes 550.
End A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of [Link] line is in 1st quadrant
draw it’s projections and find it’s inclination with Hp. b’ b’1 LOCUS OF
Solution Steps:-
[Link] x-y line.
[Link] one projector for a’ & a
[Link] a’ 10mm above x-y &
Tv a 15 mm below xy.
[Link] a line 450 inclined to xy 550
from point a and cut TL 75 mm
on it and name that point b1
Draw locus from point b1
a’
[Link] 550 angle from a’ for Fv
above xy line. X y
[Link] a vertical line from b1
up to locus of a and name it 1.
It is horizontal component of a LFV
TL & is LFV.
1
[Link] it to locus of a’ and
rotate upward up to the line
of Fv and name it b’.This a’ b’
line is Fv.
8. Drop a projector from b’ on
locus from point b1 and
name intersecting point b.
Line a b is Tv of line AB.
[Link] locus from b’ and from
a’ with TL distance cut point b1‘
[Link] a’ b1’ as TL and measure
it’s angle at a’. LOCUS OF b
It will be true angle of line with HP. b b1 10
 PROBLEM 4 :-
Line AB is 75 mm long .It’s Fv and Tv measure 50 mm & 60 mm long respectively.
End A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of Vp. Draw projections of line AB
if end B is in first [Link] angle with Hp and Vp.
b’ b’1

SOLUTION STEPS:
[Link] xy line and one projector.
[Link] a’ 10 mm above xy and
a 15 mm below xy line.
[Link] locus from these points.
[Link] 60mm distance on locus of a’  LTV 1’
& mark 1’ on it as it is LTV. a’
[Link] Similarly cut 50mm on
locus of a and mark point 1 as it is LFV.
X Y
[Link] 1’ draw a vertical line upward
a LFV
and from a’ taking TL ( 75mm ) in 1
compass, mark b’1 point on it. 
Join a’ b’1 points.
7. Draw locus from b’1
8. With same steps below get b1 point
and draw also locus from it.
9. Now rotating one of the components
I.e. a-1 locate b’ and join a’ with it
to get Fv.
10. Locate tv similarly and measure
Angles  & 
b1
b 11
 PROBLEM 5 :-
T.V. of a 75 mm long Line CD, measures 50 mm.
End C is in Hp and 50 mm in front of Vp.
End D is 15 mm in front of Vp and it is above Hp.
d’ d’1 LOCUS OF d’ & d’1
Draw projections of CD and find angles with Hp and Vp.

SOLUTION STEPS:
[Link] xy line and one projector.
[Link] c’ on xy and
c 50mm below xy line.
[Link] locus from these points.
[Link] locus of d 15 mm below xy
[Link] 50mm & 75 mm distances on c’ 
locus of d from c and mark points X Y
d & d1 as these are Tv and line CD
d d1 LOCUS OF d & d1
lengths resp.& join both with c.
[Link] d1 draw a vertical line upward
up to xy I.e. up to locus of c’ and
draw an arc as shown.
7 Then draw one projector from d to
meet this arc in d’ point & join c’ d’
8. Draw locus of d’ and cut 75 mm
on it from c’ as TL
[Link] Angles  &  c 

12
 DRAW THE PROJECTION OF FOLLOWING POINT ON A SINGLE PROJECTION LINE:
A) POINT A 60MM ABOVE HP AND 30MM INFRONT OF VP.
B)POINT B IS 40MM BEHIND VP AND 30MM BELOW HP.
C)POINT C IS 55MM BEHIND VP AND 55MM ABOVE HP.
D) POINT D IS 25MM IN FRONT OF VP AND 35MM BELOW HP.
E) POINT E IS IN THE VP AND HP. draw the projection of a line AB of length 90mm
F) POINT F IS 45MM BOVE HP AND IN THE VP. perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP.
G) POINT G IS 35MM IN FRONT OF VP AND IN THE HP. point A is 15mm above HP and 15mm infront of VP
a' b' draw the projection of a line CD of
c c'
length 85mm and parallel to both the
b' f' plane . point C is 20mm above HP and
20mm infront of VP
60.00

90.00
55.00

20.00
45.00
FV
40.00

c' d'
e e' g' 85.00

15.00
X FV
Y

25.00
30.00

30.00

35.00

35.00
a' X Y
d TV
b X Y
a d' g 85.00

20.00
1st quadrant 3rd quadrant 4th quadrant c d
2nd quadrant a b TV

15.00
draw the projection of a line EF draw the projection of a line MN Draw the projection of a line PQ of length
of length 105mm and it is inclined to of length 95mm and it is inclined to 90mm and it is inclined to HP and VP
HP at an angle of 34° . and point E is VP at an angle of 32° . and point M is at 32° and 39° respectively, the point P is
20mm above HP and 20mm infront of VP

20.00
15mm above HP and 20mm infront f' 20mm above HP and 20mm infront
of VP of VP q1' LOCUS
m' FV n'

42°
5 .00 80.56 4
10 .9 .00

5
9'26
X Y 69 90

32°0
15.00

FV

20.00
34°0

"
'0"
e' p'

'0"
'0"

m 32°0
20.00

X Y
95 X Y
.00 TV
f
e 87.05
20.00

TV n p

20.00

0'0"
32"
39°
90

54'
.0

76
0

47°
.3
2
LOCUS
q1
Projection of Planes

1
 PROJECTIONS OF PLANES
In this topic various plane figures are the objects.

What is usually asked in the problem?

To draw their projections means F.V, T.V. & S.V.

What will be given in the problem?

1. Description of the plane figure.

2. It’s position with HP and VP.

In which manner it’s position with HP & VP will be described?

[Link] of it’s SURFACE with one of the reference planes will be given.
2. Inclination of one of it’s EDGES with other reference plane will be given
(Hence this will be a case of an object inclined to both reference Planes.)
Study the illustration showing
surface & side inclination given on next page. 2
 CASE OF A RECTANGLE – OBSERVE AND NOTE ALL STEPS.

SURFACE PARALLEL TO HP SURFACE INCLINED TO HP ONE SMALL SIDE INCLINED TO VP

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION PICTORIAL PRESENTATION PICTORIAL PRESENTATION

ORTHOGRAPHIC ORTHOGRAPHIC ORTHOGRAPHIC

TV-True Shape FV- Inclined to XY FV- Apparent Shape
FV- Line // to xy TV- Reduced Shape TV-Previous Shape
VP
VP VP c1’
d1’

a’ d’ a1’ b1’
b’ c’

a d a1 d1

b c b1 c1
HP A HP B HP C3
 PROCEDURE OF SOLVING THE PROBLEM:
IN THREE STEPS EACH PROBLEM CAN BE SOLVED:( As Shown In Previous Illustration )
STEP 1. Assume suitable conditions & draw Fv & Tv of initial position.
STEP 2. Now consider surface inclination & draw 2nd Fv & Tv.
STEP 3. After this,consider side/edge inclination and draw 3rd ( final) Fv & Tv.

ASSUMPTIONS FOR INITIAL POSITION:

(Initial Position means assuming surface // to HP or VP)
[Link] in problem surface is inclined to HP – assume it // HP
Or If surface is inclined to VP – assume it // to VP
2. Now if surface is assumed // to HP- It’s TV will show True Shape.
And If surface is assumed // to VP – It’s FV will show True Shape.
3. Hence begin with drawing TV or FV as True Shape.
4. While drawing this True Shape –
keep one side/edge ( which is making inclination) perpendicular to xy line
( similar to pair no. A on previous page illustration ).

