KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND BUILDING
ENGINEERING

HIGHER DIPLOMA IN CIVIL & BUILDING

ENGINEERING

THEORY OF STRUCTURES

[DCE 311]

LECTURE NOTES

Course Content

1
1.0. Basics in Structural Analysis
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Support connections
2.0. Review of the Basic Concepts in Mechanics
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Equations of Equilibrium
2.3. Internal forces in a member
2.4. The Principal of virtual work
2.5. The Principal of superposition
3.0. Statically indeterminacy of Structures
4.0. Analysis of Statically Determinate Structures
4.1. Internal Force on a System
4.2. Internal Forces Acting on Typical Structural Members
4.3. Axial Force, Shear Force and Bending Moment
4.4. Sign Convention and Notations for Internal Forces
4.5. Obtaining Internal Forces in a System: General Procedure
4.6. Internal Force Diagrams for Various Systems
5.0. Deflection of Structures
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Methods for determining deformations in members
5.2.1. Moment Area Method
5.2.2. Conjugate Beam Method
5.2.3. Castigliano’s Method
5.2.4. Unit Load Method
6.0. Analysis of Arches and Cables
7.0. Influence lines of statically determinate structures
CHAPTER ONE
2
1.0. Basics in Structural Analysis
1.1. Introduction
The word structure has various meanings.
By an engineering structure we mean roughly something constructed or built.
The principal structures of concern to civil engineers are bridges, buildings,
walls, dams, towers, shells, and cable structures.
Such structures are composed of one or more solid elements arranged so that
the whole structure as well as its components are capable of holding
themselves without appreciable geometric change during loading and
unloading.
In this course unit we shall be dealing with the behaviour of real structures,
or parts thereof. For example, instead of dealing with a beam or acolumn, we
study how a building frame (Figure 1.1), composed of several beams and
columns, behaves. In a similar way, we first learn about the loads that are
applied to the whole structure, and not to individual members.

Fig. 1.1 Frame in a building

The design of a structure involves many considerations, among which are
four major objectives that must be satisfied:

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The structure must meet the performance requirement (utility).
The structure must carry loads safely (safety).
The structure should be economical in material, construction, and cost
(economy).
The structure should have a good appearance (aesthetics).
The complete design of a structure is outlined in the following stages:
i. Developing a general (geometric) layout
ii. Investigating the loads
iii. Structural analysis
iv. Selection of elements
v. Drawing and detailing

(i) Developing a general layout

The general layout of a structure is selected from many possible alternatives.
This stage involves the choice of the structural type, the selection of material,
and a tentative estimation of cost based on a reasonable analysis of a
preliminary structural design.
It is clear that this stage of design calls for an engineer with a high order of
experience, skill, general knowledge, and imagination.

Figure 1.2a: Idealized structure

4
 Figure 1.2b: Idealized structure

(ii) Investigating the loads

Before a refined structural analysis can be carried out, it is necessary to
determine the loads for which a given structure should be designed.
General information about the loads imposed on a structure is usually given
in the specifications and codes.
However, it is part of the designer's responsibility to specify the load
conditions and to take care of exceptional cases.

(iii) Structural (Stress) analysis

Once the basic form of the structure and the external loads are defined, a
structural analysis can be made to determine the internal forces in various
members of the structure and the displacements at some controlling points.
When live loads are involved, it is important to determine the maximum
possible stresses in each member being considered.
The principles governing this phase of design are usually discussed in the
theory of structures.

5
(iv) Selection of elements
The selection of suitable sizes and shapes of members and their connections
depends on the results from stress analysis together with the design
provisions of the specifications or codes.
A trial-and-error approach may be used in the search for a proportioning of
elements that will be both economical and adequate.
A sound knowledge of the strength of material and process of fabrication is
also essential.
(v) Drawing and detailing
This final stage includes the preparation of contract drawing, detailing, job
specification, and final cost; this information is necessary for construction to
proceed.
1.2. Support connections
Structural members may be joined in a variety of ways, the most common
being pin and fixed joints.
A pin joint/connection prevents deflection but allows rotation.
A fixed joint/connection prevents both deflection and rotation.
However in reality, a pin connection has some resistance against rotation
due to friction, therefore, a torsional spring connection may be more
appropriate. If the stiffness k=0, the joint is a pin, if k= , the joint is fixed.

6
Fig. 1.3 Frame in a building

7
 CHAPTER TWO
2.0. Review of the Basic Concepts in Structural Mechanics
2.1. Introduction
Structural Mechanics can be briefly described as the study of the behaviour
of structures using the knowledge of mechanics. Such a description needs
some understanding of the terms “structure” and “mechanics”. Structures
include a wide variety of systems, such as buildings, bridges, dams, aircrafts,
etc., that are built to serve some specific human needs (for example,
habitation, transportation, storage, etc.). In Structural Mechanics, we mostly
deal with mechanics of solids (i.e. deformable bodies). However, here we
8
move on from studying the behaviour of structural members/materials to
studying the behaviour of real structures, or parts thereof. For example,
instead of dealing with a beam or a column, we study how a building
frame(Figure 2.1), composed of several beams and columns, behaves.
Structures are classified into various categories depending on the
system/mode of classification:
(a)On the basis of its intended function/usage: Buildings, bridges, dams,
industrial sheds, cable ways, chimneys, etc.
(b)On the basis of its form/load transfer mechanism:Beams, columns, floor
slabs, arches, shells, trusses, frames,footings, etc. (Figure 2.1).

9
 Figure 2.1: Various structural forms

(c) Considering the analysis perspective: 2-dimensional, 3-dimensional,

determinate, indeterminate, etc.(Figure 1.3).

Figure 2.2: 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional model of structures

Similarly loads are also put into different categories, based on various
criteria:
(a)Based on the source/origin: Wind load, earthquake load, self weight, live
load, blast load, temperature stress, etc.
(b) Based on the direction of action: Gravity loads, lateral loads, etc. (Figure
2.3).

