DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

II YEAR IV SEM (2024-2028)REGULATION 2021

CS3451
INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEMS

QUESTION BANK

PREPARED BY
BALAJI.P
AP/CSE

UNIT I
PART A
Two Marks Questions with Answers
Q.1 Define operating systems.
Ans. : An operating system is a program that manages the computer hardware.
Q.2 What are the goals of OS?
Ans. :Operating system goals :
a. Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier.
b. Make the computer system convenient to use.
Q.3 List down the functions of operating systems.
Ans. : Functions of operating systems are convenience, efficiency and ability to
evolve.
Q.4 What are the objective of operating systems ? AU: [CSE]: May-17,
Dec.-17
Ans. : The objective of operating systems are efficient use, user convenience,
ability to evolve.
Q.5 Compare and contrast DMA and Cache memory.
Ans. :• DMA technology provides special channels for CPU and I/O devices to
exchange I/O data, and the memory is used for buffering the I/O data. When the
CPU wants to handle I/O data, it triggers the DMA write operations that transfer
the I/O data from I/O devices to the memory.
• Caches are "automatically" managed in that the hardware, when the requested
memory contents are not in the cache, fetches that data from main memory.
Q.6 How does an interrupt differ from trap?AU: [EIE]: May-18
Ans. : Trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or by a
specific request from a user program that an operating-system service be
performed. A trap usually results in a switch to kernel mode. Interrupt signals
can cause a program to suspend itself temporarily to service the interrupt. An
interrupt is a hardware-generated signal that changes the flow within the system.
Q.7 What are the three main purposes of an operating system ?
Ans. :
• To provide an environment for a computer user to execute programs on
computer hardware in a convenient and efficient manner.
• To allocate the separate resources of the computer as needed to solve the
problem given. The allocation process should be as fair and efficient as
possible.
• As a control program it serves two major functions: 1) Supervision of the
execution of user programs to prevent errors and improper use of the computer
and 2) Management of the operation and control of I/O devices.
Q.8 Explain what is batch processing.
Ans. : Here jobs with similar requirements are batched together and run through
the computer as a group. Thus a batch operating system reads a stream of
separate jobs, each with its own control cards that predefine what the job does,
feed the batches one after another and send the output of each job to the
appropriate destination.
Q.9 What is spooling ?
Ans. : The use of secondary memory as buffer storage to reduce processing
delays when transferring data between peripheral equipment and the processors
of a computer.
Q.10 Define the degree of multiprogramming.
Ans. : Degree of multiprogramming is the number of processes in the memory.
Q.11 What is the main advantage of multiprogramming ?
Ans. : Multiprogramming makes efficient use of the CPU by overlapping the
demands for the CPU and its I/O devices from various users. It attempts to
increase CPU utilization by always having something for the CPU to execute.
Q.12 State the function of Printer Daemon.
Ans. : The Printer Daemon provides printer services for local and remote users.
It manages the printer spool area and the print queues. Printer Daemon is started
at boot time from a startup script. It is generally included in the startup of Linux
and BSD systems by default so you might not need to add it to your startup
script.
Q.13 What do you mean by multiprogramming?
Ans. : Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that
the CPU always has one to execute.
Q.14 List the disadvantages of multiprogrammed batched systems.
Ans. :Disadvantages
1. Users cannot interact with their jobs, while executing.
2. A programmer cannot modify a program as it executes to study its behavior
Q.15. Do time sharing differs from multiprogramming? If so, how?
Ans. : Time sharing is the sharing of resources among several processes at the
same time. Multiprogramming is the allocation of more than one process on a
computer system and its resources. Time sharing minimizes the response time
and multiprogramming maximizes the processor use. Time sharing systems use
the concept of multiprogramming to share the CPU time between multiple users
at the same time.
Q.16 Write the difference between batch system and time sharing systems.
Ans. : A batch system executes jobs, whereas a time-shared system has user
programs, or tasks.
• Batch systems are inconvenient for users because users cannot interact with
their jobs to fix problems. User interacts with system in time sharing system.
Q.17 What are the disadvantages of multiprocessor systems ?
Ans. : Multiprocessor systems are more complex in both hardware and
software. Additional CPU cycles are required to manage the cooperation, so
per-CPU efficiency goes down.
Q.18 Distinguish between tightly coupled system and loosely coupled
system.
Ans. :

