Chapter 1: Electricity

A) Chapter Summary
Electricity is a fundamental and controllable form of energy essential for modern
society, used in homes, industries, and hospitals1. An electric current is defined as
the flow of electric charges through a conductor, such as a metallic wire, where a
stream of electrons moving in a circuit constitutes the current2. Conventionally, the
direction of current is taken as opposite to the flow of electrons2. The SI unit of
current is the ampere (A), representing one coulomb of charge flowing per second23.
To facilitate the motion of electrons, a potential difference must be established
across the conductor, typically provided by a cell or battery2. This potential difference
(V) is the work done to move a unit charge between two points and is measured in
volts (V)4. Ohm’s Law establishes that the current (I) flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference (V) across its ends, provided
temperature remains constant, represented by V=IR56. The constant R is the
resistance, a property that opposes the flow of electrons2. Resistance depends on the
conductor’s length (l), area of cross-section (A), and the nature of its material27. It
is directly proportional to length and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area,
leading to the formula R=ρAl, where ρ is the electrical resistivity of the material78.
Resistors can be connected in series or parallel9. In a series circuit, the current
remains the same through all components, and the total resistance is the sum of
individual resistances (Rs=R1+R2+R3)810. In a parallel circuit, the potential
difference across each resistor is the same, and the reciprocal of the total resistance
equals the sum of the reciprocals of individual resistances811. Parallel arrangements
are preferred for domestic circuits because they allow independent operation of
appliances and ensure that the failure of one device does not break the entire
circuit1213.
The heating effect of electric current, described by Joule’s Law of Heating, states
that the heat produced (H) in a resistor is directly proportional to the square of the
current (I2), the resistance (R), and the time (t) the current flows (H=I2Rt)814. This
principle is utilised in devices like electric irons and toasters15. Electric power (P) is
the rate at which electrical energy is consumed, measured in watts (W)816. The
commercial unit of energy is the kilowatt-hour (kWh), where
1 kWh=3.6×106 J8.
Important Diagram: Schematic Diagram of an Electric Circuit The source
provides a schematic comprising a cell, an electric bulb, an ammeter (connected in
series), and a plug key, all joined by conducting wires3.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B) Notes: Question and Answer Paper
1) 30 Medium-Type Questions (Answers approx. 70 words)
1. What is an electric circuit and how is the direction of current defined? An
electric circuit is a continuous and closed path consisting of electrical components
through which an electric current can flow3. If the path is broken, the current stops,
and devices like bulbs will not function. Historically, current was thought to be the
flow of positive charges; therefore, the conventional direction of electric current is
taken from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of a cell23.
2. Define the SI unit of current and explain its mathematical relation to charge.
The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A), named after André-Marie Ampère3.
One ampere is defined as the flow of one coulomb of charge per second through a
cross-section of a conductor. Mathematically, it is expressed as I=Q/t, where I is
current, Q is net charge, and t is time3. Small currents are often measured in
milliamperes (mA) or microamperes (μA)3.
3. How does a cell maintain the flow of charge in a conductor? A cell maintains
the flow of charge by establishing a potential difference across its terminals through
internal chemical reactions4. This potential difference acts as electrical "pressure,"
similar to a water tank at a higher level creating pressure to make water flow through
a pipe4. This pressure forces electrons into motion through the conducting wire,
thereby creating a steady and continuous electric current2.
4. State Ohm’s Law and its mathematical representation. Ohm’s Law states that
the electric current flowing through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends, provided its temperature remains constant56.
Mathematically, this relationship is represented as V∝I or V=IR56. In this equation,
V is the potential difference, I is the current, and R is a constant of the conductor
called its resistance5.
5. Define one ohm of resistance and its significance. One ohm (1 Ω) is the SI unit
of resistance, defined according to Ohm's Law as R=V/I5. Specifically, a conductor
has a resistance of one ohm if a potential difference of one volt applied across its ends
causes a current of one ampere to flow through it5. It measures the degree to which a
component opposes the flow of electric charges in a circuit2.
6. On what factors does the resistance of a uniform metallic conductor depend?
The resistance of a uniform metallic conductor depends on three primary factors: its
length (l), its area of cross-section (A), and the nature of the material27. Resistance is
directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to its
cross-sectional area7. Furthermore, resistance changes with the material's resistivity
and varies depending on the temperature of the conductor during the flow27.