Now Complete STEP 2. By making surface inclined to the resp plane & project it’s other view
(Ref. 2nd pair B on previous page illustration )
Now Complete STEP 3. By making side inclined to the resp plane & project it’s other view.
(Ref. 3nd pair C on previous page illustration )

APPLY SAME STEPS TO SOLVE NEXT ELEVEN PROBLEMS

4
Problem 1: Read problem and answer following questions
Rectangle 30mm and 50mm 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
sides is resting on HP on one 2. Assumption for initial position? ------// to HP
small side which is 300 inclined 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
to VP,while the surface of the 4. Which side will be vertical? ---One small side.
plane makes 450 inclination with Hence begin with TV, draw rectangle below X-Y
HP. Draw it’s projections. drawing one small side vertical.

Surface // to Hp Surface inclined to Hp

d’c’ c’1 d’1

a’ a’ b’ 450 b’1 a’1

X b’ c’d’
300
Y
a d a1 d1 Side
Inclined
to Vp

b c b1 c1

5
Problem 2: Read problem and answer following questions
A 300 – 600 set square of longest 1 .Surface inclined to which plane? ------- VP
side 100 mm long, is in VP and 300 2. Assumption for initial position? ------// to VP
inclined to HP while it’s surface is 450 3. So which view will show True shape? --- FV
inclined to VP. Draw it’s projections 4. Which side will be vertical? ------longest side.
(Surface & Side inclinations directly given)
Hence begin with FV, draw triangle above X-Y
keeping longest side vertical.
a’ a’1

c’ c’1
side inclined to Hp
c’1
a’1

b’1
b’1
b’
300
X a
b 450 a1 b1 Y
a c
b c1
c
Surface // to Vp Surface inclined to Vp

6
Problem 3: Read problem and answer following questions
A 300 – 600 set square of longest side 1 .Surface inclined to which plane? ------- VP
100 mm long is in VP and it’s surface 2. Assumption for initial position? ------// to VP
450 inclined to VP. One end of longest
3. So which view will show True shape? --- FV
side is 10 mm and other end is 35 mm
above HP. Draw it’s projections 4. Which side will be vertical? ------longest side.

(Surface inclination directly given. Hence begin with FV, draw triangle above X-Y
Side inclination indirectly given) keeping longest side vertical.
First TWO steps are similar to previous problem.
Note the manner in which side inclination is given.
a’ a’1 End A 35 mm above Hp & End B is 10 mm above Hp.
So redraw 2nd Fv as final Fv placing these ends as said.
c’ c’1
c’1
a’1

35
b’1
b’1
b’
X 10 Y
a a1
b 450 b1
a c
b c1
c

7
Problem 4: Read problem and answer following questions
A regular pentagon of 30 mm sides is 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
resting on HP on one of it’s sides with 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
it’s surface 450 inclined to HP. 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
Draw it’s projections when the side in 4. Which side will be vertical? -------- any side.
HP makes 300 angle with VP Hence begin with TV,draw pentagon below
SURFACE AND SIDE INCLINATIONS
X-Y line, taking one side vertical.
ARE DIRECTLY GIVEN. d’ d’1

c’e’ e’1 c’1

b’ a’
X b’ a’ c’e’ d’ 450 a’1 b’1 Y
a1 300
e e1
e1
a a1 b1

d1
d
d1 c1
b b1

c c1

8
 Problem 5: Read problem and answer following questions
A regular pentagon of 30 mm sides is 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
resting on HP on one of it’s sides while 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
it’s opposite vertex (corner) is 30 mm 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
above HP. 4. Which side will be vertical? --------any side.
Draw projections when side in HP is 300 Hence begin with TV,draw pentagon below
inclined to VP. X-Y line, taking one side vertical.

ONLY CHANGE is
the manner in which surface inclination is described:
One side on Hp & it’s opposite corner 30 mm above Hp. d’ d’1
Hence redraw 1st Fv as a 2nd Fv making above arrangement.
Keep a’b’ on xy & d’ 30 mm above xy. c’e’ e’1 c’1
30

b’ a’ d’ a’
X c’e’ b’ a’1 b’1 Y
300
e1 a1
e
SURFACE e1
INCLINATION a a1 b1
INDIRECTLY GIVEN
SIDE INCLINATION d1
d
DIRECTLY GIVEN:
d1 c1
b b1

c c1
9
 c’1
b’1
Problem 8: A circle of 50 mm diameter is
resting on Hp on end A of it’s diameter AC a’ b’ d’ c’ 300 a’1 d’1 Y
X
which is 300 inclined to Hp while it’s Tv d1
450
d
is 450 inclined to [Link] it’s projections.

Read problem and answer following questions a ca c1

1
1. Surface inclined to which plane? ---- HP
2. Assumption for initial position? --- // to HP b b1
3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
4. Which diameter horizontal? ------- AC
The difference in these two problems is in step 3 only.
Hence begin with TV,draw rhombus below In problem no.8 inclination of Tv of that AC is
X-Y line, taking longer diagonal // to X-Y given,It could be drawn directly as shown in 3rd step.
While in no.9 angle of AC itself i.e. it’s TL, is
given. Hence here angle of TL is taken,locus of c1
Is drawn and then LTV I.e. a1 c1 is marked and
Problem 9: A circle of 50 mm diameter is final TV was [Link] illustration carefully.
resting on Hp on end A of it’s diameter AC
which is 300 inclined to Hp while it makes c’1
450 inclined to Vp. Draw it’s projections. b’1
a’ b’ d’ c’ a’1 d’1
d d1
300
Note the difference in
a ca c1
construction of 3rd step 1

in both solutions.
b b1
11
 Read problem and answer following questions
Problem 10: End A of diameter AB of a circle is in HP 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
A nd end B is in [Link] AB, 50 mm long is 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
300 & 600 inclined to HP & VP respectively.
Draw projections of circle. 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
4. Which diameter horizontal? ---------- AB
Hence begin with TV,draw CIRCLE below
X-Y line, taking DIA. AB // to X-Y
The problem is similar to previous problem of circle – no.9.
But in the 3rd step there is one more change.
Like 9th problem True Length inclination of [Link] is definitely expected
but if you carefully note - the the SUM of it’s inclinations with HP & VP is 900.
Means Line AB lies in a Profile Plane.
Hence it’s both Tv & Fv must arrive on one single projector.
So do the construction accordingly AND note the case carefully..

300
X Y
600
SOLVE SEPARATELY
ON DRAWING SHEET
GIVING NAMES TO VARIOUS
POINTS AS USUAL,
AS THE CASE IS IMPORTANT

12
 Problem 11: Read problem and answer following questions
A hexagonal lamina has its one side in HP and
Its apposite parallel side is 25mm above Hp and
1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
In Vp. Draw it’s projections. 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
Take side of hexagon 30 mm long. 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
4. Which diameter horizontal? ---------- AC
Hence begin with TV,draw rhombus below
ONLY CHANGE is the manner in which surface X-Y line, taking longer diagonal // to X-Y
inclination is described: One side on Hp & it’s
opposite side 25 mm above [Link] redraw
1st Fv as a 2nd Fv making above arrangement.
Keep a’b’ on xy & d’e’ 25 mm above xy.

e’1 d’1

25 f’1 c1’
X a’b’ c’ f’ d’e’ a’1 b’1 Y
f f1 e1 d1
f1 c1
a e a1 e1
a1 b1 As 3rd step
b d b1 d1 redraw 2nd Tv keeping
c1
side DE on xy line.
c
Because it is in VP
as said in problem.