.
Q.19 Define real time system.
Ans. : Real time system is one that must react to inputs and responds to them
quickly. A real time system has well defined, fixed time constraints.
Q.20 What is meant by "hard real systems and soft real systems"?
Ans. Hard real systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In soft
real system a critical task get priority over other tasks and remains that priority
until it completes.
Q.21 What is the main difficulty that a programmer must overcome in
writing an operating system for a real-time environment ?
Ans. : The main difficulty is keeping the operating system within the fixed time
constraints of a real-time system. If the system does not complete a task in a
certain time frame, it may cause a breakdown of the entire system it is running.
Therefore when writing an operating system for a real-time system, the writer
must be sure that his scheduling schemes don't allow response time to exceed
the time constraint.
Q.22 What are the main advantages of layered approach ?
Ans. : a. Each layer is implemented using those operations provided by lower-
level layers.
b. A layer does not need to know how the low-level operations are
implemented; it needs to know what these operations o.
c. Each layer hides the existence of data structures, operations and hardware
from higher-level layer.
Q.23 Mention the purpose of system calls. AU: May-18
Ans. : System calls allow user-level processes to request services of the
operating system.
Q.24 What is the purpose of system programs ? AU: May-16
Ans.:System program that provides an application programming environment
on top of the hardware.
PART -B
1. Explain in detail about the Computer System
AU May-17, 18, 22, Dec-17
2. Evolution of Operating System
AU: DEC-19
[Link] System Structures ?
AU: May-17, 19, 22
4. System Calls in detail ?
AU May-17, 22
5. Operating System Overview indetail ? APR/MAY 2019
UNIT 2

Two Marks Questions with Answers

Q.1 Define process. What is the information maintained in a PCB ?
Ans. A process is simply a program in execution. i.e. an instance of a program.
execution. PCB maintains pointer, state, process number, CPU register, PC,
memory allocation etc.
Q.2 Define task control block.
Ans. TCB is also called PCB.
Q.3 What is PCB? Specify the information maintained in it. AU CSE/IT:
Dec.-12
Ans. Each process is represented in the operating system by a process control
block. PCB contains information like process state, program counter, CPU
register, accounting information etc.
Q.4 What is independent process ?
Ans. Independent process cannot affect or be affected by the execution of
another process.
Q.5 Name and draw five different process states with proper definition.
AU: Dec.-17
Ans. Process states are new, running, waiting, ready and terminated. Fig. 2.16.1
shows process state diagram.

Q.6 Define context switching.

Ans. Switching the CPU to another process requires saving the state of the old
process and loading the saved state for the new process. This task is known as
context switch.
1. Links are established automatically.
2. A link is associated with exactly one pair of communicating processes.
3. Between each pair there exists exactly one link.
4. The link may be unidirectional, but is usually bidirectional.
Q.7 Differentiate preemptive and non-preemptive scheduling.
Ans. :
Q.8 Which are the criteria used for CPU scheduling ?
[Link] used for CPU scheduling are CPU utilization, throughput,
turnaround time, waiting time, response time.
Q.9What is response time?
Ans. Response time is the amount of time it takes from when a request was,
submitted until the first response is produced, not output.
Q.10 Define waiting time.
Ans. Amount of time a process has been waiting in the ready queue.
Q.11 Define scheduling algorithm ?
Ans. In multiprogramming systems, whenever two simultaneously in the ready
state, a choice has to be made which process to run next. The part of the OS that
makes the choice is called the scheduler and the algorithm it uses is called the
scheduling algorithm.
Q.12 Define the term dispatch latency.
Time it takes for the dispatcher to stop one process and start another running.
Q.13 Define process. What is the information maintained in a PCB ?
Ans. A process is simply a program in execution. i.e. an instance of a program.
execution. PCB maintains pointer, state, process number, CPU register, PC,
memory allocation etc.
Q.14 Define task control block.
Ans. TCB is also called PCB.
Q.15 What is PCB? Specify the information maintained in it. AU
CSE/IT: Dec.-12
Ans. Each process is represented in the operating system by a process control
block. PCB contains information like process state, program counter, CPU
register, accounting information etc.
Q.16 Name and draw five different process states with proper definition.
AU: Dec.-17
Ans. Process states are new, running, waiting, ready and terminated. Fig. 2.16.1
shows process state diagram.

Q.17 Define context switching.

Ans. Switching the CPU to another process requires saving the state of the old
process and loading the saved state for the new process. This task is known as
context switch.
Q.18 Differentiate preemptive and non-preemptive scheduling.
Ans. :
Q.19 Define scheduling algorithm ?
Ans. In multiprogramming systems, whenever two simultaneously in the ready
state, a choice has to be made which process to run next. The part of the OS that
makes the choice is called the scheduler and the algorithm it uses is called the
scheduling algorithm.
Q.20 Define the term 'Dispatch latency'.
Ans. Dispatch latency: Time it takes for the dispatcher to stop one process and
start another running. It is the amount of time required for the scheduler to stop
one process and start another.