7. Explain the term electrical resistivity and its SI unit. Resistivity (ρ) is a
characteristic property of a material that represents its ability to resist electric current,
regardless of its shape or size7. While resistance changes with the dimensions of a
conductor, resistivity remains constant for a specific material at a given temperature2.
The SI unit of resistivity is the ohm-metre (Ω m)7. Metals have low resistivity, while
insulators have very high resistivity7.
8. Why are alloys used instead of pure metals in heating elements? Alloys like
nichrome are used in the heating elements of appliances such as toasters and electric
irons because they have higher resistivity than pure metals9. Additionally, alloys do
not oxidise or burn easily even at very high temperatures9. This allows the heating
element to remain stable and functional while producing the intense thermal energy
required for the appliance to work effectively without melting9.
9. Describe the characteristics of resistors connected in series. When resistors are
connected in series, they are joined end-to-end so that the same current flows through
each component810. The total potential difference across the combination is equal to
the sum of the potential differences across individual resistors (V=V1+V2+V3)10.
The equivalent resistance of the system is the sum of individual resistances (Rs=R1
+R2+R3)810.
10. Explain why a series arrangement is not used for domestic circuits. A series
arrangement is unsuitable for domestic circuits because if one electrical appliance
fails or is turned off, the entire circuit is broken, and all other appliances stop
working1213. Furthermore, in a series circuit, every device receives the same current
regardless of its power needs12. This makes it impossible to operate a low-current
bulb and a high-current heater efficiently on the same line12.
11. Describe the characteristics of resistors connected in parallel. In a parallel
connection, resistors are joined between the same two points, ensuring that the
potential difference across each resistor is the same and equal to the source
voltage811. The total current in the circuit is the sum of the currents flowing through
each separate branch (I=I1+I2+I3)11. This arrangement results in a total resistance
that is lower than any individual resistance11.
12. What are the advantages of parallel circuits in a home? Parallel circuits are
advantageous in homes because they allow each appliance to be operated by its own
independent switch without affecting others1213. If one device fails, the rest of the
circuit remains functional12. Additionally, the parallel arrangement ensures that each
appliance receives the full line voltage and the specific current it requires to operate
correctly, effectively dividing the total current according to individual needs12.
13. Define Joule’s Law of Heating and provide its mathematical formula. Joule’s
Law of Heating states that the heat produced in a resistor is directly proportional to
the square of the current flowing through it, the resistance of the conductor, and the
time for which the current is maintained814. It is expressed mathematically as
H=I2Rt814. This law explains how electrical energy is dissipated as thermal energy
due to the resistance encountered by moving charges14.
14. How does an electric fuse protect household appliances? An electric fuse is a
safety device placed in series with a circuit to prevent damage from excessive
current15. It consists of a wire with a low melting point that melts and breaks the
circuit if the current exceeds a predetermined safe limit15. This interruption stops the
flow of electricity, protecting the wiring and appliances from overheating, short-
circuiting, or potential fire hazards1517.
15. What is electric power and what are its common units? Electric power is the
rate at which electrical energy is consumed or dissipated in a circuit816. It is defined
as the product of potential difference and current (P=VI)16. The SI unit of power is
the watt (W), where one watt is the power consumed by a device carrying 1 A of
current at 1 V16. For larger values, kilowatts (kW) are used16.
16. Explain the commercial unit of electrical energy. The commercial unit of
electrical energy is the kilowatt-hour (kWh), commonly referred to as a "unit"818. It
represents the total energy consumed by a one-kilowatt appliance running for one
hour18. Since energy is power multiplied by time, one kilowatt-hour is equivalent to
1000 watts×3600 seconds, which equals 3.6×106 joules (J)8. This unit is used
for billing electricity usage.
17. Why is tungsten used for the filaments of electric lamps? Tungsten is used
almost exclusively for bulb filaments because it has an extremely high melting point
(3380∘C)13. This allows the filament to reach the high temperatures necessary to
become white-hot and emit light without melting. Furthermore, bulbs are usually
filled with chemically inactive gases like nitrogen and argon to prevent the oxidation
of the filament, thereby greatly prolonging its operational life13.
18. How does the thickness of a wire affect its resistance? The resistance of a wire
is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area (thickness)713. This means that a
thick wire has a larger area for charges to flow through, resulting in lower resistance
compared to a thin wire of the same material and length19. Consequently, current
flows more easily through a thicker wire because there is less opposition to the
movement of electrons19.
