1.
Introduction
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
•Determine the dimensions and units of physical quantities
•Identify the key fluid properties used in the analysis of fluid behavior
•Calculate common fluid properties given appropriate information
•Explain the effects of fluid compressibility
•Use the concepts of viscosity, vapor pressure, and surface tension
The nature of air bubbles rising in a liquid is a function of fluid propoerties such as
density, viscosity, and surface tension
Fluid mechanics is the discipline within the broad field of applied
mechanics that is concerned with the behavior of fluids and gases
at rest or in motion. It covers vast array of phenomena that occurs
in nature (with and without human intervention), in biology, and
numerous engineered, invented, or manufactures situations.
There are numerous parameters
that describe the fluid flow. Among
the long list of parameters involved
are:
[Link] physical size of the flow, l
[Link] speed of the flow, V
[Link] pressure, p
Characteristic values of some fluid flow parameters for a variety of flows: a) object
size, b) fluid speed, c) fluid pressure
1.1 Some characteristics of fluid
• What is a fluid?
• What is the difference between a solid and
a fluid?
• Fluid is soft and is easily deformed
• Fluid: is a substance that deforms
continously when acted on by a shearing
stress of any magnitude
A shearing stress (force per unit
area) is created whenever a
tangential force acts on a
surface
• Although the molecular structure of fluids is important in
distinguishing one fluid from another, because of the
large number of molecules involved, it is not possible to
study the behavior of individual molecules when trying to
describe the behavior of fluids at rest or in motion.
Rather we characterize the behavior by considering the
average, or macroscopic, value of quantity of interest.
• We thus assume that all the fluid characteristics we are
interested in (pressure, velocity, etc.) vary continuously
throughout the fluid – that is we treat the fluid as a
continuum.
Continuum
• In a continuum, the physical variable at a
point in space is the averaged value of the
variable in a small sphere.
• How good is the assumption?
3x1010 molecules of air
10-3cm
1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional
Homogeneity, and Units
• Since we will be dealing with a variety of fluid
characteristics in our study of fluid mechanics, it is
necessary to develop a system for describing these
characteristics both qualitatively and quantitatively.
The qualitative aspects serves to identify the nature, or
type, of the characteristics (such as length, time, stress,
and velocity) whereas quantitative aspects provide a
numerical measure of the characteristics.
• The quantitative description requires both number and a
standard by which various quantities can be compared.
A standard for length might be a meter or foot, for time
an hour or second for mass a kilogram or a slug. Such
standards are called units and several systems of units
are in common use
• The qualitative description is given in terms of certain
primary quantities such as length, L, time, T, mass, M
and temperature, Q. These primary quantities can then
be used to provide a qualitative description of any other
secondary quantity, for example area =L2. To describe
qualitatively a velocity, V, we would write
• and say that «the dimensions of a velocity equal length
divided by time». The primary quantities are also
referred to as basic dimensions.
• For a wide variety of problems involving fluid mechanics,
only three basic dimensions, L, T, and M, are required.
• Alternatively L, T, and F could be used. Since Newton’s
law states that force is equal to mass times acceleration,
it follows that F=MLT-2 or M=FL-1T2
• Dimensionally homogenous: the
dimensions of the left side of the equation
must be same as those on the right hand
side and all additive separate terms have
the same dimensions.
d= distance traveled by a freely falling
body
Constant must have a dimension of LT-2
Restricted homogenous equation: Equations that are restricted
to particular system of units.
Dimensionally homogenous form of this equation:
Given: A commonly used equation for
determining the volume rate of flow, Q, of a
liquid through an orifice located in the side of a
tank as shown in Fig.
𝑄 = 0.61𝐴 2𝑔ℎ
where a is the area of the orifice, g is the
acceleration of gravity, and h is the height of
the liquid above the orifice.
Find: Investigate the dimensional
homogeneity of this formula.
exs_01_01a
System of units
British gravitational (BG) System.
Unit of length: foot (ft)
Time unit: second (s)
Force unit: pound (lb)
Temperature unit: Fahrenheit (F)
International System (SI).
Unit of length: meter (m)
Time unit: second (s)
Mass unit: kilogram (kg)
Temperature unit: Kelvin (K)
Force unit : Newton (N)
1.3 Analysis of Fluid Behavior
• The broad subject of the fluid mechanics
can be subdivided into:
• Fluid statics
• Fluid Dynamics
It will be necessary to define and discuss
certain fluid properties that are related to
fluid behavior
1.4 Measures of Fluid Mass and
Weight
• 1.4.1 Density (r)
• The density of a fluid is defined as its mass per unit volume
• Used to characterize the mass of a fluid
• Units kg/m3 (SI)
• 1.4.2 Specific weight (g)
• The specific weight of a fluid is defined as its
weight per unit volume
• Units N/m3 (SI)
gwater= 9,80 kN/m3
• 1.4.3 Specific gravity (SG)
• is defined as ratio of the density of the fluid to
the density of water at some specified temp.
• Specified temp is taken as 40C, density of
water at this temp. is 1000 kg/m3
SGmercury= 13,55
• 1.5 Ideal Gas Law
• Pressure: normal force per unit area
• Dimensions: [FL-2]
• Units: N/m2
• 1 N/m2=1 Pascal (Pa)
• Absolute pressure: measured relative to
absolute zero pressure
• Patm= 101,33 kPa
• Gage pressure: measured relative to the local
atmospheric pressure
• Thus the absolute pressure can be obtain from A pressure of
the gage pressure by adding the value of 207 kPa (gage)
in a tire is equal
atmospheric pressure. to 308kPa (abs)
• 1.6 Viscosity (n, m)
• Density and specific weight properties are not sufficient to
uniquely characterize how fluids behave
• Two fluids (such as water and oil) can have approximately
same value of density but behave quite differently when
flowing
• Additional property is needed to describe «fluidity»
• Viscosity: Resistance against shearing stress
the fluid between two plates moves with velocity
u=u(y)
That would vary linearly
u=Uy/b
Thus a velocity gradient , du/dy is developed
Newtonian Fluids: Fluids for
which the shearing stress is
linearly related to the rate of
shearing strain (velocity
gradient)
The dimensions of kinematic viscosity is L2/T
The dimensions of dynamic viscosity is FTL-2
• Viscosity is only mildly dependent on pressure
• The effect of pressure is usually neglected
• Viscosity is very sensetive to temperature
Example 1.4
1.7 Compressibility of Fluids
• How easily can the volume (and thus the
density) of a given mass of the fluid be
changed when there is change in the fluid
• Bulk Modulus (Ev): A property that is
commonly used to charterize compressiblity.
Negative sign is included since
an increase in pressure will
cause a decrease in volume
1.8 Vapor Pressure
• Liquid such as water and gasoline will evaporate if they are
simply placed in a container open to atmosphere.
• Evaporation takes place because some liquid molecules at the
surface have sufficient momentum to overcome cohesive
forces and escape into atmosphere
Vapor pressure, pv: the pressure that the vapor
exerts on the liquid surface
Boiling is the formation of vapor bubles with in a fluid
mass is initiated when the absolute pressure in the
fluid reaches the vapor pressure.
Cavitation: The formation and subsequent collapse of
vapor bubles in a flowing liquid.
1.9 Surface Tension
• Surface tension, s: The intensity of the molecular
attraction per unit surface along any line in the surface.
• Adhesion force (attraction between wall and molucels) is
greater than cohesion (attraction between molecules).
• (a)The liquid is said to wet the solid surface
• (c) nonwetting liquid
fig_01_06