Q.21 What is Shortest-Remaining-Time-First (SRTF) ?

Ans. If a new process arrives with CPU burst length less than remaining time of
process, current executing preempt. This scheme is known as the
Shortest-Remaining-Time-First.
Q.22 What is round robin CPU scheduling ?
Ans. Each process gets a small unit of CPU time (time quantum). After this
time has elapsed, the process is preempted and added to the end of the ready
queue.
Q.323What is meant by starvation in operating system?
Ans. Starvation is a resource management problem where a process does not get
the resources (CPU) it needs for a long time because the resources are being
allocated to other processes.
Q.24 Define a thread. State the major advantage of threads.
Ans. A thread is a flow of execution through the process's code with its own
program counter, system registers and stack.
2. Efficient communication.
Advantages: 1. Minimize context switching time.

Q.25 Why a thread is called as light weight process ?

Ans. Thread is light weight taking lesser resources than a process. It is called
light weight process to emphasize the fact that a thread is like a process but is
more efficient and uses fewer resources and they also share the address space.
Q.26 Define mutual exclusion.
Ans. If a collection of processes share a resource or collection of resources, then
often mutual exclusion is required to prevent interference and ensure
consistency when accessing the resources.
Q.27 What is race condition ?
Ans. A race condition is a situation where two or more processes access shared
data concurrently and final value of shared data depends on timing.
Q.28 Define entry section and exit section.
Ans. Each process must request permission to enter its critical section. The
section of the code implementing this request is the entry section. The critical
section is followed by an exit section. The remaining code is the remainder
section.
Q.29 What is semaphore? Mention its importance in operating systems.
Ans. Semaphore is an integer variable. It is a synchronization tool used to solve
critical section problem. The various hardware based solutions to the critical
section problem are complicated for application programmers to use.
Q.30 What is a critical section and what requirements must a solution to
the critical section problem satisfy ?
Ans. Consider a system consisting of several processes, each having a segment
of code called a critical section, in which the process may be changing common
variables, updating tables, etc. The important feature of the system is that when
one process is executing its critical section, no other process is to be allowed to
execute its critical section. Execution of the critical section is mutually
exclusive in time.
A solution to the critical section problem must satisfy the following three
requirements: 1. Mutual exclusion 2. Progress 3. Bounded waiting

PART B
[Link] Algorithms in detail ?
AU: Dec.-17, May-17, 18, 19, 22
2. Example 2.6.6 Consider the following process, with the CPU burst time
given in milliseconds.

Processes are arrived in P1, P2, P3, P4 P5 order at time 0.

(i) Draw four Gantt charts to show execution using FIFO, SJF, non-
preemptive priority and Round Robin (Quantum = 1) scheduling.
(ii) Also calculate waiting time and turnaround time for each scheduling
algorithm. AU May-18, Marks 15

3. Process Concept in detail ?

AU: Dec.-17

[Link] Problems of Synchronization APR/MAY 2025

5 .Deadlock Avoidance in detail ?

AU: Dec.-17, May-19, 22 Dec-17, May-19, 22

6. Deadlock avoidance problem ?

1. System consists of five processes (P1, P2, P3, P4, P5) and three resources (R1,
R2, R3). Resource type R1 has 10 instances, resource type R2 has 5 instances and
R3 has 7 instances. The following snapshot of the system has been taken :
7. Deadlock avoidance problem ?
8. Characteristics of deadlock in detail?
AU: May-22