19. What is the difference between an ammeter and a voltmeter in a circuit? An
ammeter is used to measure the electric current and must always be connected in
series with the component through which the current is being measured23. It has low
resistance so as not to change the current20. A voltmeter measures the potential
difference between two points and is always connected in parallel across those
points2122. It has high resistance to draw minimal current.
20. Explain the concept of variable resistance or a rheostat. In many electrical
circuits, it is necessary to increase or decrease the current without changing the
voltage provided by the source6. A component used to regulate the current by
changing the resistance is called a variable resistance6. A device often used in
laboratories to perform this function is a rheostat, which allows the user to manually
adjust the resistance in the circuit to achieve the desired current level6.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) 12 Numerical-Based Questions (Modelled on PYQs)
1. A current of 0.5 A is drawn by a filament of an electric bulb for 10 minutes.
Calculate the amount of electric charge that flows through the circuit3.
2. How much work is done in moving a charge of 2 C across two points having a
potential difference of 12 V21?
3. Calculate the resistance of a conductor if a current of 0.5 A flows through it when a
potential difference of 2 V is applied5.
4. The resistance of a wire of 0.01 cm radius is 10 Ω. If the resistivity of the wire is
50×10−8Ω m, find the length of this wire23.
5. An electric kettle of 2 kW is used for 2 hours. Calculate the energy consumed in
both kilowatt-hours and joules2425.
6. An electric heater rated 1100 W operates at 220 V. Calculate its resistance and the
current drawn26.
7. A wire of resistance R is cut into three equal parts. If these parts are joined in
parallel, calculate the total resistance of the combination2728.
8. Find the current drawn by two bulbs rated 100 W; 220 V and 60 W; 220 V when
connected in parallel to a 220 V main2930.
9. A 6 V battery is connected in series with 1 Ω and 2 Ω resistors. Calculate the
power consumed in the 2 Ω resistor31.
10. The resistance of a metal wire of length 3 m is 60 Ω. If the area of cross-section is
4×10−7 m2, find the resistivity32.
11. If the current in a resistive circuit is doubled, what is the percentage change in the
heat dissipated33?
12. An electric iron of resistance 20 Ω takes a current of 5 A. Calculate the heat
developed in 30 seconds16.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Answers for Numerical Questions
1. 300 C (Q=I×t=0.5 A×600 s)3.
2. 24 J (W=V×Q=12 V×2 C)21.
3. 4 Ω (R=V/I=2/0.5)34.
4. 6.28 m (L=RA/ρ; A=πr2)23.
5. 4 kWh and 14.4×106 J (Energy = Power × Time)25.
6. Resistance = 44 Ω; Current = 5 A (I=P/V;R=V/I)26.
7. R/9 (Each part is R/3; Parallel 1/Rp=3/R+3/R+3/R)28.
8. 0.7272 A (I1=100/220;I2=60/220;Itotal=I1+I2)30.
9. 8 W (Total R=3Ω;I=6/3=2 A;P=I2R=22×2)31.
10. 8×10−6Ω m (ρ=RA/l)32.
11. 300% (Heat becomes 4 times original; Change = 300%)33.
12. 15,000 J (H=I2Rt=52×20×30)16.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Chapter 2: Light – Reflection and Refraction
A) Chapter Summary
Light is a form of energy that travels in straight lines and enables us to see the world
around us35. When light encounters a highly polished surface, such as a mirror, it
undergoes reflection36. The Laws of Reflection state that the angle of incidence is
equal to the angle of reflection, and the incident ray, the normal, and the reflected ray
all lie in the same plane3637. Spherical mirrors, including concave (converging) and
convex (diverging) mirrors, form images whose nature, position, and size depend on
the object's distance3638.
Concave mirrors can form real, inverted images or virtual, erect images depending on
the object's position (e.g., points P, F, and C)3839. They are used in car headlights,
shaving mirrors, and solar furnaces40. Convex mirrors always form virtual, erect, and
diminished images, providing a wider field of view, which makes them ideal for rear-
view mirrors in vehicles4142. The Mirror Formula (1/v+1/u=1/f) relates object
distance (u), image distance (v), and focal length (f)43. Magnification (m) is the
ratio of image height to object height, also given by −v/u3644.