Figure 2.3: Load types based on direction of action

(c) Based on time-variation: Static, dynamic, impulse, pseudo-static, etc.

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(d) Based on the mode of action/analysis point-of-view: Concentrated or
point load, distributed load, moment, pressure, etc. (Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.4: Load types based on analysis point of view

2.2. Equations of Equilibrium
The concept of equilibrium is the most central one in the subject of Statics.
When the net effect or the resultant of all the forces (and couples) acting on
a system is zero, the system is said to be in equilibrium. Thus, based on the
resultant of all the forces R, and the resultant of all the moments (couples) M,
the vector equations of equilibrium are:
∑ ∑ (2.1)
The two vector equations of equilibrium can be expressed alternatively as
scalar equations of equilibrium for a system of forces in 3 dimensions (x,y
&z), as
∑ ∑ ∑ (2.2)
∑ ∑ ∑ (2.3)

Here, ∑ represents the algebraic summation of components of all the

forces in the x-direction. This summation is same as the resultant (net effect)
of all the forces in x-direction.

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This set of six equilibrium equations can be narrowed down to three scalar
equations in case of a planer force system (forces acting in two dimensions
only)
∑ ∑ ∑ (2.4)

Figures 2.5&2.6 illustrate how resultants are obtained for a two-dimensional

(planer) force system.

Figure 2.5: Obtaining resultants for a truss

Summation of forces in the x-direction

Summation of forces in the y-direction

Summation of moments in the z-direction about Joint A

∑ (√ ) ( )

Summation of moments in the z-direction about Joint B

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 ∑ (√ ) ( )

Figure 2.6: Obtaining resultants for a cantilever system

Summation of forces in the x-direction

Summation of forces in the y-direction

Summation of moments in the z-direction about Joint A

These equations provide the necessary and sufficient forces to keep the
system in equilibrium. The omission of a force that is acting on a system or
the inclusion of a force that is not acting on the system produces erroneous
results in analyzing the behaviour of the system. Hence, it is of utmost
importance to understand exactly what the mechanical system under
consideration is and the forces that are acting on the specific system. A
system is a body or a combination of connected bodies. The bodies can be
either be rigid or deformable (even fluids can be treated as body). For the

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important task of identifying the forces (and couples) acting on a system, we
take the help of free body diagrams. Thus, drawing a free body diagram
becomes the first and foremost task in solution of problems in mechanics.
The free body diagram of a body (or its part, or a connected system of
bodies) is obtained by isolating it from the all other surrounding bodies. The
diagram detaches the system in consideration from all mechanical contacts
with otherbodies and sets it free. The other bodies are not shown in the
diagram, but they are replaced by the forces (andcouples) that they apply on
the system for which we are drawing a free body diagram.
2.3. Internal forces in a member
These are the forces acting within a member when it a section of it is [Link]
Fig. 2.7 below, where M is the internal moment, Fx is the internal force in
the horizontal direction, Fy is the internal force in the vertical direction when
a section a-a is cut through a beam.

Figure 2.7: Internal loadings

2.4. The Principal of virtual work

Consider a mass attached to a spring and pulled by an applied force , Fig.
2.8a. When the mass is in equilibrium, where is
the spring force with x the distance from the spring reference position.

14
 Figure 2.8: A force extending an elastic spring; (a) block in equilibrium, (b) block
not at its equilibrium position
In order to develop a number of powerful techniques based on a concept
known asvirtual work, imagine that the mass is not in fact at its equilibrium
position but at an (incorrect) non-equilibrium position ,Fig. 2.8b. The
imaginary displacement is called a virtual displacement. Therefore
virtual work done by a force is defined as the product of the equilibrium
force andthe small imaginary displacement, . It should be emphasized that
virtual work is not real work – no work has been performed since is not a
real displacement which has taken place but an [Link] virtual work
of the spring force is then . The virtual work of
the applied force is . The total virtual work is
( )
There are two ways of viewing this expression. First, if the system is in
equilibrium ( )then the virtual work is zero, i.e.
Alternatively, if the virtual work is zero then, since is arbitrary,

15
the system must be in equilibrium. Thus the virtual work idea gives one an
alternative means of determining whether a system is in equilibrium.

2.5. The Principal of superposition

For a linearly elastic structure, When more than one loading is being applied
to a member, the resultant stress or displacement at a point can be
determined by first finding the stress or displacement caused by each
individual component of the load acting separately and then summing these
together. This method is useful when a large number of loads are applied on
a member. This method is also useful when calculating statically
indeterminate loadings.

Note that the principle is limited to:

Linear material behaviour (obeys hooke’s law), and so the load is directly
proportional to the displacement.

i.e. stress, and strain,

, therefore

Where is the displacement.

The geometry of the structure must not undergo significant change when
loads are applied (small deformations apply).

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Figure 2.9: Examples of superposed beams

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0. Statically Indeterminacy of Structures

If the number of static equilibrium equations is not sufficient to solve for all
the external and internal forces (support reactions and member forces,
respectively) in a system, then the system is said to be statically
indeterminate. A statically determinate system is where all the support
reactions and internal member forces are obtained using only static
equilibrium [Link] an example of the truss below (Figure 3.1)

Figure 3.1: A statically indeterminate truss

How many unknown reactions do we have? 4 unknown reactions

How many unknown internal forces do we have? 3 unknown member forces

Therefore we have a total of 7 unknown forces acting on the truss.

How many equations of equilibrium do we have for a total of three joints?

We have 6 equations of equilibrium, 2 for each joint.

Since the total number of reactions and internal forces is greater than the
equations of equilibrium there is no way you can determine the unknown
forces with only these available equations of equilibrium. So how do we
solve this problem? This problem is what is termed as a statically
indeterminate structure.