UNIT 3
PART A

Two Marks Questions with Answers

Q.1 State the function of memory manager.
Ans. Functions of memory manager
• Allocates primary memory to processes.
• Maps process address space to primary memory.
• Minimizes access time using cost-effective memory configuration.
• May use static or dynamic techniques
Q.2 What is address binding?
Ans. The process of associating program instructions and data to physical
memory addresses is called address binding, or relocation.
Q.3 What is memory?
Ans. Memory is a device used to store the data and instructions required for any
operation.
Q.4 What is called pages?
Ans. The address space is usually broken into fixed-size blocks, called pages.
Each page resides either in main memory or on disk.
Q.5 What is internal fragmentation?
Ans. Internal fragmentation exists when the smallest available block is larger
than the requested memory. It is the memory which is internal to a partition, but
is not being used.
Q.6 Distinguish between internal and external fragmentation.
Ans. Internal fragmentation is the area in a region or a page that is not used by
the process it is allocated to. The space is wasted until the process terminates.
External fragmentation occurs when there is enough free space to satisfy a
request for memory, but none of the free holes between processes in memory is
large enough to satisfy the request.e
Q.7 What are memory pages and segments?
Ans. Logical memory is also broken into blocks of the same size called pages. It
divides a program into a smaller block called segments, each of which is
allocated to memory independently.
Q.8 Explain how memory can be dynamically allocated using first fit, best
fit and worst fit strategies.
[Link] fit: Take the first available hole in memory that is of adequate size.
Fast but leads to fragmentation.
Best fit: Take the hole that most closely matches (atleast as big as) the size of
the program. Usage efficient but slow still leads to fragmentation.
Worst fit : Take the biggest possible hole. Aims to reduce the number of little
and wasted memory holes. Still leads to fragmentation.
Q.9 Describe non-contiguous memory allocation.
Ans. For N memory blocks, the loss of 0.5 N blocks is possible due to external
fragmentation. This means that one-third of memory is not usable. But
compaction is too costly to perform regularly. External fragmentation arises
because we are trying to allocate memory contiguously. We can deal with
external fragmentation if we can allow process memory to be non-contiguous.
Q.10 Define external fragmentation ?
Ans.
Total memory space exists to satisfy a request, but it is not contiguous; storage
is fragmented into a large number of small holes.
Q.11 What is a page ?
Ans. Divide logical memory into blocks of same size called pages.
Q.12 What is frame table ?
Ans. Allocation and availability of the frame information is kept in a data
structure called a frame table. Frame table has one entry for each physical page
frame, indicating whether the latter is free or allocated and if it is allocated, to
which page of which process or processes.
Q.13 What is a translation look aside buffer used for?
Ans.
Problem with paging is that, extra memory references to access translation
tables can slow programs down by a factor of two or three. Too many entries in
translation tables to keep them all loaded in fast processor memory. To solve
this problem TLB is used. TLB is used to store a few of the translation table
entries.
.
Q.14 Explain what the use of a page table is and how it is used.
Ans. Use of page table,
1. It shows the frame location for each page of the process.
2. Processor uses page table to produce a physical address.
Q.15 what is demand paging?
Determines when a page should be brought into [Link] paging only
brings pages into main memory when a reference is made to a location on the
page
Q.16 what do you meant by Thrashing ?
It is a situation in which a process is spending more time paging than executing.
[Link] TLB ?
TLB is a memory cache of the most recently used page table entries within the
memory management unit.
PART B

[Link] in detail about paging ?

[Link] in detail about Page replacement algorithm?

[Link] the string 0, 1, 2, 3, 0, 1, 2, 3, 0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. With frame size 3

and 4. Calculate page fault.

MAY 2016, DEC 2017,MAY 2022,MAY 2018

[Link] the following page reference string :

(MAY 2019,DEC17,MAY18,MAY 22)

1, 2, 3, 2, 5, 6, 3, 4, 6, 3, 7, 3, 1, 5, 3, 6, 3, 4, 2, 4, 3, 4, 5, 5, 1.

Indicate page fault and calculate total number of page faults and successful
ration for FIFO, Optimal and LRU algorithms. Assume there are four frames
and initially all the frames are empty.