13
 FREELY SUSPENDED CASES.
IMPORTANT POINTS
[Link] this case the plane of the figure always remains perpendicular to Hp.
Problem 12: [Link] may remain parallel or inclined to Vp.
An isosceles triangle of 40 mm long [Link] TV in this case will be always a LINE view.
base side, 60 mm long altitude Is [Link] surface // to Vp, draw true shape in suspended position as FV.
freely suspended from one corner of (Here keep line joining point of contact & centroid of fig. vertical )
Base [Link]’s plane is 450 inclined to [Link] begin with FV as a True Shape but in a suspended position.
Vp. Draw it’s projections. AS shown in 1st FV.

a’1
a’
C

b’1
b’ g’ g’1
H
G c’ c’1
H/3
X Y

A B

b a,g c 450
First draw a given triangle
With given dimensions,
Locate it’s centroid position
And
join it with point of suspension.
14
 Rectangle 40mm and 80mm sides is resting on HP on A 30°; – 60° ; set square of longest side 100 mm long,
one small side which is 30° ;inclined to VP,while the is in VP and 30° ;inclined to HP while it’s surface is 45°
surface of the plane makes 45°; inclination with HP. ;inclined to VP. Draw it’s projections
Draw it’s projections.

'
c'd
d' c' b' b'

a'
45°

FV a'

a'
0'0"

100.00

100.00
a'b' c'd'
b'

b' a'
a'

b'
30°0'0"

X Y

30°0
FV
a .00
c a c
00
a

'0
1

"
c'
c'
40.00

TV

c'
b

X Y
b d
b 80.00 d
a a
a bc
c

43.30 TV
"
0'0
d

4 5° b
c

bc
Projection of Solids

1
 SOLIDS
To understand and remember various solids in this subject properly,
those are classified & arranged in to two major groups.
Group A Group B
Solids having top and base of same shape Solids having base of some shape
and just a point as a top, called apex.

Cylinder Cone

Prisms Pyramids

Triangular Square Pentagonal Hexagonal Triangular Square Pentagonal Hexagonal

Cube Tetrahedron
( A solid having ( A solid having
six square faces) Four triangular faces) 2
 SOLIDS
Dimensional parameters of different solids.

Square Prism Square Pyramid Cylinder Cone

Apex Apex
Top
Rectangular Slant
Face Edge Triangular
Longer Base Face Base Base
Base
Edge

Corner of Edge Edge Corner of

Generators
base of of base
Imaginary lines
Base Base generating curved surface
of cylinder & cone.

Sections of solids( top & base not parallel) Frustum of cone & pyramids.
( top & base parallel to each other)
3
 STANDING ON H.P RESTING ON H.P LYING ON H.P
On it’s base. On one point of base circle. On one generator.
(Axis perpendicular to Hp (Axis inclined to Hp (Axis inclined to Hp
And // to Vp.) And // to Vp) And // to Vp)

F.V. F.V. F.V.

X Y
While observing Fv, x-y line represents Horizontal Plane. (Hp)

X While observing Tv, x-y line represents Vertical Plane. (Vp) Y

T.V. T.V. T.V.

STANDING ON V.P RESTING ON V.P LYING ON V.P

On it’s base. On one point of base circle. On one generator.
Axis perpendicular to Vp Axis inclined to Vp Axis inclined to Vp
And // to Hp And // to Hp And // to Hp 4
 STEPS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS IN SOLIDS
Problem is solved in three steps:
STEP 1: ASSUME SOLID STANDING ON THE PLANE WITH WHICH IT IS MAKING INCLINATION.
( IF IT IS INCLINED TO HP, ASSUME IT STANDING ON HP)
( IF IT IS INCLINED TO VP, ASSUME IT STANDING ON VP)
IF STANDING ON HP - IT’S TV WILL BE TRUE SHAPE OF IT’S BASE OR TOP:
IF STANDING ON VP - IT’S FV WILL BE TRUE SHAPE OF IT’S BASE OR TOP.
BEGIN WITH THIS VIEW:
IT’S OTHER VIEW WILL BE A RECTANGLE ( IF SOLID IS CYLINDER OR ONE OF THE PRISMS):
IT’S OTHER VIEW WILL BE A TRIANGLE ( IF SOLID IS CONE OR ONE OF THE PYRAMIDS):
DRAW FV & TV OF THAT SOLID IN STANDING POSITION:
STEP 2: CONSIDERING SOLID’S INCLINATION ( AXIS POSITION ) DRAW IT’S FV & TV.
STEP 3: IN LAST STEP, CONSIDERING REMAINING INCLINATION, DRAW IT’S FINAL FV & TV.

GENERAL PATTERN ( THREE STEPS ) OF SOLUTION:

GROUP B SOLID. GROUP A SOLID. GROUP B SOLID. GROUP A SOLID.
CONE CYLINDER CONE CYLINDER
AXIS AXIS
AXIS AXIS INCLINED HP INCLINED HP
AXIS AXIS VERTICAL INCLINED HP
VERTICAL INCLINED HP

er er AXIS
AXIS AXIS TO VP AXIS
AXIS AXIS TO VP
INCLINED VP INCLINED INCLINED
INCLINED VP VP VP

Three steps Three steps Three steps Three steps

If solid is inclined to Hp If solid is inclined to Hp If solid is inclined to Vp If solid is inclined to Vp
5
Study Next Twelve Problems and Practice them separately !!
 CATEGORIES OF ILLUSTRATED PROBLEMS!

PROBLEM NO.1, 2, 3, GENERAL CASES OF SOLIDS INCLINED TO HP & VP

PROBLEM NO. 4 & 5 CASES OF CUBE & TETRAHEDRON

PROBLEM NO. 6 CASE OF FREELY SUSPENDED SOLID WITH SIDE VIEW.

PROBLEM NO. 7 CASE OF CUBE ( WITH SIDE VIEW)

PROBLEM NO. 8 CASE OF TRUE LENGTH INCLINATION WITH HP & VP.

6
Problem 1. A square pyramid, 40 Solution Steps :
Triangular face on Hp , means it is lying on Hp:
mm base sides and axis 60 mm [Link] it standing on Hp.
long, has a triangular face on the [Link]’s Tv will show True Shape of base( square)
[Link] square of 40mm sides with one side vertical Tv &
ground and the vertical plane taking 60 mm axis project Fv. ( a triangle)
containing the axis makes an [Link] all points as shown in illustration.
[Link] 2nd Fv in lying position I.e.o’c’d’ face on xy. And project it’s Tv.
angle of 450 with the VP. Draw its [Link] visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per the procedure.
projections. Take apex nearer to [Link] construct remaining inclination with Vp
( Vp containing axis ic the center line of 2nd [Link] it 450 to xy as
VP shown take apex near to xy, as it is nearer to Vp) & project final Fv.

o’
a’1 b’1

o’1 Y
X a’b’ c’d’ d’1 c’1
a1
a d d1 a1

o1
o
b c c1 b1 (APEX
NEARER
For dark and dotted lines TO V.P).

[Link] proper outline of new view DARK. 2. Decide direction of an observer.