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From the above truss, we have 7 unknown forces in total and 6 equations of
equilibrium.

So the degree of static indeterminacy = 7 (unknown forces) – 6 (equations of

equilibrium) =1.
This structural system (truss) is statically indeterminate to one degree and so
one has to use compatibility conditions in addition toequations of
equilibrium to solve for the unknown forces in that system.
The general formula for determining the degree of static indeterminacy of
plane trusses

1. Unknown forces
Let r = The number of reactive forces and moment components.
m= The number of members.
If each member is subject to one axial load as shown in previous
examples, then the number of unknown forces in each member is m.

Therefore the total number of unknown forces =r+m

2. Equations of equilibrium

Let j= The number of joints

If each joint is subject to two independent equations of equilibrium
Therefore the total number of equations of equilibrium=2j

Degree of static indeterminacy of plane trusses = (r+m)-2j

It should be noted that (r+m)-2j only applies to plane (2 dimensional) trusses.

For beams and frames the formula for computing the indeterminacy is
(r+m)-3j.

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The following figures illustrate some examples of statically determinate
(Figures 3.2a-c)and indeterminate structures (Figures3.3a-c).

Figure 3.2: Statically determinate structures

Figure 3.3: Statically indeterminate structures

For an indeterminate system, some support(s) or internal member(s) can be

removed without disturbing itsequilibrium. These additional supports and
members are known as redundants. A determinate system has the exact

20
number of supports and internal members that it needs to maintain its
equilibrium and no redundants. If a system has less than required number of
supports and internal members to maintain equilibrium, then it is considered
[Link] this course unit we are only going to be looking at only statically
determinate structures.
3. Symmetry and Anti symmetry
Symmetry or anti symmetry in a structural system can be effectively
exploited for the purpose of analyzingstructural systems. Symmetry and anti
symmetry can be found in many real-life structural systems (or, in the
idealized model of a real-life structural system). It is very important to
remember that when we saysymmetry in a structural system, it implies the
existence of symmetry both in the structure itself includingthe support
conditions and also in the loading on that structure. The systems shown in
Fig. 3.4 are symmetric because, for each individual case, the structure is
symmetric and the loading is symmetric as well. However, the systems
shown in Fig. 3.5 are not symmetric because either the structure or the
loading is not symmetric.

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Figure 3.4: Symmetric structural systems

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 Figure 3.5: Non-symmetric (asymmetric) structural systems
For an antisymmetric system the structure (including support conditions)
remains symmetric, however, the loading is antisymmetric. Fig. 3.6 shows
examples of antisymmetric structural systems.

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 Figure 3.6: Antisymmetric structural systems

It is not difficult to see that the deformation for a symmetric structure will be
symmetric about the same line of symmetry. This fact is illustrated in Fig.
3.7, where we can see that every symmetric structure undergoes symmetric
deformation. Similarly, we always get antisymmetric deformation for
antisymmetric structural systems, as illustrated in Fig. 3.8.

24
Figure 3.7: Deformation in symmetric systems

25
 Figure 3.8: Deformation in antisymmetric systems

Let us look at beam AB in Fig. 3.9(a), which is symmetric about point C.

The deformed shape of the structure will be symmetric as well (Fig. 3.9(b)).
So, if we solve for the forces and deformations in part ACof the beam, we do
not need to solve for part CB separately. The symmetry (or antisymmetry) in
deformation gives us additional information prior to analyzing the structure
and this information can be used to reduce the size of the structure that needs
to be considered for analysis.

26
 Figure 3.9: Symmetric beam system AB and its deformation under load

The following general rules about deformation can be deduced looking at the
examples in Fig. 3.8 and Fig. 3.9:
1. For a symmetric structure: the slope at the point/line of symmetry is zero.
2. For an antisymmetric structure: the deflection at the point/line of
symmetry is zero.
This information has to be incorporated when we reduce a symmetric (or
antisymmetric) structure to a smaller one. If we want to reduce the
symmetric beam in Fig. 3.9 to its one symmetric half AC, we have to
integrate the fact the slope at point C for the reduced system AC will have to
be zero. This will be a necessary boundary condition for the reduced system
AC. We can achieve this by providing a support at C, which restricts any
rotation, but allows vertical displacement, as shown in Fig. 3.10 (Note: this
specific type of support is known as a “shear-release” or “shear-hinge”).
Everything else (loading, other support conditions) remainsunchanged in the
reduced system. We can use this system AC for our analysis instead of the
whole beam AB.

27
 Figure 3.10: Reduced system AC is adopted for analysis of beam AB
Similarly, let us consider an antisymmetric system, a simply-supported beam
AB which is antisymmetric about the mid-point C (Fig. 3.11(a)). We know
that the deformed shape will also be antisymmetric (Fig. 3.11(b)), and the
displacement at point C will be equal to zero. Therefore, for the reduced
system, we consider one antisymmetric half AC, with a support condition at
C which allows rotation but does not allow vertical displacements there (Fig.
3.11(c)). Everything else remains same as in AB.

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 Figure 3.11: (a) Antisymmetric simply-supported beam AB; (b) Antisymmetric
deformation pattern for AB ; (c) Reduced system AC is used for analysis.

Having priory knowledge about symmetry/antisymmetry in the structural

system and in its deformed shape helps us know about
symmetry/antisymmetry in internal forces in that system. (Symmetry in the
system implies symmetry in equilibrium, while symmetry in deformed shape
implies symmetry in geometric compatibility.) Internal forces in a
symmetric system are also symmetric about the same axis and similarly
antisymmetric systems have antisymmetric internal forces.

29
Once we know about these diagrams we can easily see the following as per
Fig 3.12:
1. A symmetric beam-column system has a symmetric bending moment
diagram.
2. A symmetric beam-column system has an antisymmetric shear force
diagram.
3. An antisymmetric beam-column system has an antisymmetric bending
moment diagram.
4. An antisymmetric beam-column system has a symmetric shear force
diagram.