Refraction is the bending of light as it passes obliquely from one transparent medium
to another due to a change in the speed of light3645. Light travelling from a rarer to a
denser medium bends towards the normal, while light moving from a denser to a rarer
medium bends away36. The Refractive Index (n) is the ratio of the speed of light in
vacuum to the speed in the medium (n=c/v)36. Snell’s Law states that the ratio of
the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant for a
given pair of media36.
Spherical lenses use refraction to form images. Convex lenses are converging, while
concave lenses are diverging3646. The Lens Formula is given by
1/v−1/u=1/f3647. The Power of a Lens (P) is the reciprocal of its focal length in
metres (P=1/f), measured in dioptres (D)3536. A convex lens has positive power,
while a concave lens has negative power35.
Important Diagram: Ray Diagram for a Convex Lens The source illustrates how
parallel rays of light converge at the principal focus (F2) after passing through a
convex lens46.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B) Notes: Question and Answer Paper
1) 30 Medium-Type Questions (Answers approx. 70 words)
1. State the two laws of reflection of light. The reflection of light is governed by two
fundamental laws. First, the angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of
reflection3637. Second, the incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of
incidence, and the reflected ray all lie in the same geometric plane3637. These laws
are universally applicable to all types of reflecting surfaces, including plane mirrors
and spherical mirrors37.
2. Define the principal focus and focal length of a concave mirror. The principal
focus of a concave mirror is a point on the principal axis where light rays that are
initially parallel to the axis actually meet or converge after reflection48. The focal
length (f) is the distance between the pole of the mirror and this principal focus48. For
spherical mirrors with small apertures, the focal length is found to be exactly half of
the radius of curvature (R=2f)42.
3. Why are convex mirrors used as rear-view mirrors in vehicles? Convex mirrors
are preferred as rear-view mirrors for two main reasons. First, they always provide an
erect, though diminished, image of the objects behind the vehicle4142. Second,
because they are curved outwards, they offer a much wider field of view compared to
plane mirrors41. This allows the driver to monitor a significantly larger area of traffic,
enhancing safety while driving41.
4. Explain the New Cartesian Sign Convention for spherical mirrors. In this
convention, the pole of the mirror is the origin and the principal axis is the x-axis42.
Distances measured in the direction of incident light are positive, while those against
it are negative42. Heights measured upwards from the axis are positive, and those
measured downwards are negative42. Object distance (u) is always taken as negative
because the object is placed to the left of the mirror42.
5. Describe the nature of the image formed by a concave mirror when the object
is at 'C'. When an object is placed at the centre of curvature (C) of a concave mirror,
the reflected rays converge to form an image exactly at the same position, C3739. The
image formed is real and inverted39. Most importantly, the size of the image is equal
to the size of the object39. This is a unique position where the object and image
coincide in both location and dimensions.
6. What is refraction and what causes it? Refraction is the phenomenon where a ray
of light bends as it passes obliquely from one transparent medium into another3645.
This bending occurs at the interface separating the two media. The fundamental cause
of refraction is the change in the speed of light as it moves between materials of
different optical densities3645. For example, light travels slower in glass than in air,
causing the path to deviate45.
7. State the laws of refraction of light. Refraction follows two specific laws. First,
the incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in
the same plane36. Second, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of
the angle of refraction is constant for a given pair of media and a specific wavelength
of light36. This constant is known as the refractive index of the second medium36.
8. Define the absolute refractive index of a medium. The absolute refractive index
(n) of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum (c) to the
speed of light in that specific medium (v)36. Mathematically, n=c/v36. It is a
dimensionless quantity that indicates how much the speed of light reduces in that
medium49. A higher refractive index implies a greater light-bending ability and
higher optical density3649.
9. Differentiate between a converging lens and a diverging lens. A convex lens is
known as a converging lens because it refracts parallel rays of light so that they meet
at a single point called the principal focus46. Conversely, a concave lens is a
diverging lens because it causes parallel rays to spread out as if they were coming
from a focus46. Structurally, a convex lens is thicker in the middle, while a concave
lens is thinner in the middle50.