3. Select nearest point to observer and draw all lines starting from it-dark. 7
4. Select farthest point to observer and draw all lines (remaining)from it- dotted.
 Solution Steps:
Problem 2: Resting on Hp on one generator, means lying on Hp:
A cone 40 mm diameter and 50 mm axis [Link] it standing on Hp.
is resting on one generator on Hp [Link]’s Tv will show True Shape of base( circle )
which makes 300 inclination with Vp [Link] 40mm dia. Circle as Tv &
taking 50 mm axis project Fv. ( a triangle)
Draw it’s projections. [Link] all points as shown in illustration.
[Link] 2nd Fv in lying position I.e.o’e’ on xy. And
For dark and dotted lines
[Link] proper outline of new vie project it’s Tv below xy.
DARK. [Link] visible lines dark and hidden dotted,
2. Decide direction of an observer. as per the procedure.
3. Select nearest point to observer [Link] construct remaining inclination with Vp
and draw all lines starting from ( generator o1e1 300 to xy as shown) & project final Fv.
it-dark.
4. Select farthest point to observer o’
and draw all lines (remaining) a’1
from it- dotted. h’1 b’1

g’1

f’1 c’1
X a’ h’b’ c’ g f’ d’ e’ o’
e’1 d’1 Y o1
30
’
g g1
g1 o1
h f f1 h1 h1
f1 a1
a e e1 a1 o1
e1 b1

b d d1 b1
d1 8
c c1 c1
 Solution Steps:
Problem 3: Resting on Vp on one point of base, means inclined to Vp:
A cylinder 40 mm diameter and 50 mm [Link] it standing on Vp
[Link]’s Fv will show True Shape of base & top( circle )
axis is resting on one point of a base [Link] 40mm dia. Circle as Fv & taking 50 mm axis project Tv.
circle on Vp while it’s axis makes 450 ( a Rectangle)
with Vp and Fv of the axis 350 with Hp. [Link] all points as shown in illustration.
[Link] 2nd Tv making axis 450 to xy And project it’s Fv above xy.
Draw projections.. [Link] visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per the procedure.
[Link] construct remaining inclination with Hp
( Fv of axis I.e. center line of view to xy as shown) & project final Tv.

4’d’ d’ 4’

3’
1’ a’ c’ a’ c’ 3’
1’

2’ b’ b’
X 2’ 350
Y
a bd c 450 c1
d1
b1

a1
3

4
2
1 24 3
9
1
 Solution Steps:
Problem 4: A cube of 50 mm long [Link] standing on Hp, begin with Tv,a square with all sides
edges is so placed on Hp on one equally inclined to [Link] Fv and name all points of FV & TV.
corner that a body diagonal is [Link] a body-diagonal joining c’ with 3’( This can become // to xy)
parallel to Hp and perpendicular to [Link] 1’ drop a perpendicular on this and name it p’
Vp Draw it’s projections. [Link] 2nd Fv in which 1’-p’ line is vertical means c’-3’ diagonal
must be horizontal. .Now as usual project Tv..
[Link] final Tv draw same diagonal is perpendicular to Vp as said in problem.
Then as usual project final FV.
a’1
d’1
d’1
a’ b’d’ c’
3’
c’1

3’ 1’ 1’ 1’
X Y
d d1

a c a1 c1

b b1 10
Problem 5:A tetrahedron of 50 mm Solution Steps
long edges is resting on one edge As it is resting assume it standing on Hp.
on Hp while one triangular face Begin with Tv , an equilateral triangle as side case as
containing this edge is vertical and shown:
450 inclined to Vp. Draw First project base points of Fv on xy, name those &
projections. axis line. From a’ with TL of edge, 50 mm, cut on axis
line & mark o’(as axis is not known, o’ is finalized by
slant edge length)Then complete Fv.
IMPORTANT: In 2nd Fv make face o’b’c’ vertical as said in problem.
Tetrahedron is a And like all previous problems solve completely.
special type o’1
of triangular o’
pyramid in which TL
base sides & a’1
900
slant edges are
equal in length. X a’ b’ c’1
b’1
c’ Y
450
Solid of four faces.
c c1
Like cube it is also
described by One
dimension only.. a o a1 o1
Axis length
generally not given.
b b1
11
 FREELY SUSPENDED SOLIDS:
Positions of CG, on axis, from base, for different solids are shown below.

CG
H

H/2 CG
H/4

GROUP A SOLIDS GROUP B SOLIDS

( Cylinder & Prisms) ( Cone & Pyramids)

12
 Solution Steps:
Problem 6: A pentagonal pyramid In all suspended cases axis shows inclination with Hp.
30 mm base sides & 60 mm long axis, [Link] assuming it standing on Hp, drew Tv - a regular pentagon,corner case.
is freely suspended from one corner of [Link] Fv & locate CG position on axis – ( ¼ H from base.) and name g’ and
base so that a plane containing it’s axis Join it with corner d’
remains parallel to Vp. [Link] 2nd Fv, redraw first keeping line g’d’ vertical.
Draw it’s three views. [Link] usual project corresponding Tv and then Side View looking from.

LINE d’g’ VERTICAL d”

o’ d’
IMPORTANT: c’e’ e” c”
When a solid is freely FOR SIDE VIEW
g’
suspended from a H a’b’
a” b”
corner, then line g’
joining point of contact H/4 o” Y
X a’ b’ c’ e’ d’
& C.G. remains e1
vertical. e
a1
( Here axis shows a
d1
inclination with Hp.) o do
1

So in all such cases, b b1

assume solid standing c c1
on Hp initially.)

13
Solution Steps:
[Link] it standing on Hp begin with Tv, a square of corner case.
Problem 7:
A cube of 50 mm long edges is so placed
[Link] corresponding Fv.& name all points as usual in both views.
on Hp on one corner that a body diagonal
[Link] a’1’ as body diagonal and draw 2nd Fv making it vertical (I’ on xy)
through this corner is perpendicular to Hp
[Link] it’s Tv drawing dark and dotted lines as per the procedure.
and parallel to Vp Draw it’s three views.
[Link] standard method construct Left-hand side view.
( Draw a 450 inclined Line in Tv region ( below xy).
Project horizontally all points of Tv on this line and
reflect vertically upward, above [Link] this, draw
horizontal lines, from all points of Fv, to meet these
lines. Name points of intersections and join properly. a’’
For dark & dotted lines
locate observer on left side of Fv as shown.)

d’’ b’’
a’ b’d’ c’

c’’
X 1’
1’ Y
d d1 1’

a c a1 c1

14
b
Problem 8: A right circular cone, This case resembles to problem no.7 & 9 from projections of planes topic.
40 mm base diameter and 60 mm In previous all cases 2nd inclination was done by a parameter not showing [Link]
long axis is resting on Hp on one Tv of axis is inclined to Vp etc. But here it is clearly said that the axis is 400 inclined
point of base circle such that it’s to Vp. Means here TL inclination is expected. So the same construction done in those
axis makes 450 inclination with Problems is done here also. See carefully the final Tv and inclination taken there.
Hp and 400 inclination with Vp. So assuming it standing on HP begin as usual.
Draw it’s projections.

o’ o’1

a’1
h’1 b’1

g’1 c’1

450 f’1 d’1

X a’ h’ b’ c’ g’ f’ d’ e’
e’1
y
Axis True Length
g g1 400
h f h1 f1
Axis Tv Length
a e a1 1 e1
o1
Locus of
Center 1
b1 d1 1
b d
c c1
Axis Tv Length
 Lecture 6