Figure3.12: Internal force diagrams for a) a symmetric system, and b) an

antisymmetric system
30
 CHAPTER FOUR
4.0. Analysis of statically determinate structures
4.1. Internal force on a system
Internal forces (or moments) are generated within a solid body (or structural
system) when it is acted upon by external forces (including support reactions
and other contact forces as well). To illustrate how internal forces are
generated or why they exist, let us consider a three-dimensional solid body
(Figure 4.1a), supported at points A and B, with external loads applied on the
system. To study the equilibrium of the whole body, we draw its free body
diagram (Figure 4.1b). The supports are replaced by reactions in the free
body diagram. We consider an internal surface by taking an arbitrary cut
through the system (Figure 4.1c). For equilibrium of the part at the right of
the section, there has to be forces acting on the internal surface which
balance the external loads and (Figure 4.1d) and these are internal forces
acting on the surface of the cut.

Figure 4.1: Internal forces at a cross-sectional surface of a solid body

31
It is important to know the internal forces acting at different sections of a
system. The material, of which the body is made, should be strong enough to
carry these forces. Otherwise the system fails (by crushing, breaking, etc.)
under the loading condition.
The general procedure of obtaining internal forces includes these following
steps:
1. Obtain the system configuration (dimension and support conditions) and
external loadings applied on it.
2. Draw a free body diagram of the whole system.
3. Find the support reactions by using equations of (static) equilibrium.
4. Take a cut through the body where internal forces have to be obtained.
5. Consider equilibrium of the part of the system at any one side of the cut
by drawing a free body diagram of that part.
6. Obtain the unknown internal forces acting on the cut surface by solving
these equilibrium equations.
4.2. Internal forces acting on typical structural members
It is mentioned in chapter 2 that one method of classifying structural systems
is on the basis of their load transfer mechanisms. To elaborate, a system (or
a structural member) is identified based on the predominant types of internal
forces carried by it. Thus we have: bars, cables, beams, columns, arches, etc.
Below is a list of such members along with the predominant internal forces
that they carry.
1. Cable: A cable or wire can carry axial tension only.
[Link]: A bar carries only axial forces – tension and compression both. That
is why it is also known as axially loaded bar.

32
3. Beam: A beam's primary function is to transfer vertical loads applied
externally on the beam. These loadsproduce bending moments and shear
forces on beam a cross-section.
4. Column: The predominant internal force in a column is axial
compression.
5. Beam-Column: A beam-column, as the name suggests, carries all kinds
of internal forces that are produced in a beam or a column, which include:
bending moment, shear force and axial force.
[Link]: An arch is a curved member which carries primarily axial
compression under lateral loads applied externally.
There is no difference in the shapes of a beam, a column, a beam-column or
a bar. All are straight longitudinal members (one dimension is much larger
than the other two) and we will not be able to distinguish one from the other
unless we know the load transfer mechanism.
[Link] force, shear force and bending moment
When the loading on such a member is on a plane same as the member itself,
we call it a two-dimensional (planar) case (see Figure 4.2a for example). In
such cases, the internal forces also lie on the same plane. The internal forces
on any cross-section can be expressed with two orthogonal force
components and one moment in the plane of loading (F1, F2, Min Figure
4.2b). We can align x -axis along the centroidal axisof the member and we
can also align one of the forces, let's say, along this centroidal axis (along
theprimary dimension). Then this internal force will be known as the axial
force(Figure 4.2c). Then the other force component acts tangentially to this
surface and it is known as the shear force. The internal moment, which is
acting on the transverse cross-section, is known as the bending moment.

33
Figure 4.2: Axial force, shear force and bending moment on a cross-section of a two-
dimensional (planar) system
For a three-dimensional case, that is when the loading is not restricted to one
plane, we have three orthogonal force components and three orthogonal
moment components on an internal surface (Figures 4.3a & b).
We align the centroidal axis of the member along, say, the x -axis, and
consider an internal surface perpendicular to it (shaded part, Figures 4.3c).
Then Fxis the axial forceandFyandFz are the two shear forces.
Moments MyandMz are the two bending moments. The moment Mxis known
as the torsion. This set of forces is the most generic case of internal forces
for such structural members.

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 Figure 4.3: Axial force, two shear forces and two bending moments for three-
dimensional systems
Note that these internal forces are defined according to their orientation
respective to the structural member. The axial force acts along the
centroidalaxis of the member. The shear forces act in a plane which is
perpendicular to this centroidal axis and the bending moments act along
directions perpendicular to thiscentroidalaxis as well. The torsion acts along
the centroidal axis.

35
4.4. Sign convention and notations for internal forces
The sign convention for internal forces depends on the internal surface on
which these forces are being considered. So, we need to define the internal
surface first. Let us assume that the centroidal axis of a longitudinal
structural member is aligned along the x -axis, and we consider the internal
forces on an x-plane (or x-surface). If this cross-section is facing positive x -
direction, then it is called a positive x - surface, and vice-versa. Figures 4.4a
& b show the positive internal forces on positive and negative x - surfaces,
respectively.

Figure 4.4: Direction of positive internal forces on a positive x -surface (a) and a
negative x -surface (b)

36
Let us consider planer loading(that is, two-dimensional) cases with no
torsion. For an internal segment of a member, we can show the internal
forces both on the positive and the negativeinternal surfaces. Positive
directions for each internal force (an axial force, a shear force and a bending
moment) are shown individually in Figure 4.5. This is an easy and standard
way of defining sign conventions for two-dimensional cases, and students
are encouraged to define (for each specific case) their adopted sign
convention similarly.