5. Segmentation in detail ? MAY 2016 , DEC2017, MAY 2018

6. (i)Explain in detail about swapping 8 marks

 (ii)Thrashing in detail 8 marks

UNIT IV
PART A

Two Marks Questions with Answers

Q.1 List out any two disk scheduling techniques.
Ans. Disk scheduling techniques are FCFS, SSTF, SCAN and C-SCAN.
Q.2 Define seek-time and latency time for a hard-disk (HDD) mechanism
[Link] time: It is the time spent waiting for the target sector to appear
under the read and write head.
Q.3 Seek time: Seek time is the time required to move the disk arm to the
required
Q.4 In the context of disk reliability define mirroring.
Ans. A mirror set comprises two equal sized partitions on two disks. When an
application writes data to a mirror set, FtDisk writes contents of the two
partitions are identical.
Q.5 What is the need for disk scheduling ?
Ans. For a multiprogramming system with many processes, the disk queue may
often have several pending requests. Thus, when one request is completed, the
OS chooses which pending request to service next. To reduce seek time and
increase disk bandwidth, disk scheduling is required.
Q.6 Why is rotational latency usually not considered in disk scheduling ?
Ans. It is additional time waiting for the disk to rotate the desired sector to the
disk head.
Q.7 What is rotational latency?
Ans. The time to wait for the target sector to rotate underneath the head.
Q.8 What is a swap space?ells
Ans.
Secondary memory is swap device and the section of disk used for this purpose
is known as swap space.
Q.9 Write the three basic functions which are provided by the hardware
clocks and timers.
Ans. Three basic functions are :
1. Give the current time.
2. Give the elapsed time.
3. Set a timer to trigger operation X at time T.
Q.10 What are seek time and rotational latency ?
Ans: Seek time: It is a time required to move the disk arm to the required track.
Rotational latency: It is time spent waiting for the target sector to appear under
the read and write heads.
Q.11 Define mirroring and shadowing.
Ans: Mirroring: Mirroring is the replication of logical disk volumes onto
separate physical hard disks in real time to ensure continuous availability.
Mirroring is also called shadowing.
Q.12 Which disk scheduling algorithm would be best to optimize the
performance of a RAM disk ?
Ans. : RAM disk has uniform access times. So all disk scheduling algorithm
gives same effect.
Q.13 Writable CD-ROM media are available in both 650 MB and 700 MB
versions. What is the principle disadvantage, other than cost, of the 700
MB version ?
[Link] space is disadvantage of 700 MB versions.
Q.14 What characteristics determine the disk access speed?
[Link] delay and seek time.
Q.15 Give the importance of swap-space management.
Ans. Importance of swap space management is to provide the best throughput
for the virtual memory system.
Q.16 Explain difference between latency and throughput. du
Ans. Latency is defined as the time required processing a single instruction,
while throughput is defined as the number of instructions processed per second.
Q.17 What is cylinder ?
Ans. Cylinder is used to refer to all the tracks under the arms at a given points
on all surfaces.
Q.18 What is bandwidth ?
Ans. The maximum amount of information that can be transferred to or from
the memory per unit time is called bandwidth.
Q.19 What is trap?
Ans. A trap is a software generated interrupt caused either by an error or by a
specific request from a user program that an operating system service be
performed.
via the system and memory buses.
Q.20 Define C-SCAN scheduling.
[Link] begins its scan toward the nearest end and works it way all the way to
the end of the system. Once it hits the bottom or top it jumps to the other end
and moves in the same direction

PART B

[Link] Scheduling in detail ?

AU: Dec.-17, 18, 19

2 . Mass Storage System in detail ?

3. I/O Hardware in detail ?

[Link] Memory access in detail?

[Link] Directory and Directory Structure

UNIT V
PART A
Two Marks Questions with Answers
Q.1 What is iOS SDK ?
Ans. The iOS Software Development Kit (SDK) contains the tools and
interfaces needed to develop, install, run and test native apps that appear on an
iOS device's Home screen.
Q.2 What is media layer in iOS ?
Ans. The media layer contains technologies to implement multimedia functions,
such as graphics, Audio, Video, and Airplay. It contains frameworks for
audio/video codecs and OpenGL features.
Q.3 Explain iOS architecture.
Ans. iOS architecture is written in Objective-C language and comprised of four
layers, Cocoa touch, Media, Core service and Core OS. System interfaces are
provided by framework, which contains libraries and resources such as header
and image.
Q.4 List framework used in Core OS layer.
Ans. Frameworks are accelerate framework, core bluetooth framework, external
accessory framework, generic security services framework, security framework,
system and 64-Bit Support.
Q.5 What is Android ?
Ans. Android is a Linux based operating system it is designed primarily for
touch screen mobile devices such as smart phones and tablet computers. The
hardware that supports android software is based on ARM architecture
platform. The android is an open source operating system means that it's free
and any one can use it.
Q.6 What is Dalvik Virtual Machine ?
Ans. The Dalvik Virtual Machine (DVM) is an android virtual machine
optimized for mobile devices. It optimizes the virtual machine for memory,
battery life and performance.
PART-B
1. Virtual Machines and their implementations APR/MAY 2023
• Virtual Machine (VM) is virtual environment that functions as a
virtual computer system with its own CPU, memory, network interface, and
storage, created on a physical hardware system.
• A Virtual machine is a software construct that mimics the characteristics of
a physical server.
• A virtual Machine (VM) is a software program or operating system that not
only exhibits the behavior of a separate computer, but is also capable of
performing tasks such as running applications and programs like a separate
computer.
• In a pure virtual machine architecture the operating system gives each process
the illusion that it is the only process on the machine. The user writes an
application as if only its code were running on the system.
• Each user interacts with the computer by typing commands to the virtual
machine on a virtual system console and receiving results back from the
machine as soon as they are computed.
• Each user directs the virtual machine to perform different commands. These
commands are then executed on the physical machine in a multiprogramming
environments.
• Virtualization is an abstraction layer that decouples the physical hardware
from the operating system to deliver greater IT resource utilization and
flexibility.
• It allows multiple virtual machines, with heterogeneous operating systems to
run in isolation, side-by-side on the same physical machine..
Fig. 7.1.1 shows virtual machine.