Projections of Solids Examples

 Problem 1
• A cube of 30 mm sides is held on one of its corners on HP
such that the bottom square face containing that corner is
inclined at 300 to HP. Two of its adjacent base edges
containing the corner on which it rests are equally inclined
to VP. Draw the top and front views of the cube.
 Problem 1 Solution
• The procedure of obtaining the
projections is shown
• InStep-1, the projections of the
cube is drawn in the simple
position. The cube is assumed to lie
with one of its faces completely on
HP such that two vertical faces
make equal inclinations with VP.
 Problem 1 Solution
• InStep-1, the projections of the
cube is drawn in the simple
position.
• The cube is assumed to lie with
one of its faces completely on HP
such that two vertical faces make
equal inclinations with VP.
 Problem 1 Solution
• Draw a square abcd to represent
the top view of the cube such that
two of its sides make equal
inclinations with the XY line, i.e.,
with VP.
• Let (a1), (b1), (c1) and (d1) be the
four corners of the bottom face of
the cube which coincide in the top
view with the corners a, b, c and d
of the top face.
• Project the front view of the
cube. The bottom face a1’b1’c1’(d1’)
in the front view coincide with the
XY line.
 Problem 1 Solution
• Now the cube is tilted on the bottom
right corner c1’ (step-2) such that the
bottom face a1’b1’c1’(d1’) is inclined
at 300 to HP. Reproduce the front
view with face a1’b1’c1’(d1’) inclined
at 300 to the XYline.
• Draw the vertical projectors through
all the corners in the reproduced
front view and horizontal projectors
through the corners of the first top
view.
• These projectors intersect each
other to give the corresponding
corners in the top view
 Problem 2
• A cube of 30 mm side rests with one of its edges on HP
such that one of the square faces containing that edge is
inclined at 300 to HP and the edge on which it rests being
inclined to 600 to VP. Draw its projections.
 Problem 2 Solution
• First the TV and FV of the cube is
drawn with the cube in the simple
position. The edge bc is drawn
perpendicular to the XY line.
 Problem 2 Solution
• In step2, the cube is tilted such that
the base of the cube is inclined at
300 to HP.
• The front view is reproduced with b1’
c1’a1’d1’ inclined at 300 to XY.
• The top view of the cube in step-2 is
obtained by drawing projectors
mentioned in problem 1.
 Problem 2 Solution
• In step-3, the top view in step-2
is rotated such that line c1 b1
is inclined at 600 to XY line.
• The front view in step-2 is
obtained by drawing
projectors from the top view in
step-3 and Front view in Step-
2.
 Problem 3
• An equilateral triangular prism 20 mm side of base and 50
mm long rests with one of its shorter edges on HP such
that the rectangular face containing the edge on which the
prism rests is inclined at 300 to HP. The edge on which
prism rests is inclined at 600 to VP. Draw its projections.
 Problem 3 Solution
• The prism rests with one of its
shorter edges, i.e., triangular or
base edge on HP such that the
rectangular face containing that
edge is inclined at 300 to HP.
• Draw the simple views of the prism
when it rests with one of its
triangular faces, i.e., base
completely lying on HP and also
with one of its shorter edges
perpendicular to VP, i.e., to XY
line.
• The shorter edge (b1)(c1) is
perpendicular to the XY line. The
rectangular face containing the
edge b1’(c1’) is b1’b’(c’)(c1’).
 Problem 3 Solution

• Now tilt the prism on the

edge b1’(c1’) such that the
rectangular face
b1’b’(c’)(c1’) is inclined at
300 to the XY line. In this
tilted position, project the
top view.
 Problem 3 Solution
• It is seen that the edge b1c1 in the top view shown is
perpendicular to VP, i.e, to XY line. But the edge b1c1 has to be
inclined at 600 to VP, i.e, to XY line. Therefore, reproduce the
top view with the edge b1c1 inclined at 600 to the XY line as
shown in the top view.
• Project the reproduced top view to get the front view.
 Problem 4

• A hexagonal pyramid has an altitude of 60 mm and side

base 30mm. The pyramid rests on one of its side of the
base on HP such that the triangular face containing that
side is perpendicular to HP. Draw the front and top views.
 Problem 4 Solution
• In step-1, the pyramid is drawn in the simple position with
base edge cd perpendicular to XY line.
 Problem 4 Solution
• In Step-2, the Front view is tilted about cd such that line
o’c’d’ is made perpendicular to XY line.
• The top view is obtained by drawing projectors from the top
view of step 1 and front view in step-2
 Problem 5

• Draw the top and front views of a rectangular pyramid of

sides of base 40x 50 mm and height 70 mm when it lies on
one of its larger triangular faces on HP. The longer edge of
the base of the triangular face lying on HP is inclined at 600
to VP in the top view with the apex of the pyramid being
nearer to VP.
 Problem 5 Solution
• .
 Problem 6

• Draw the top and the front views of a right circular cylinder
of base 45 mm diameter and 60 mm long when it lies on
HP such that its axis is inclined at 350 to HP and the axis
appears to be perpendicular to VP in the top view.
Problem 6 Solution
 1
@ McGraw-Hill Education

Chapter 14

PROJECTIONS OF
SOLIDS

Any object having definite length, width and height is called a solid. The
study of the projections of a solid is very important in mechanical-design
problems. The knowledge of projections of solids is essential in 3D
modeling and animation.

BASIC SOLIDS
Basic solids are those which have predefined shapes. The basic solids are
the constituent parts of any complex solid. Objects in the real world are
made up of combinations of basic solids.
The two categories of basic solids are: polyhedra and solids of revolution.
Polyhedra are bounded by plane surfaces. Solids of revolution have curved
outer faces.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
 2
@ McGraw-Hill Education

POLYHEDRA
Polyhedra are sub-divided into three types—regular polyhedra, prisms
and pyramids.
Regular Polyhedra In a regular polyhedron, all the faces are similar, equal
and regular.
Tetrahedron A regular polyhedron having four equal equilateral triangular
faces is called a tetrahedron, Fig. 14.1(a).
Cube A regular polyhedron having six equal square faces is called a cube
or hexahedron, Fig. 14.1(b).
Octahedron A regular polyhedron having eight equal equilateral triangular
faces is called an octahedron, Fig. 14.1(c).
Dodecahedron A regular polyhedron having twelve equal and regular
pentagonal faces is called a dodecahedron, Fig. 14.1(d).
Icosahedron A regular polyhedron having twenty equal equilateral
triangular f faces is called an icosahedron, Fig. 14.1(e).

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
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Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
 4
@ McGraw-Hill Education

Prisms In a prism, there are two equal and similar end faces, parallel to
each other, joined together by other rectangular faces.
Triangular Prism A prism having triangular end faces is called a triangular
prism, Fig. 14.2(a).
Square Prism A prism having square end faces is called a square prism,
Fig. 14.2(b).
Rectangular Prism A prism having rectangular end faces is called a
rectangular prism, Fig. 14.2(c).
Pentagonal Prism A prism having pentagonal end faces is called a
pentagonal prism, Fig. 14.2(d).
Hexagonal Prism A prism having hexagonal end faces is called a
hexagonal prism, Fig. 14.2(e).

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
 5
@ McGraw-Hill Education

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
 6
@ McGraw-Hill Education

Pyramids In a pyramid, there is a polygonal face for the base which is

connected at the edges to a number of triangular faces equal to the
number of sides of the base. All the adjacent triangular faces are joined
to each other at the common edge and all the triangular faces meet at a
point called an apex.
Triangular Pyramid A pyramid having a triangular base is called a
triangular pyramid, Fig. 14.3(a).
Square Pyramid A pyramid having a square base is called a square
pyramid, Fig. 14.3(b).
Rectangular Pyramid A pyramid having a rectangular base is called a
rectangular pyramid, Fig. 14.3(c).
Pentagonal Pyramid A pyramid having a pentagonal base is called a
pentagonal pyramid, Fig. 14.3(d).
Hexagonal Pyramid A pyramid having a hexagonal base is called a
hexagonal pyramid, Fig. 14.3(e).