Fig. 4.5: Defining sign convention for internal forces in a planar system

Notations that we follow for these internal forces are: P for axial force, V for
shear force, and M for bending moment. However, please note that in a
three-dimensional case, we need suffixes to distinguish betweenthe two
shear forces and also between the two bending moments. General notation
for torsion is T.
4.5. Obtaining internal forces in a system: General procedure
The general method of obtaining internal forces at a certain cross-section of
a system under a given loading (and support) condition is by applying the
concepts of equilibrium. To illustrate, let us consider the beam-columnAB in
Figure 4.6 for which we have to find the internal forces at section a - a. As
we have learned earlier, equilibrium conditions are best studied through free
body diagrams. We can find the reactions at supports A and B using a free
body diagram of the whole beam-column AB (Figure 4.7). We solve the
three equations for static equilibrium for this free body:
37
 Figure 4.6: Loading and support conditions for planar beam-column system AB

Figure 4.7: Free body diagram of AB

Solution

If a system is in static equilibrium condition, then every segment of it is also

in equilibrium. So, we can consider the equilibrium for AC or CB
independently. Let us consider the equilibrium of part AC, and draw its free
body diagram (Figure 4.8). In addition to externally applied forces and the
support reaction and, this free body is acted upon by forces P,V and M on
the surface a - a. These are nothing but the internal forces (axial force, shear

38
force and bending moment, respectively) acting at the cross-section a –aof
AB. Note that these forces are drawn in their respective positive directions in
order to avoid sign confusion. Solving the three static equilibrium equations
for AC we find these internal forces:

Figure 4.8: Free body diagram of part AC

Solution

Thus we obtain the internal forces at section a - a. These could also be

obtained by considering the equilibrium of the part at the other side of
section a - a, that is of part CB.
Fig.4.9 shows the free body diagram of CB. Again, the internal forces are
drawn in their positive directions on surface a - a, which is a negative x-
surface for this free body. Solving the three equations we find the values for
these internal forces:

39
 Figure 4.9: Free body diagram of part CB

Solution

Note that these values match exactly with the values obtained previously by
considering the equilibrium of segment AC. This is true for any system
because there is always a unique set of internal forces on an internal surface
for a given loading condition.
Let us consider the beam-column AB of the previous example with the same
loading condition, but a different cross-section b-b (Figure 4.10). Following
the same procedure as in the previous example we can find the internal
forces at b-b. The values of internal forces at b-b are not same as of those at
a-a.
Thus, internal forces vary according to the cross-section under consideration.

40
 Figure 4.10: Cross-section b - b of beam column AB

Solution

At b-b from Joint B

A structural member should be able to carry the internal forces at each

section without failure so as to perform its intended function. So, in order to
check the integrity or effectiveness of a structural member, one needs to
check its capacity against internal forces at its each and every cross-section.
This makes the study of the variation of internal forces in a member very
important to structural mechanics. Such a study is best done through internal
force diagrams, which provide, at one glance, critical information on these
internal forces.
4.6. Internal force as a function of x
Another alternative of studying internal force variations in a structural
member is to express the internal force as a mathematical function of the
longitudinal dimension (x). Thus, the axial force, shear force and bending
41
moment at a section are expressed as P (x), V (x) and M (x), respectively,
where x is the distance measured along the primary dimension from one end
of the member (Figure 4.11). For this course, we will consider the left end of
the member as origin unless otherwise specified. Note that equations
involving these internal forces change if the direction for positive x or its
origin changes.

Figure 4.11: Internal forces at a distance x from the origin

Considering the example in Fig.4.6 again, let us obtain these internal force
functions for the whole length. After obtaining the support reactions, we can
investigate internal forces at different sections. Let usfirst consider the
portion x = 0 → 6 m. Since no force or moment is acting between these two
points, the internal force functions will be continuous in this section. We
draw the free body diagram of the beam up to a distance x from the left end
of the beam (Figure 4.12a). Using equilibrium equations, we can find the
internal forces:

42
 Figure 4.12: Free body diagrams upto a distance x from the origin
Solution
General formula for the internal forces and moments

When x=0,
When x=6,

43
Similarly, we can find out the internal forces in the portions x = 6m→ 10m
(Figure 4.12b) and x = 10m→ 12 m (Figure 4.13c).

For x = 6m → 10m
Solution

When x = 6m,
When x =10m,

For x = 10m → 12m

Solution

When x = 10m,
When x =12m,

44
If we look at these expressions carefully, we see that:
•We measure x always from the same origin and in the same direction. As
noted earlier, it is not absolutely necessary to follow this convention, but it is
easier this way.
•The internal force expressions change at points where concentrated
forces/moments (including support reactions) act. We will see later that
these forces also change if a distributed force changes its distribution.
•We need to obtain mathematical expressions of internal forces first in order
to plot the force variationdiagrams. Although these expressions provide
adequate information on variation of internal forces, a pictorialrepresentation
is always very useful.

45
4.7. Internal Force Diagrams for Various Systems
We have discussed the general procedure for obtaining internal force
variations in a planer system (2-dimientional). We can apply that procedure
for various types of structural system. Here, we discuss the significance of
internal forces (and internal force diagrams) for different structural system
types.
Truss:A truss member carries only axial force (tension or compression) and
no shear force or bending moment. The axial force comes from loads applied
only at the two ends of a member. Therefore, the axial force remains
constant along the length of a single truss member. So, we do not really need
to plot diagrams or express axial force as function of length (x) in case of a
truss member.
Cable:A cable is similar to a truss member except that it carries only axial
tension.
Axially Loaded Bar:Only axial force exists in these members (such as
columns). However, unlike a truss member a bar may be acted upon by
external forces along its length. Hence, it is important to study the variation
of axial force through diagrams/mathematical expressions.
Beam and Beam-Column:A beam carries shear force and bending moment
and if it carries axial force as well, then we call it a beam-column. It is for
these structural members that internal force diagrams are most important,
because deformation and failure behaviour of these members can be directly
linked to these diagrams.
Frame:Frames are two/three-dimensional structural systems made of beams
and columns. A frame member, in general, carries internal forces similar to a
beam-column. Therefore, it is equally important to obtain internal force
diagrams for these systems. Note that for a frame, we may need to specify
46
sign convention for each member individually, as these members may have
different orientations.
Arch:Arches can be treated as curved beams (or beam-columns). We will
discuss later how to deal with a curved centroidal axis, and with orientations
of axial and shear forces.
Example of Trusses

Example 4.1
(a) Find the forces in AB,AD and AC in the following Figure E4.1.
(b) Find the forces in EG,FG and FH in the following Figure E4.1.