10. Define the power of a lens and its SI unit. The power of a lens is a measure of
its ability to converge or diverge light rays and is defined as the reciprocal of its focal
length expressed in metres (P=1/f)3536. The SI unit of lens power is the dioptre
(D)35. One dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is one metre35. Convex
lenses have positive power, while concave lenses have negative power35.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) 12 Numerical-Based Questions (Modelled on PYQs)
1. A convex mirror has a radius of curvature of 32 cm. Calculate its focal length44.
2. An object 4.0 cm in size is placed at 25.0 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal
length 15.0 cm. Find the position, nature, and size of the image43.
3. A concave mirror produces a three times magnified real image of an object placed
at 10 cm in front of it. Where is the image located44?
4. Light enters from air to glass with a refractive index of 1.50. If the speed of light in
vacuum is 3×108 m/s, calculate the speed of light in glass49.
5. An object is placed at a distance of 10 cm from a convex mirror of focal length 15
cm. Find the position and nature of the image5152.
6. A concave lens of focal length 15 cm forms an image 10 cm from the lens. How far
is the object placed from the lens51...?
7. An object 5 cm in length is held 25 cm away from a converging lens of focal length
10 cm. Find the position and size of the image55.
8. Find the focal length of a lens of power -2.0 D. What type of lens is this5657?
9. A doctor has prescribed a corrective lens of power +1.5 D. Find the focal length
and state if it is diverging or converging56.
10. A convex lens forms a real and inverted image of a needle at a distance of 50 cm.
Where is the needle placed if the image is the same size as the object? Find the
power35.
11. An object of height 10 cm is placed 25 cm away from a converging lens of focal
length 15 cm. Find the image distance5859.
12. Find the power of a concave lens of focal length 2 m35.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Answers for Numerical Questions
1. 16 cm (f=R/2)44.
2. -37.5 cm; Real and Inverted; Size = -6.0 cm43.
3. -30 cm (m=−v/u; −3=−v/−10)44.
4. 2×108 m/s (v=c/n)49.
5. 6 cm behind the mirror; Virtual and Erect5152.
6. -30 cm (Using lens formula: 1/v−1/u=1/f)5154.
7. Position = 16.67 cm; Size = -3.33 cm (1/v=1/10+1/−25)55.
8. -0.5 m (or -50 cm); Concave lens5657.
9. +0.67 m; Converging lens56.
10. -50 cm; Power = +4 D (Object at 2f; f=25 cm=0.25 m)35.
11. 37.5 cm (1/v=1/15−1/25)59.
12. -0.5 D (P=1/−2)35.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Chapter 3: The Human Eye and the Colourful World
A) Chapter Summary
The human eye is a highly sensitive sense organ that acts like a camera, using a lens
system to form real, inverted images on the retina6061. Light enters through the
cornea, and the iris controls the size of the pupil, which regulates the amount of light
entering the eye61. The power of accommodation is the ciliary muscles' ability to
adjust the focal length of the crystalline lens, allowing the eye to focus on both near
and distant objects61. For a normal eye, the near point is 25 cm, and the far point is
infinity6162.
Common defects of vision include myopia (nearsightedness), where the image forms
in front of the retina; hypermetropia (farsightedness), where the image forms behind
the retina; and presbyopia, which occurs with age due to loss of lens flexibility61....
Myopia is corrected with a concave lens, while hypermetropia and presbyopia are
corrected with convex lenses6164.
The chapter also explores optical phenomena. Dispersion is the splitting of white
light into its seven constituent colours when passing through a glass prism6165.
Atmospheric refraction is responsible for effects like the twinkling of stars and the
apparent delayed sunset6166. Scattering of light, described by the Tyndall effect,
explains why the sky appears blue and why the sun looks red during sunrise and
sunset6166. A rainbow is a natural spectrum formed by the dispersion, refraction, and
internal reflection of sunlight by water droplets6067.
Important Diagram: Correction for Myopia The source provides a diagram
showing how a concave lens diverges light rays so they can be focused accurately on
the retina for a myopic eye64.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B) Notes: Question and Answer Paper
1) 30 Medium-Type Questions (Answers approx. 70 words)
1. What is the role of the retina and the optic nerve in human vision? The retina is
a delicate, light-sensitive membrane located at the back of the eyeball where the eye's
lens system forms a real, inverted image6061. It contains numerous light-sensitive
cells that generate electrical signals upon illumination60. These signals are then
transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve60. The brain interprets these impulses,
allowing us to perceive objects correctly in their original orientation and detail.