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
 7
@ McGraw-Hill Education

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
 8
@ McGraw-Hill Education

Solids of Revolution Solids of revolution are formed by the revolution of

plane figures, like rectangles, triangles or semicircles about a fixed line.
Cylinder A cylinder is a solid generated by revolving a rectangle about one
of its sides, keeping that side fixed. The fixed side, about which the
rectangle revolves, is called the axis of the cylinder.
Cone A cone is a solid generated by revolving a right-angled triangle
about one of its perpendicular sides, keeping that side fixed. The fixed
side, about which the triangle revolves, is called the axis of the cone.
Sphere A sphere is a solid generated by revolving a semicircle about its
diameter, keeping the diameter fixed. The mid-point of the diameter
represents the centre of the sphere.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
 9
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Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
 10
@ McGraw-Hill Education

FRUSTUMS AND TRUNCATED SOLIDS

Frustums
When a cone or pyramid is cut by a plane parallel to its base, removing
the apex, the remaining solid is called a frustum of the cone or pyramid
Fig. 14.5(a) and (b).

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
 11
@ McGraw-Hill Education

Truncated Solids
When a solid is cut by a plane inclined to its base, it is said to be
truncated. Figure 14.6 shows some of the truncated solids.

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POSITIONS OF THE SOLIDS

Depending on the orientation of its axis in space, a solid may have the
following positions:
1. Solid with axis perpendicular to an RP
Case (i): Axis perpendicular to the HP
Case (ii): Axis perpendicular to the VP
2. Solid with axis inclined to one RP and parallel to the other
Case (i): Axis inclined to the HP and parallel to the VP
Case (ii): Axis inclined to the VP and parallel to the HP
3. Solid with axis inclined to both the RPs
4. Solid with axis parallel to the PP
5. Solid with axis parallel to both the RPs

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SOLID WITH AXIS PERPENDICULAR TO AN RP

Example 14.1 A square prism, 40 mm side of base and 60 mm length of
axis, has its axis perpendicular to the HP and one of the rectangular faces
parallel to the VP. Draw the projections if the base is 10 mm above the HP.
Solution Refer Fig. 14.7
As the axis of the prism is perpendicular to the HP, its TV must be drawn
first. The solution may be obtained in the following steps:
1. Draw a square a( a1)– b( b1)– c( c1)– d( d1) of side 40 mm (at suitable
distance below XY) to represent the TV. ab is parallel to XY.
2. Project TV above XY to obtain FV– a’(d’)– b’(c’)– b1’(c1’)– a1’(d1’) such
that a’– a1’ = b’– b1’ = 60 mm. Note that a1’(d1’)– b1’(c1’) is an edge view
of the base and is parallel to and 10 mm above XY. Show the axis in FV.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
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Rule 1: The view of the solid on the RP to which its axis is perpendicular
should always be drawn first.

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SOLID WITH AXIS INCLINED TO ONE RP AND PARALLEL TO THE OTHER

If the axis of a solid is inclined to one RP and parallel to the other RP then the
problem is solved in two stages.
Example 14.5 A cone of diameter 60 mm and height 60 mm is resting on the
HP on one of its generators. Draw its projections if its axis is parallel to the VP.
Solution Refer Fig. 14.11.
If the cone is resting on the HP on one of its generators, obviously its axis will
be inclined to the HP. As the axis is inclined to the HP, assume it is initially
perpendicular to the HP.
Stage I
The cone is kept on its base on the HP so that the axis will be perpendicular to
the HP.
1. Draw a circle of diameter 60 mm to represent the TV of the cone. Mark apex
o at the centre. Divide the circle into 12 equal parts and mark them as 1, 2, 3,
…, 12.
2. Draw a triangle 1’–7’– o’ of height 60 mm to represent FV of the cone.
Project 1, 2, 3, etc., to 1’, 2’, 3’, etc., on 1’–7’ in FV.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
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Stage II
The cone is now tilted about a point on its circumference such that a
generator will fall on the HP.
3. Redraw FV in such a way that edge 7’– o’ will coincide with XY.
Relocate points 1’, 2’, 3’, etc., on 1’– 7’ by using a divider.
4. Project 1’, 2’, 3’, etc., from FV to intersect the projectors through 1, 2, 3,
etc., to obtain 11, 21, 31, etc. Join 11, 21, 31, etc., to obtain elliptical base.
Also obtain o1 in a similar way.
5. Join o1 to the ellipse by drawing two tangent lines. The view represents
the required TV.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
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Rule 2(a): If the axis of a solid is inclined to an RP, keep the solid in the
first stage with the axis perpendicular to that RP.
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SOLID WITH AXIS INCLINED TO BOTH THE RPs

If the axis of a solid is inclined to both the RPs then the problem is solved in three
stages.
Example 14.7 A triangular pyramid of edge of base s mm and length of axis h mm
is resting on a side of base on the HP. The axis of the pyramid is inclined at θ° to
the HP and ø° to the VP. Draw its projections.
Solution Refer Fig. 14.13.
In this problem, the inclinations of the axis with both the RPs are clearly
mentioned. Therefore, obtain the inclination of the axis with the HP in the second
stage. The inclination with the VP is established in the third stage by finding the
corresponding apparent inclination.
Stage I
The pyramid is kept with its axis vertical. As the edge of the base is expected to be
in the HP, the entire base is placed initially on the HP, Rule 2a, Chapter 13. An edge
of the base must be perpendicular to the VP so that the solid can be tilted about
that edge to make the required inclination of the axis with the HP.
1. Draw the TV– abco( o1) of the pyramid as shown. The true shape of the base is
seen with side ab perpendicular to the VP.

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2. Obtain the FV– a’(b’)– c’– o’. It shows the TL of the axis.
Stage II
The pyramid is tilted about the edge of the base, perpendicular to the VP, so
that the axis will make the required angle with the HP.
3. Rotate FV about a’(b’) so that o’– o1’ makes θ° with XY.
4. Obtain the corresponding TV. Show axis o– o1 in TV.
Stage III
The pyramid is now turned, maintaining the edge AB in the HP and the
inclination of the axis with the HP constant, in such a way that the axis will
make ø° with the VP. The axis is now inclined to both the RPs, hence the true
inclinations will not be seen in the TV and FV. Instead, the apparent
inclinations will be seen. In other words, if the axis makes θ° to the HP and ø°
to the VP, its FV and TV will be seen at α° and β° to XY respectively. Therefore,
we need to find angle β if the axis is expected to make ø° with the VP. The TV
of the axis when turned through β° will give the real inclination of ø°.

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The External Construction is used to find angle β. Draw o1’– o’ = TL of the

axis, inclined at θ° to XY. Obtain o1– o parallel to XY. Then draw o1– o2 = TL
of the axis, inclined at ø° to XY. Obtain t–t, the locus of o2. With o1 as centre
and radius = o1– o, draw an arc cutting t–t at o3. Join o1– o3 and measure β.
5. Redraw TV such that o– o1 will make β° with XY.
6. Obtain the corresponding FV. Locate axis o’– o1’ in FV. Note that o’– o1’
will make α° with XY. a’– b’ par is seen on XY.