Benefits:
1. There is no overlap amongst memory as each Virtual Memory has its own
memory space.
2. Virtual machines are completely isolated from the host machine and other
virtual machines.
3. Data does not leak across virtual machines.
4. Can use multiple operating system environments on the same computer
5. The cost reduction is possible using small virtual servers on a more powerful
single server.
Disadvantages :
1. Virtual machines are less efficient than real machines because they access the
hardware indirectly.
2. A virtual machine can be infected with the weaknesses of the host machine
3. Difficulty in direct access to hardware, for example, specific cards or USB
devices
4. Great use of disk space, since it takes all the files for each operating system
installed on each virtual machine.
Types of Virtual Machines and their Implementations
• In computing, a hypervisor is a virtualization platform that allows multiple
operating systems to run on a host computer at the same time. The term usually
refers to an implementation using full virtualization.
• A hypervisor is a software layer installed on the physical hardware, which
allows splitting the physical machine into many virtual machines. This allows
multiple and operating systems to be run simultaneously on the same physical
hardware.
• The operating system installed on the virtual machine is called a guest OS, and
is sometimes also called an instance. The hardware the hypervisor runs on is
called the host machine.
• A hypervisor management console, which is also called a virtual machine
manager (VMM), is computer software that enables easy management of virtual
machines.
• Hypervisors are currently classified in two types: type 1 and type 2.
Type 0 Hypervisor
Fig. 7.4.1 shows type 0 hypervisor.

• Type 0 hypervisor is built with the minimum software components required to

fully virtualize guest OSS and control information flow between guest OSs.
Type 0 hypervisors is a hardware-based solutions that provide support for
virtual machine creation and management via firmware.
• The VMM itself is encoded in the firmware and loaded at boot time. Guest
image site is loaded in each partition. "Partitions" and "domains" are other
names of type 0 Hypervisor.
• The feature set of a type 0 hypervisor tends to be smaller than those of the
other types because it is implemented in hardware. For example, a system might
be split into five virtual systems, each with dedicated CPUs, memory and I/O
devices.
• If I/O device are less, then they are not allocate to guest. Sometimes VMM
implements a control partition running daemons that other guests communicate
with for shared I/O.
Type 1 Hypervisor
• Type 1 hypervisor is software that runs directly on a given hardware platform.
A "guest" operating system thus runs at the second level above the hardware.
• Type 1 VMs have no host operating system because they are installed on a
bare system. An operating system running on a Type 1 VM is a full
virtualization because it is a complete simulation of the hardware that it is
running on.
• Type 1 hypervisor is also called a native or bare-metal hypervisor that is
installed directly on the hardware, which splits the hardware into several virtual
machines where we can install guest operating systems.
• Virtual machine management software helps to manage this hypervisor, which
allows guest OSes to be moved automatically between physical servers based
on current resources requirements.
• It is completely independent from the operating system.
• The hypervisor is small as its main task is sharing resources between different
operating systems.
• A major advantage is that any problems in one virtual machine or guest
operating system do not affect the other guest operating systems running on the
hypervisor.
Type 2 Hypervisor
• This is also known as Hosted Hypervisor.
• In this case, the hypervisor is installed on an operating system and then
supports to other operating systems above it.
• It is completely dependent on host operating system for its operations. Fig.
7.4.2 shows type 2 hypervisor. (See Fig. 7.4.2 on next page.)
• While having a base operating system allows better specification of policies,
any problems in the base operating system affects the entire system as well even
if the hypervisor running above the base OS is secure.
• Type 2 hypervisors don't support over/dynamic allocation of RAM, so care is
required when allocating resources to virtual machines.

• This is why we call type 2 hypervisors hosted hypervisors. As opposed to type

1 hypervisors that run directly on the hardware, hosted hypervisors have one
software layer underneath. What we have in this case is:
1. A physical machine.
2. An operating system installed on the hardware (Windows, Linux, MacOS).
3. A type 2 hypervisor software within that operating system.
4. The actual instances of guest virtual machines.
• Type 2 hypervisors are typically found in environments with a small number
of servers. Type 2 hypervisors are convenient for testing new software and
research br projects.
Paravirtualization
• Paravirtualization is a type of virtualization in which guest operating system
(OS) is recompiled, installed inside a Virtual Machine (VM), and operated on
top of a hypervisor program running on the host OS.
• Para-virtualization refers to communication between the guest OS and the
hypervisor to improve performance and efficiency.
• Para-virtualization involves modifying the OS kernel to replace non-
virtualizable instructions with hyper-calls that communicate directly with the
virtualization Jeaug layer hypervisor.
• The hypervisor also provides hyper-call interfaces for other critical kernel
operations such as memory management, interrupt handling and time keeping.
• Fig. 7.4.3 shows para-virtualization architecture.