2. Explain the term 'power of accommodation' of the eye. Accommodation is the
remarkable ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length to clearly see objects at
various distances61. This process is controlled by the ciliary muscles61. When the
muscles contract, the lens becomes thicker, increasing its curvature for near vision67.
When they relax, the lens becomes thinner, decreasing its curvature to focus on distant
objects67. This flexibility ensures clear images on the retina.
3. Define 'near point' and 'far point' for a normal human eye. The near point is the
minimum distance at which an object can be seen distinctly without any strain on the
eye; for a young adult with normal vision, this is approximately 25 cm6162. The far
point is the maximum distance up to which the eye can see objects clearly, which is at
infinity for a normal eye6162. A normal eye can focus on any object between these
two points.
4. Describe the causes and correction of myopia. Myopia, or nearsightedness,
occurs when a person can see nearby objects clearly but cannot focus on distant
ones64. This is caused by excessive curvature of the eye lens or the eyeball becoming
too long, resulting in the image forming in front of the retina64. It is corrected using a
concave (diverging) lens of suitable power6164. This lens diverges the incoming rays
so they can be focused accurately on the retina.
5. What is hypermetropia and how is it corrected? Hypermetropia, or
farsightedness, is a defect where a person sees distant objects clearly but nearby
objects appear blurry63. This happens because the focal length of the eye lens is too
long or the eyeball has become too short, causing the image to form behind the
retina6364. To correct this, a convex (converging) lens is used6164. This lens
provides the additional converging power needed to bring the image forward onto the
retina.
6. Explain why stars twinkle while planets do not. Twinkling is caused by the
atmospheric refraction of starlight as it passes through layers of air with varying
densities66. Since stars are distant point sources, their apparent position and
brightness fluctuate66. Planets, however, are much closer to Earth and are seen as
extended sources66. The total variation in the amount of light entering our eye from
all the individual points on a planet averages out to zero, cancelling the twinkling
effect66.
7. Describe the phenomenon of dispersion of white light. Dispersion is the splitting
of a beam of white light into its seven constituent colours—violet, indigo, blue, green,
yellow, orange, and red—when it passes through a transparent medium like a glass
prism6165. This happens because different wavelengths (colours) of light refract or
bend through different angles relative to the incident ray as they pass through the
prism68. Red light bends the least, while violet light bends the most68.
8. What is the Tyndall effect? Provide an example. The Tyndall effect is the
phenomenon of scattering of light by very small colloidal particles in its path, making
the path of the light beam visible69. A common example occurs when a fine beam of
sunlight enters a smoke-filled room through a narrow hole69. The smoke and dust
particles scatter the light, allowing us to see the distinct rays69. This effect is also
seen when sunlight passes through a forest canopy.
9. Why does the sky appear blue to an observer on Earth? The blue appearance of
the sky is due to the scattering of light by molecules and fine particles in the
atmosphere6166. These particles are more effective at scattering shorter wavelengths,
such as blue and violet, than longer wavelengths like red69. Although violet is
scattered more than blue, our eyes are more sensitive to blue light, and the upper
atmosphere absorbs much of the violet light, resulting in a blue sky69.
10. Explain why danger signals are always red in colour. Red light is used for
danger signals because it has the longest wavelength in the visible spectrum70.
Because of its long wavelength, it is scattered the least by air molecules, fog, or
smoke70. This allows the red signal to remain visible from a great distance and
through adverse weather conditions, ensuring that warnings are seen by drivers or
pilots as early as possible to prevent accidents70.
(Note: Continuing per chapter requirement...)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) 12 Numerical-Based Questions (Modelled on PYQs)
1. A person needs a lens of power -5.5 D for distant vision. Calculate the focal length
of this lens62.
2. For near vision, a person needs a lens of power +1.5 D. What is the focal length of
this corrective lens62?
3. The far point of a myopic person is 80 cm in front of the eye. Find the power of the
required lens62.
4. The near point of a hypermetropic eye is 1 m. Find the power of the lens required to
correct this, assuming the normal near point is 25 cm66.
5. A student has difficulty reading the board beyond 2 m. What power lens is needed
to correct this65?
6. Find the power of a concave lens with a focal length of 2 m66.
7. A person uses a corrective lens of focal length -10 cm. Find its power and nature57.
8. A doctor prescribes a lens of +4.0 D. Find its focal length in cm5971.
9. Calculate the focal length for a lens needed by a person whose far point has moved
to 50 cm62.