Figure E4.1

Solution:
Free Body Diagram (FBD) of the whole system:

47
 ∑

(a) FBD of the joint B:

FBD of the joint A:

48
Force in AB = 22.5 kN(Compression).
Force in AD = 37.5 kN(Tension).
Force in AC = 30.0 kN(Compression).
(b) Take a section through EG,FG,FH and consider the equilibrium of part
at the right side. This method is referred to as the method of sections.

Force in EG = 36.0 kN(Compression).

Force in FG = 22.5 kN(Tension).
Force in FH = 18.0 kN(Tension).
Example of Beams
Example 4.2
Obtain internal force diagrams for the beam in Figure E4.2.

49
 Figure E4.2

Solution:
FBD of the whole system:

FBD for portion BC:

50
Consider a section at a distance x from A:

When x=0, When x=6,

When x=0, When x=4,
When x=6,

51
When x=6, When x=8,
When x=6, When x=8,

Example 4.3
Obtain internal force diagrams for the beam in Figure E4.3.

Figure E4.3
Solution:
FBD of AE:

52
 ∑

Taking a section at a distance x from A :

When x=0, When x=4,

When x=0, When x=4,

53
 ∑

When x=4, When x=7,

When x=4, When x=7,

When x=7, When x=10,

When x=7, When x=10,

54
Example of Frames
Example 4.4
Obtain internal force diagrams for the frame in Figure E4.4.

Figure E4.4
Solution:
FBD of the whole system:

55
Length AB =√ √
√
∑ √

∑ ( √ )
√

∑ √
√
Take a section at a distance x1fromA along AB:

∑
√ √

∑
√ √

56
 ∑

When x1=0, When x1= √ ,

When x1=0, When x1= √ ,

These expressions for internal force are valid from point A to B, from which
we can obtain the internal forcediagrams for AB. Using these we can find the
internal forces at point B ( √ ) from which we also get the forces
applied on member BD .

Internal forces on BD can be obtained from its free body diagram. Let us
take a section at a distance from B along BD.
For

57
Note:

∑
√ √

∑
√ √

When x2=0, When x2=2,

When x2=0, When x2=2,

For

∑
√ √

∑
√ √

When x2=2, When x2=4,

When x2=2, When x2=4,

58
59
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0. Deflection of Structures

5.1. Introduction
When a structure is subjected to the action of applied loads each member
undergoes deformation due to which the axis of structure is deflected from
its original position. The deflections also occur due to temperature variations
and lack-of-fit of members. The deflections of structures are important for
ensuring that the designed structure is not excessively flexible. Large
deformations the structures can cause damage or cracking of non-structural
elements. The deflection in beams is dependent on the acting
bendingmoments and its flexural stiffness. The computation of deflections in
structures is also required for solvingthe statically indeterminate
[Link] this chapter, several methods for computing deflection of
structures are considered.
5.2. Methods for determining deformations in members
5.2.1. Moment Area Method
When a structure is subjected to the action of applied loads each member
undergoes deformation due to which the axis of structure is deflected from
its original position. The deflections also occur due to temperature variations
and lack-of-fit of members. The deflections of structures are important for
ensuring that the designed structure is not excessively flexible. The large
deformations in the structures can cause damage or cracking of non-
structural elements. The deflection in beams is dependent on the acting
bending moments and its flexural stiffness. The computation of deflections
in structures is also required for solving the statically indeterminate

60
structures. In this chapter, several methods for computing deflection of
structures are considered.
The moment-area method was developed by Professor Charles E. Greene of
University of Michigan around 1873. It is one of the best known methods
used to determine slopes and deflections of flexural members (beams and
frames).In this method, the area of the bending moment diagrams is utilized
for computing theslope and or deflections at particular points along the axis
of the beam or frame. Two theorems known asthe moment area theorems are
utilized for calculation of the deflection. One theorem is used to calculate
thechange in the slope between two points on the elastic curve. The other
theorem is used to compute thevertical distance (called tangential deviation)
between a point on the elastic curve and a line tangent to theelastic curve at a
second [Link] Figure 5.1 showing the elastic curve of a loaded
simple beam. On the elastic curve tangents aredrawn on points A and B.
Thetotal angle between the two tangents is denoted as . In order to find
out , consider the incremental change in angle over an infinitesimal
segment located at a distancexof from point [Link] radius of curvature and
bending moment for any section of the beam is given by theusual bending
equation.
(5.1)

Where R is the radius of curvature; E is the modulus of elasticity; I is the

moment of inertia; and M denotesthe bending moment.
The elementary length and the change in angle are related as,

(5.2)
Substituting R from Eq. (5.2) in Eq. (5.1)

61
 (5.3)
The total angle change can be obtained by integrating Eq. (5.3) between
points A and B whichis expressed as

∫ ∫ (5.4a)
or,
Area of M / EI diagram between A and B (5.4b)
The difference of slope between any two points on a continuous elastic
curve of a beam is equal to the areaunder the M/EI curve between these
points.
The distance dt along the vertical line through point B is nearly equal to.