• In Para-virtualization, the virtual machine does not necessarily simulate

hardware, but instead offers a special API that can only be used by modifying
the "guest" OS. This system call to the hypervisor is called a "hypercall" in Xen.
• Xen is an open source para-virtualization solution that requires modifications
to the guest operating systems but achieves near native performance by
collaborating with the hypervisor.
• Microsoft Virtual PC is a para-virtualization virtual machine approach. User-
mode Linux (UML) is another para-virtualization solution that is open source.
• Each guest operating system executes as a process of the host operating
system. Cooperative Linux, is a virtualization solution that allows two operating
systems to cooperatively share the underlying hardware.
• Linux-V server is an operating system-level virtualization solution for
GNU/Linux systems with secure isolation of independent guest servers.
• The Linux KVM is virtualization technology that has been integrated into the
mainline Linux kernel. Runs as a single kernel loadable module, a Linux kernel
running on virtualization-capable hardware is able to act as a hypervisor and
support unmodified Linux and Windows guest operating systems.
• Para-virtualization shares the process with the guest operating system.
Problems with para-virtualization
1. Para-virtualized systems won't run on native hardware.
2. There are many different para-virtualization systems that use different I
commands, etc.
• The main difference between full virtualization and paravirtualization in Cloud
is that full virtualization allows multiple guest operating systems to execute on a
host operating system independently while paravirtualization allows multiple
guest operating systems to run on host operating systems while communicating.
2. virtualization and Operating-System Components
• Operating system aspects of virtualization are management, I/O storage and
unique VM migration feature.
• Following features are implemented by using virtualization:
a) How do VMMS schedule CPU use when guests believe they have dedicated
CPUs?
b) How can memory management work when many guests require large
amounts of memory?
CPU Scheduling
• After virtualization, single CPU system act like multiprocessor. Here one or
more. virtual CPUs per guest is created. Generally VMM has one or more
physical CPUs and number of threads to run on them.
• The VMM has a number of physical CPUs available and a number of threads
to oys run on those CPUs, then threads can be called as VMM threads or guest
threads. Guests are configured with a certain number of virtual CPUs at creation
time and that number can be adjusted throughout the life of the virtual machine.
• When enough CPUs for all guests, VMM can allocate dedicated CPUs, each
guest much like native operating system managing its CPUs.
• Usually not enough CPUs are available, then VMM can use standard
scheduling algorithms to put threads on CPUs and add fairness aspect while
allocating. Cycle stealing by VMM and over subscription of CPUs means guests
do not get CPU cycles they expect.
• Some VMMS provide application to run in each guest to fix time-of-day and
provide other integration features.
Memory Management
• Each virtual machine consumes memory based on its configured size, plus
additional overhead memory for virtualization. In virtualized environments,
there are more users of memory, leading to more pressure on memory use.
• Sometime, the total memory allocated to guests exceeds the amount that
physically exists in the system. The extra need for efficient memory use is not
lost on the implementers of VMMS, who take extensive measures to ensure the
optimal use of memory.
• Suppose, VMware ESX guests have a configured amount of physical memory,
then ESX uses three memory management methods.
a) Double-paging, in which the guest page table indicates a page is in a physical
frame but the VMM moves some of those pages to backing store.
b) Install a pseudo-device driver in each guest.
• Balloon memory manager communicates with VMM and is told to allocate
or de-allocate memory to decrease or increase physical memory use of guest,
causing guest OS to free or have more memory available.
c) De-duplication by VMM determining if same page loaded more than once,
memory mapping the same page into multiple guests.
• Since hypervisor manages page sharing, the virtual machine operating systems
are unaware of what is happening in the physical system.
• Virtual Memory Ballooning is a computer memory reclamation technique used
by a hypervisor to allow the physical host system to retrieve unused memory
from play certain guest Virtual Machines (VMs) and share it with others. U
• Memory ballooning allows the total amount of RAM required by guest VMs
to exceed the amount of physical RAM available on the host. When the host
system runs low on physical RAM resources, memory ballooning allocates it
selectively to VMs.
• If a VM only uses a portion of the memory that it was allocated, the
ballooning technique makes it available for the host to use.
• For example, if all the VMs on a host are allocated 8 GB of memory, some of
the VMs will only use half the allotted share. Meanwhile, one VM might need
12 GB of memory for an intensive process.