10. A hypermetropic person has a near point of 75 cm. Find the power of the convex
lens needed66.
11. If the magnification of a corrective lens is +0.5, identify the likely vision defect47.
12. A myopic student can see objects up to 5 m. Find the power of the lens required
for clear distant vision62.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Answers for Numerical Questions
1. -18.2 cm (f=1/P=1/−5.5)62.
2. +66.7 cm (f=1/1.5)62.
3. -1.25 D (P=1/f=1/−0.8)62.
4. +3.0 D (1/f=1/0.25−1/1.0=4−1=3)66.
5. -0.5 D (f=−2 m)6265.
6. -0.5 D (P=1/−2)66.
7. -10 D; Concave lens72.
8. 25 cm (f=1/4=0.25 m)71.
9. -2.0 D (f=−0.5 m)62.
10. +2.67 D (1/f=1/0.25−1/0.75=4−1.33=2.67)66.
11. Hypermetropia (Erect, virtual, diminished image from a corrective lens logic)47.
12. -0.2 D (f=−5 m)62.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Chapter 4: Magnetic Effects of Electric Current
A) Chapter Summary
An electric current-carrying wire behaves like a magnet, producing a magnetic
field in the surrounding region7374. The presence of this field can be detected using a
compass needle, which is a small bar magnet that gets deflected when brought near
the current7374. Magnetic field lines are imaginary curves used to represent the
field's strength and direction; they emerge from the north pole and enter the south pole
outside the magnet, forming closed loops74.
The Right-Hand Thumb Rule is used to determine the direction of the magnetic
field around a straight conductor: if the thumb points in the direction of the current,
the curled fingers indicate the direction of the field lines7576. A solenoid, which is a
long coil of insulated copper wire, produces a uniform magnetic field inside
itself7778. This property allows it to be used to create electromagnets by placing a
soft iron core inside the coil78.
A current-carrying conductor placed in an external magnetic field experiences a force,
provided the current is not parallel to the field lines7879. The force is maximum when
the conductor is perpendicular to the field8081. The direction of this force is
determined by Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule: with the thumb, forefinger, and middle
finger held mutually perpendicular, the forefinger points to the field, the middle finger
to the current, and the thumb indicates the direction of motion or force78.... This
principle is the basis for the electric motor, a device that converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy7884.
Domestic electric circuits utilize a potential difference of 220 V at 50 Hz78.
Essential safety features include the earth wire, which protects users from electric
shocks by grounding leakage current from metallic appliances, and the fuse, which
prevents overloading and short-circuits by melting when the current exceeds a safe
limit17....
Important Diagram: Magnetic Field Lines around a Bar Magnet The source
illustrates how iron filings arrange themselves in curved lines emerging from the north
pole and entering the south pole of a bar magnet7374.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B) Notes: Question and Answer Paper
1) 30 Medium-Type Questions (Answers approx. 70 words)
1. Why does a compass needle get deflected when brought near a current-
carrying wire? A compass needle is essentially a small bar magnet74. When it is
brought near a wire carrying an electric current, it experiences a magnetic force
because the current creates its own magnetic field in the space surrounding the
conductor7379. This deflection, first observed by Hans Christian Oersted,
demonstrates the fundamental link between electricity and magnetism, proving that
moving charges generate magnetic fields74.
2. State the properties of magnetic field lines. Magnetic field lines are imaginary
curves used to represent the magnetic field74. By convention, they emerge from the
north pole and enter the south pole outside a magnet, while moving from south to
north inside it, forming continuous closed loops74. Their degree of closeness indicates
the field's strength; the field is strongest where the lines are most crowded74.
Critically, two field lines never intersect3186.
3. Why can two magnetic field lines never intersect each other? It is a physical
impossibility for two magnetic field lines to cross3186. If they were to intersect, it
would imply that at the point of intersection, a compass needle would have to point in
two different directions simultaneously to align with both lines3186. Since the
magnetic field at any single point in space can have only one unique direction, field
lines must remain distinct and non-intersecting8788.
4. Explain the Right-Hand Thumb Rule and its application. The Right-Hand
Thumb Rule is a convenient method for finding the direction of the magnetic field
around a straight current-carrying conductor7576. It states that if you imagine holding
the conductor in your right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of the
current, then your curled fingers will indicate the direction of the magnetic field
lines7689. This rule helps in predicting field patterns for various circuit geometries.