(5.5)
Integration of dt between points A and B yield the vertical distance between
the point B and the tangentfrom point A on the elastic curve. Thus,

∫ ∫ (5.6)

62
 Figure 5.1
Since the quantity Mx/EI represents an infinitesimal area under the M /EI
diagram and distancex from thatarea to point B, the integral on right hand
side of Eq. (5.6) can be interpreted as moment of the area under theM/EI
diagram between points A and B about point B. This is the second moment
area theorem.
If A and B are two points on the deflected shape of a beam, the vertical
distance of point B from the tangentdrawn to the elastic curve at point A is
equal to the moment of bending moment diagram area between thepoints A
and B about the vertical line from point B , divided by EI .

63
Sign convention used here can be remembered keeping the simply supported
beam of Figure 5.1 in mind. Asagging moment is the positive bending
moment diagram and has positive area. Slopes are positive ifmeasured in the
anti-clockwise direction. Positive deviation indicates that the point B lies
above the tangentfrom the point A.
Example 5.1
Determine the end slope and deflection of the mid-point C in the beam
shown below using moment area method.

Figure 5.2
Solution:
How to obtain

64
 ∑

Cutting a distance x along span AC

When x = 0,

When x =
The M / EI diagram of the beam is shown in Figure 5.2(a). The slope at A
can be obtained bycomputing the using the second moment area theorem i.e.
,

(Clockwise)

The slope at B can be obtained by using the first moment area theorem
between points A and B i.e.
Area of M / EI diagram between A and B

(Anti-clockwise)

Therefore,

( )

( )

(Anti-clockwise direction)

65
(It is to be noted that . The negative sign is because of the slope
being in the clockwise direction. As per sign convention a positive slope is
in the anti-clockwise direction).
The deflection at the center of the beam can be obtained with the help of the
second moment area theorem between points A and C i.e.
For small triangles

( ⁄ )

⁄ ( ( ))

(Downward direction)

Example 5.2
Using the moment area method, determine the slope at B and C and
deflection at C of the cantilever beam as shown in Figure 5.3(a). The beam
is subjected to uniformly distributed load over entire length and point load at
the free end.

66
 Figure 5.3

Solution: The moment curves produced by the concentrated load, Pand the
uniformly distributed load,w areplotted separately and divided by EI (refer
Figures 5.3(b) and (c)). This results in the simple geometric shapes in which
the area and locations of their centroids are known.
At this point you should be able to draw the M / EI diagram
Since the end A is fixed, therefore .
Applying the first moment-area theorem between points A and C.
= Area of M / EI diagram between A and C

67
 ( )(-ve sign is due to hogging moment)

But therefore

( ) (Clockwise)

The slope at B can be obtained by applying the first moment area theorem
between points B and C i.e.
= Area of M / EI diagram between Band C

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) (Clockwise)

The deflection at C is equal to the tangential deviation of point C from the

tangent to the elastic curve at A(seeFigure 5.3(d)).
= moment of areas under M / EI curves between A and C in Figures
4.3(b) and (c) about C

( ) (Downward direction)

Example 5.3
Determine the slopes at A, B and C and the deflection at the center of a non-
prismatic simply supportedbeam. The beam is subjected to a concentrated
load at the center.

68
 Figure 5.4

Solution: The M/EI diagram of the beam is shown in Figure 5.3(b).

Applying second moment-area theorem between points A and B,

( ) ( )

(Clockwise)

69
The slope at B can be obtained by using the first moment area theorem
between points A and B i.e.
Area of M / EI diagram between A and B

(Anti-clockwise)

Therefore

(Anti-clockwise direction)

Applying first moment area theorem between A and C.

= Area of M / EI diagram between A and C

( )

( )

(Anti-clockwise)

Applying second moment area theorem between A and C

( ⁄ )

70
 ⁄

(Downward direction)

Example 5.4
Determine the slope and deflection at the hinge of the beam shown in
Fig.5.5(a).

Figure 5.5 (a)

Solution: The bending moment diagram is shown in Figure 5.5(b).

Figure 5.5 (b)

B
A D
BA
t B A= B D

t BD BD

71
 Figure 5.5 (c)
Since the end A is fixed, therefore, . Applying the first moment-area
theorem between points A and B (refer to Figure 5.5(c))
= Area of M / EI diagram between A and C

(Clockwise)

Applying second moment area theorem between points A and B,

(Downward direction)
Applying second moment area theorem between points B and D,

( )

(Anti-Clockwise)

Applying the first moment-area theorem between points B and D (refer to

Figure 5.5(c))
= Area of M / EI diagram between Band D

(Clockwise)

Example 5.5

72
Determine the vertical deflection and slope of point C of the rigid-jointed
plane frame shown in the Figure 5.6(a).

Figure 5.6 (a) Figure 5.6 (b)

Solution: The M/EI and deflected shape of the frame are shown in the
Figures 5.6(a) and (b), respectively. As the point A is fixed implying that
.

Applying the first moment-area theorem between points A and B (refer to

Figure 5.6(b))

(Anti- clockwise)

73
The vertical displacement of point C,

( ⁄ )

Applying second moment area theorem between points B and C

( )

(Downward direction)

Applying first moment area theorem between point B and C

(Anti-clockwise)

Applying second moment area theorem between points A and B

74
 Table 5.1

5.2.2. ConjugateBeam Method

The conjugate beam method is an extremely versatile method for
computation of deflections in beams, developed by H. Muller Breslau in
[Link] relationships between the loading, shear, and bending moments
are given by:

75
Relating moments (M) to deflections (u)

Also relating moment (M) to shear force (V)

Where M is the bending moment; V is the shear; and w is the intensity of

distributed load.
Similarly, we have the following

A comparison of two set of equations indicates that if M/EI is the loading

on an imaginary (conjugate) beam, the resulting shear and moment in the
beam are the slope and displacement of the real beam, respectively. The
imaginary beam is called as the “conjugate beam” and has the same length
as the original beam.