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Rule 2(b): In the first stage, keep the solid in such a way that the true
shape of the base and TL of the axis will be visible.
Rule 3: If a solid rests on a corner or an edge of its base on the RP, keep
the entire base on that RP in first stage.
Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
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SOLID WITH AXIS PARALLEL TO THE PP

If the sum of the angles made by the axis with the HP and with the VP is 90°
(i.e., θ+ø = 90°) then the axis will be parallel to the PP.
Example 14.17 A triangular pyramid of base 40 mm side and length of axis 60
mm is lying in space in such a way that its axis is inclined at 60° to the HP and
30° to the VP. Draw its three views if the apex is toward the observer and a
corner of base towards the HP.
Solution Refer Fig. 14.16.
The problem contains four conditions: (i) θ = 60°, (ii) ø = 30°, (iii) the apex
towards observer, and (iv) a corner of base towards the HP.
As θ + ø =90°, the axis is parallel to the PP.
1. Draw TV of triangular pyramid abco as shown. Keep ab parallel to XY and c
away from XY, i.e., toward the observer.
2. Obtain FV a’b’c’o’ and SV a” b” c” o”. SV shows TL of axis.
3. Redraw SV with axis inclined at 60° to XY. This will automatically make an
angle of 30° with VP. The point o1” must be near to the observer, i.e., away
from X1 Y1. The point c1” will then automatically be nearer to the HP, i.e., XY.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
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4. Project SV and original TV to obtain new TV a1– b1– c1– o1. The edges
a1– c1, c1– b1 and c1– o1 are shown by dashed lines as they are not
visible from top.
5. Project SV and original FV to obtain new FV a1’– b1’– c1’– o1’. The edge
a1’– b1’ is shown by a dashed line.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
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SOLID WITH AXIS PARALLEL TO BOTH THE RPs

Example 14.18 A square prism of base side 40 mm and length of axis 70
mm is resting on the HP on one of its longer edges with axis parallel to
both the RPs. One of the rectangular faces is inclined at 30° to the HP.
Draw its three views.
Solution Refer Fig. 14.17. The problem contains three conditions: (i) a
longer edge on the HP, (ii) axis parallel to both the RPs, and (iii) a
rectangular face inclined at 30° to the HP.
1. Draw SV a” a1”– b” b1”– c” c1”– d” d1” such that a” a1” is on XY and
edge a” a1”– b” b1” inclined at 30° to XY.
2. Draw FV a’a1’c1’c’ by projecting the SV as shown. b’b1’ is shown by a
dashed line.
3. Draw TV dd1 b1b by projecting SV and FV. aa1 is shown by a dashed
line.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
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Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
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RULES FOR DECIDING THE HIDDEN LINES

1. The outer lines represent the boundary of the solid. These are always
continuous lines.
2. Amongst the remaining lines, the lines nearer to the observer are visible.
The lines farther from the observer, i.e., on the back side of the solid, will be
invisible and drawn by dashed lines.
3. Two points are joined by a visible line if they are at the intersection of
visible lines only. Similarly, two points are joined by a hidden line if they are
formed at the intersection of hidden lines only.
4. A visible line or a hidden line may emerge from the intersection of two (or
more) visible lines.
5. Only a hidden line may emerge from the intersection of two (or more)
hidden lines only. A visible line never emerges from the intersections of two
hidden lines only.
6. A hidden line may start and end at another hidden line or visible line. But, a
straight visible line always starts and ends at another straight or curved
visible line.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
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SUSPENDED SOLIDS
A solid may be suspended freely in air by attaching a string at some suitable
point. The interesting fact is that an imaginary line joining the point of
attachment of the string to the centre of gravity (CG) of the solid is always
vertical. Table 14.1 shows the location of CGs of basic solids.

Example 14.20 A cone of base diameter 50 mm and a 70 mm long axis is freely

suspended from a point on the rim of its base. Draw the FV and the TV when
the plane containing its axis is perpendicular to the HP and makes an angle of
35° with the VP.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
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Solution Refer Fig. 14.19.

Stage I
1. Draw TV and FV of the cone as shown. The base is kept on the HP. Let the
solid be suspended from point 5’.
2. Locate CG- g’ of the solid at a distance of ¼(70) = 17.5 mm from the base
along the axis. Join 5’– g’.
Stage II
3. Redraw FV such that 5’– g’ becomes vertical.
4. Obtain the corresponding TV. Locate o–o1 in TV.
Stage III
5. Draw X1 Y1 inclined at 35° to o– o1.
6. Project the TV and obtain the corresponding auxiliary FV. Draw the hidden
portion properly.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
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Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
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PROJECTIONS OF SPHERE
The TV, FV and SV of a sphere is always the circle of radius equal to that of the
sphere. However, a flat section on a sphere is seen as an ellipse when viewed
in the direction inclined to that section. The circular face of a hemisphere also
appears as an ellipse if it is inclined with the RP.
Example 14.21 A sphere of diameter 75 mm has a flat cut section of 54 mm
diameter. The sphere rests on the HP on its curved surface such that the line
joining the centre of the sphere with the centre of the flat surface makes 60° to
the HP and 15° to the VP. Draw the projections of the sphere.
Solution Refer Fig. 14.20.
Stage I
1. Draw TV and FV of the sphere
2. In TV, draw a circle with o as a centre and radius = 27 mm to represent the
flat cut section. Divide this circle into 8 equal parts.
3. In FV, the flat surface is seen as a line. Project the 8 divisions on this line.
4. Join the centre of the sphere to the centre of flat surface, i.e., o’c’.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
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Stage II
5. Redraw FV such that o’c’ will make 60° to XY.
6. Obtain the corresponding TV. The flat surface is seen as an ellipse. To
draw the sphere in TV, first locate o. Then, with o as a centre and radius =
37.5 mm, draw a circle tangent to the ellipse.
Stage III
7. Obtain β as shown in External Construction.
8. Draw X1 Y1 inclined at β° to oc. Obtain the auxiliary FV of the sphere as
shown. For sphere, locate o1’ and then, with o1’ as a centre and radius =
37.5 mm, draw an arc tangent to the ellipse. Carefully mark the hidden
edge of the flat section.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
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SOLIDS IN COMBINATION
Example 14.22 A tetrahedron, 60 mm edge, rests on a face of it on the
ground with an edge of that face inclined to the VP at 45°. A sphere of 70 mm
diameter placed on ground touches the face of the tetrahedron containing
the said edge, centrally. Draw the projections of the combination.
Solution Refer Fig. 14.21.
This problem is solved by the third-angle method of projection.
Stage I
1. Draw the TV and FV of the tetrahedron. One of the faces of the tetrahedron
is kept on the ground with a side perpendicular to the VP.
2. In FV, locate o’ 35 mm each from GL and a’(b’)– d’. With o’ as a centre and
radius = 35 mm, draw a circle to represent the sphere.
3. Project o’ to o in TV. With o as a centre and radius = 35 mm, draw a circle
to represent the TV of sphere. The part of the edge of the tetrahedron below
the sphere will not be seen.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
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Stage II
4. As the edge of face on the ground is inclined to the VP at 45°, draw X1
Y1 inclined to ab at 45°.
5. Obtain auxiliary FVs of both the solids. Draw the hidden lines properly.

Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD”, Dhananjay A Jolhe, Tata McGraw Hill, Ed. 2008
 A square pyramid, 40 mm base sides and axis 80 mm long, has a
triangular face on the ground and the vertical plane containing the axis
makes an angle of 45°; with the VP. Draw its projections. Take apex
nearer to VP

o'

b'
80.00

a'b'

a' Draw the projection of a pentagonal prism of side

35mm and height 105mm is resting on base edge on
FV e' d'
15.00

VP and its axis is inclined to VP at an angle of 28°

and its FV is making an angle of 42° to HP.
c'd'

o'
o'
a'b' c'd' d' c' c'
104°

X Y
a a'
a d
2'10"

d 5' e'
e'5' b'

o
d'4' 4' 4'

42°
5'
45°
40.00

d'

0'0"
0'0

35.00
o a a'1' 1' a'
"

TV FV
b c b d 3'
40.00 c
3' c' 1'
c'3'
b'2' 2' b' 2'
b

X Y
1 2,5 3,4 4
c

3,4
3

0"
28°0'
TV
5

2,5
2
d
105.00

c,d
1
1

10
5.0

b,e
0 e b

a
a b,e c,d
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 1

Isometric Projections
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 2

What is ISOMETRIC?
• method of producing pictorial view of an
object showing all three faces of the
object simultaneously.

• type of axonometric projection

Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 3

Axonometric Projections

• Observer at infinity
• Projectors parallel to each other and perpendicular
to projection plane
• Object is inclined with respect to projection plane
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 4

Types of Axonometric
Projections

Isometric Projection

Dimetric Projection

Trimetric Projection
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 5

Isometric Projections
• All angles between axonometric axes are
equal

• The three coordinate axes of the object

appear equally foreshortened (about 0.81
times of true length)

• The angles between any two of the

three coordinate axes is 120°
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 6

Isometric Terminology
• The three coordinate axes are called
isometric axes

• Any line parallel to isometric axes is called

isometric line

• A non-isometric line is a line not

parallel to any one of the three
isometric axis

• In isometric projection of cube, the faces of

the cube and any plane parallel to them is
called isometric planes
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 7

Isometric Scale
• True lengths of the edges of the object are
equally foreshortened

• Correct isometric projection can be drawn

using an isometric scale (always smaller
than ordinary scale)
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 8

Isometric Drawing
Isometric Projection:
Drawing prepared
with isometric scale on
isometric axes

Isometric Drawing:
Drawing prepared
with ordinary scale
on isometric axes
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 9

Steps:
Step 1
Isometric sketches begin with defining
isometric axes, three lines, one vertical
and two drawn at 30° from the horizontal.
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 10

Step 2
Three lines of the isometric axes represent
the three primary dimensions of the
object: width, height, and length
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 11

Step 3
Draw the font face of the isometric block.
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 12

Step 4
Draw the rest of the isometric block.
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 13

Step 5
Add details to the block starting from the
front face. Then add details to the other
faces.
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 14

Step 6
Darken all visible lines to complete the
isometric sketch. (make sure that
construction lines are light)
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 15

Objects with Normal Surfaces

Make an Isometric Drawing with corner A
at the bottom
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 16

Objects with Normal Surfaces

Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 17

Objects with Oblique Surfaces

• Make an Isometric Drawing with corner A
at the bottom
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 18

Objects with Oblique Surfaces

Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 19

Objects with Circular Geometry

A circle in a orthographic projection will appear as
an ellipse in an isometric drawing
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 20

Cylinder
Lecture 3 Tuesday 19 March 2024 21
 DRAW THE ISOMETRIC DRAWING OF A CUBE OF SIDE
75MM DRAW AN ISOMETRIC DRAWING OF A
HEXAGONAL PYRAMID/PRISM OF SIDE 30MM AND HEIGHT

15.00
90MM

60.00

30.00

90.00
60 60
.96 .00 . 96 .00
51 5 1

15.00
75.00

51.96
25.98
'0"

30°0
30°0

60 60
.00 .00 6 .0 6
'0"
75 1 . 9 0 1 . 9
5 5

DRAW AN ISOMETRIC DRAWING OF A

CYLINDER/CONE OF DIA 40 AND HEIGHT
90MM
8.

40.00
28

90.00

90.00
40.00

. 0 0 40 . 0 0 40
DRAW THE ISOMETRIC DRAWING 4 0 .00 40 .00
FROM THE ORTHOGHRAPHIC PROJECTION
8.

8.28
28

KEEPING POINT A AT BOTTOM

. 0 0 . 0 0
40 40
14.00
14
40.00 .00
26.00
14.00

0 0
40.00

58.00 1 .
1
40.00

A 0
11.00

8 .0
72.00 40 1
0 .00

00
. 0
20.00

72.00 11

0.
10
72

30°0
40.00 .00
14.00
40.00

0 0 . 6 5
. 81

'0
40

"
18.00

14.00
11.00
DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES
 DEFINITION
 The development of surface of an object means the unrolling and unfolding of all surfaces
of the object on a plane.

 If the surface of a solid is laid out on a plain surface, the shape thus obtained is called the
development of that solid.

When the pattern is cut, it can be rolled or folded back into the original object.

Example : boilers, boxes, buckets, packing boxes, chimneys, hoppers, air-conditioning

ducts etc.
 PRINCIPLE OF DEVELOPEMENT

• Every line on the development should show the true length of the
corresponding line on the surface which is developed.
METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACE

• Parallel line development

• Radial line development
• Triangulation development
• Approximate development
 PARALLEL-LINE METHOD
• Parallel line development uses parallel to construct the expanded pattern of each three
dimensional shape
• It is used for developing prisms and single curved surfaces like cylinders, in which all the
edges/generation of lateral surfaces are parallel in each other.
 RADIAL-LINE METHOD

• Radial line development line radiating from central point to

construct the expanded pattern of each three dimensional
shape.
• It is employed for pyramids and single curved surfaces like
cones in which the apex is taken as centre and the slant edge
or generator as radius of its development.
 TRINGULATION METHOD

• It is used for developing transition pieces.

• Example: tetrahedron and other polyhedrons.
 APPROXIMATE METHOD:

• It is employed for double curved surfaces like spheres, as they are theoretically not possible to develop.
The surface of the sphere is developed by approximate method. When the surface is cut by a series of
cutting planes, the cut surfaces is called a zone.
 DEVELOPMENT OF SECTIONS
Develop the surfaces of the cube of 1"
DEVELOP THE SURFACES OF A TRIANGULAR PRISM
DEVELOP THE SURFACES OF A PYRAMID
 DEVELOPMENT OF SOLID SURFACE

DEVELOP THE SURFACE OF A PENTAGONAL PRISM

OF SIDE 35MM AND HEIGHT 105MM
DEVELOP THE SURFACE OF A CYLINDER OF DIA 50MM 35
.00
AND HEIGHT 95MM
Ø50.00 TOP
TOP
157.05 175.00
35.00

95.00

105.00
A B C D E

PARALLEL LINE DEVELOPMENT

CYLINDER 35.00
BASE PARALLEL LINE DEVELOPMENT
PENTAGONAL PRISM BASE

35
.00

DEVELOP THE SURFACE OF A SQUARE PYRAMID DEVELOP THE SURFACE OF A CONE OF DIA DEVELOP THE SURFACE OF A CUBE OF SIDE
OF SIDE 25MM AND HEIGHT 95MM 60MM AND HEIGHT 90mm 60MM

60.00

60.00
5 TOP
6
90.00
95.00

8.9
d 15

0
60.00

0.0
b c 60.00
a
Ø6
4 6 BASE
8 .
BASE 18 D
60.00 A B C
25

25.00
.00

RADIAL LINE DEVELOPMENT RADIAL LINE DEVELOPMENT

SQUARE PYRAMID CONE
TRIANGULATION METHOD

60.00
CUBE BASE