5. What is a solenoid and what are its magnetic properties? A solenoid is a long
coil containing many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely in the
shape of a cylinder9091. When an electric current passes through it, the solenoid
produces a magnetic field very similar to that of a bar magnet78. Inside the solenoid,
the field lines are parallel straight lines, indicating that the magnetic field is uniform at
all points within the coil77.
6. How can a solenoid be used to make an electromagnet? A solenoid can be used
to make an electromagnet by placing a core of magnetic material, such as soft iron,
inside the coil while a current is flowing78. The strong, uniform magnetic field
produced inside the solenoid magnetises the iron core7890. This magnetism is
temporary and is lost as soon as the current is switched off, making electromagnets
useful for devices requiring controllable magnetic force92.
7. State Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule and identify its use. Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule
is used to determine the direction of the force acting on a current-carrying conductor
in a magnetic field7883. It states that if the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the
left hand are held mutually perpendicular, with the forefinger pointing to the magnetic
field and the middle finger to the current, then the thumb will point in the direction of
the force or motion8283.
8. Explain the principle of an electric motor. An electric motor is a device that
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy7884. It operates on the principle
that when a rectangular coil carrying an electric current is placed in a magnetic field,
it experiences a force that causes it to rotate continuously8493. A commutator or split
ring is used to reverse the direction of current through the coil every half-rotation,
ensuring constant rotation in one direction84.
9. What is the function of the earth wire in domestic circuits? The earth wire,
typically identified by green insulation, is a vital safety feature for electrical
appliances with metallic bodies85. It provides a low-resistance conducting path for
electric current85. If a fault occurs and current leaks to the metal body of the
appliance, the earth wire ensures the current flows safely into the ground rather than
through the user, preventing severe electric shocks7685.
10. Explain the causes of overloading and how it is prevented. Overloading occurs
when the total current drawn by appliances in a circuit exceeds the capacity of the
wires, often due to connecting too many high-power devices to a single socket or due
to short-circuiting1772. This leads to excessive heating and potential fire72. It is
prevented by using an electric fuse, which melts and breaks the circuit if the current
becomes dangerously high1794.
(Note: Continuing per chapter requirement...)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) 12 Numerical-Based Questions (Modelled on PYQs)
1. A positron enters a uniform magnetic field at right angles. Determine the direction
of the force experienced33.
2. An alpha particle projected west is deflected north by a magnetic field. Find the
direction of the field95.
3. Calculate the current drawn by a 3 kW electric heater from a 220 V source. Is a 5 A
fuse sufficient1594?
4. If the resistance of a resistor is reduced to half, how much heat will be produced if
all other parameters are constant96?
5. A motor takes 5 A from a 220 V line. Calculate its power18.
6. An electron moves vertically upwards in a magnetic field directed towards the
north. Find the force direction82.
7. Identify the case (parallel vs perpendicular) where the force on a conductor is
maximum and minimum8097.
8. Find the current in a 1 kW electric iron operated at 220 V. What fuse rating should
be used15?
9. Calculate the energy consumed by a 400 W refrigerator running 8 hours/day for 30
days18.
10. Determine the resultant magnetic field at a point midway between two parallel
wires carrying equal current I in the same direction9899.
11. If the number of turns in a solenoid is doubled, how does the magnetic field
strength change100?
12. Find the power consumed in a 2 Ω resistor connected in series with a 1 Ω resistor
to a 6 V battery31.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Answers for Numerical Questions
1. Out of the page (Positron is positive; use Fleming's Left-Hand Rule)101.
2. Upward (Alpha particle is positive; thumb=north, index=field, middle=west)95.
3. 13.63 A; No, the 5 A fuse will melt (1000×3/220)1594.
4. It becomes half (H∝R when V is constant: H=V2t/R; Note: Sources vary on
fixed I vs V)96.
5. 1100 W (P=VI=220×5)18.
6. Towards the West (Direction of current is opposite to electron motion)82.
7. Max at 90∘; Min (Zero) at 0∘8097.
8. 4.54 A; use a 5 A fuse15.
9. 96 kWh (Energy = 0.4 kW×8 h/day×30 days)18.

11. It doubles (Strength ∝ Number of turns)100.

12. 8 W (Total R=3Ω,I=2 A;P=I2R=22×2)31.