76
There are two major steps in the conjugate beam method. The first step is to
set up an additional beam, called "conjugate beam,” and the second step is
to determine the “ shearing forces ” and “ bending moments ” in the
conjugate beam.

The loading diagram showing the elastic loads acting on the conjugate
beam is simply the bending-moment diagram of the actual beam divided by
the flexural rigidity EI of the actual beam. This elastic load is downward if
the bending moment is sagging.

For each existing support condition of the actual beam, there is a

corresponding support condition for the conjugate beam. Table 5.1 shows
the corresponding conjugate beam of different types of actual beams. The
actual beam as well as the conjugate beam are always in static equilibrium
condition.

The slope of (the centerline of) the actual beam at any cross-section is equal
to the “shearing force” at the corresponding cross-section of the conjugate
beam. This slope is positive or anti-clockwise if the “shearing force” is
positive. The deflection of (the centerline of) the actual beam at any point is
equal to the “bending moment” of the conjugate beam at the corresponding
point. This deflection is downward if the “bending moment” is positive (to
cause top fiber in compression). The positive shearing force and bending
moment are shown below in Figure 5.7.

+ ve + ve

Figure 5.7: Positive shearing force and bending moment

77
Table 5.1(a): Real and Conjugate beams for different structures

78
 Table 5.1(b): Real and Conjugate beams for different structures

Example 5.6

Determine the slope and deflection of point A of a cantilever beam AB of

length L and uniform flexural rigidity EI. A concentrated force P is applied
at the free end of beam.

A B

(a) A cantilever beam (actual beam)

Solution:

The conjugate beam of the actual beam is shown in Figure 5.8(b). A linearly
varying distributed upward elastic load with intensity equal to zero at A and
equal to PL/EI at B.

79
How to compute for PL/EI

We have already stated that that the conjugate beam is an opposite of the
real beam thus creating equilibrium between the two beams.

It is to be noted that we compute PL/EI using the real beam and then load
the M/EI on the real beam.

A B

Therefore is moving in the clockwise direction.

Cutting a section a distance x along the beam gives from joint A;

When x=0,

When x=L,

PL
EI
A B

(b) Conjugate beam (additional beam) corresponding to the actual beam

80
 PL
MA
EI
A B
L
VA

(c) Free-body diagram for the conjugate beam

A
B

(d) Deflections of the cantilever beam (actual beam)

Figure 5.8

The slope at A, and the deflection at the free end A of the actual beam
in Figure 5.8(d) are respectively, equal to the “shearing force” VA and the
“bending moment” M A
at the fixed end A of the conjugate beam in Figure
4.8(d).

̅ (Downwards)

̅ ( ) (Anti-clockwise)

81
Example 5.7

Determine the slope at Joint A and the deflection at the free end of the beam
shown in Figure 5.9 using conjugate beam method and verify by moment
area method.

Figure 5.9(a)

Solution

(a) Conjugate beam method

Draw the bending moment diagram for the real (given) beam.

First draw the free body diagram for the above given beam (not shown in
notes)

Use equations of equilibrium to determine the unknown reactions

Computing for internal moments

82
Cutting a section a distance x along the beam between joints A and B from
joint A gives;

When x=0,

When x=L,

Cutting a section a distance x along the beam between joints B and C from
joint C gives;

When x=0,

When x=L/2,

Now load the M/EI obtained from the real beam onto the conjugate beam as
shown in Fig 5.9(b).

Figure 5.9(b)

83
The corresponding conjugate beam and loading are shown in Figure 5.9(b).
The loading is upward linearly distributed load with a maximum value of
at B.

Taking moment about point B, the vertical reaction at A in the conjugate

beam is given by

(Downwards)

The bending moment at C (by taking moment about C) is given by

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

(Sagging )
3
WL
Hence, the deflection of point C will be equal to in the downward
8 EI
direction.

(b) Verification by moment-area method

t BA t CA
A
B C
A
C

Figure
(c) 5.9(c): Deflected
D eflectad sh ap e o fshape of the beam
th e b eam

B C
A 84
wL
2EI
 Figure 5.9(d): Bending Moment Diagram
Applying second moment area theorem between points A and B will give the
slope at Ai.e.

Further, applying moment area theorem between point A and C

( )

Therefore ( )

( ) ( )

(Clockwise)

( ) (Downwards)

Example 5.8

85
Determine the slope at A and deflection of B of the beam shown in Figure
5.10(a) using the conjugate beam method.

Figure 5.10(a): Actual (Given beam)

Solution:
We only have one unknown external force to compute for (reaction at A)

Computing for internal moments

Cutting a section a distance x along the beam between joints A and B from
joint A gives;

When x=0,

When x=L,

Loading the M/EI diagram computed for the real beam onto the conjugate
beam, we have the following diagram as shown in Fig. 4.10(b)

86
 Figure 5.10(b): Conjugate beam

The loading on the beam varies parabolically with maximum value as .

The slope at A, in the original beam will be equal to the shear force at A in
the conjugate beam, thus,

(Clockwise direction)

The deflection of B in the real beam will be equal to the bending moment at
B in conjugate beam i.e.
Taking moments at B

(Downward direction)

(Clockwise direction)

Summary

 Draw the conjugate beam for the real beam

This beam has the same length as the real beam and has corresponding
supports as listed Table 5.1.

87
 In general, if the real support allows a slope, the conjugate support
must develop a shear, and if the real support allows a displacement,
the conjugate support must develop a moment.
 The conjugate beam is loaded with the real beam’s M/EI diagram.
This loading is assumed to be distributed over the conjugate beam and
is directed upward when M/EI is negative and down when M/EI is
positive. In other words, the loading always acts from the beam.
 Using the equations of equilibrium. Determine the reactions at the
conjugate beam’s supports.
 Determine the shear and moment using the equations of equilibrium.
If these values are positive, the slope is counterclockwise and the
displacement is downward.

88