• Memory ballooning allows the host to borrow that unused memory and
allocate it to the VMs with higher memory demand.
• The guest operating system runs inside the VM, which is allocated a portion of
aah memory. Therefore, the guest OS is unaware of the total memory available.
• Memory ballooning makes the guest operating system aware of the host's
memory shortage.
• Virtualization providers such as VMware enable memory ballooning. VMware
memory ballooning, Microsoft Hyper-V dynamic memory, and the open source
KVM balloon process are similar in concept.
• The host uses balloon drivers running on the VMs to determine how much
memory it can take back from an under-utilizing VM. Balloon drivers must be P
M installed on any VM that participates in the memory ballooning technique.
• Balloon drivers get the target balloon size from the hypervisor and then inflate
by allocating the proper number of guest physical pages within the VM. This
process is known as inflating the balloon; the process of releasing the available
pages is known as deflating the balloon.
Input-Output Management
• I/O management is easy for VMM because I/O has lot of variation. For
example, leib OS device-driver mechanism provides a uniform interface to the
OS whatever the I/O device. Device-driver interfaces are designed to allow
third-party hardware manufacturers to provide device drivers connecting their
devices to the operating system.
• Virtualization takes advantage of dynamically loaded and unloaded of device
driver by providing specific virtualized devices to guest operating systems.
• But overall I/O is complicated for VMMS, because
a) Many short paths for I/O in standard OSes for improved performance.
b) Less hypervisor needs to do for I/O for guests, the better.
c) Possibilities include direct device access, DMA pass-through, direct interrupt
delivery.
• Hardware support needed for all above cases.
• With virtualization, each guest needs at least one IP address for
communication. 8 So server running a VMM may have dozens of addresses and
the VMM acts as a virtual switch to route the network packets to the addressed
guests.
• Networking also complex as VMM and guests all need network access. VMM
can bridge guest to network allowing direct access and provide Network
Address Translation (NAT).
• NAT address local to machine on which guest is running, VMM provides
address translation to guest to hide its address.
Storage Management
• Both boot disk and general data access need be provided by VMM. Virtualized
environments need to approach storage management differently than do native
operating systems.
• Solution is based on the type of hypervisor. In type 1 hypervisor, storage guest
root disks and configuration information within file system provided by VMM
as a disk image. Type 2 hypervisor store as files in file system provided by host
OS.
• Guests sometimes need more disk space than is available in their root disk
image. VMMs provide a mechanism to capture a physical system as it is
currently configured and convert it to a guest that the VMM can manage and
run.
a) Physical-to-virtual (P-to-V) convert native disk blocks into VMM format.
b) Virtual-to-physical (V-to-P) convert from virtual format to native or
disk format.
• VMM also needs to provide access to network attached storage and other disk
images, disk partitions, disks etc.
[Link] Migration in detail 8 marks APR/MAY 2023
• Live migration provides the ability to move a running virtual machine between
physical hosts with no interruption to service. The virtual machine remains
powered on and user applications continue to run while the virtual machine is
relocated to a new physical host. In the background, the virtual machine's RAM
is copied from the source host to the destination host. Storage and network
connectivity are not altered.
• Taking advantage of VMM features leads to new functionality not found on
general operating systems such as live migration. Running guest can be moved
between systems, without interrupting user access to the guest or its apps.
• Fig. 7.5.1 shows live migration of guest between servers.

• Steps:
1. The source VMM establishes a connection with the target VMM.
2. The target creates a new guest by creating a new VCPU.
3. The source sends all read-only guest memory pages to the target.
4. The source sends all read-write pages to the target, marking them as clean.
5. The source repeats step 4, as during that step some pages were probably
modified by the guest and are now dirty.
[Link] cycle of steps 4 and 5 becomes very short, source VMM freezes guest,
sends VCPU's final state, sends other state details, sends final dirty pages, and
tells target to start running the guest.
• Once target acknowledges that guest running, source terminates guest

[Link] OS: Android in detail

AU: May-22
• Android is an open source mobile OS developed by the Open Handset
Alliance, to led by Google.
• Android is a software stack for mobile devices that includes an operating
system, middleware and key applications.
• It is based on Linux 2.6 kernel.
• Android is an open source operating system, created by Google specifically for
use on mobile devices (i.e. cell phones and tablets)
• It can be programmed in C/C++ but most app development is done in Java. It
supports Bluetooth, Wi-Fi and 3G and 4G networking.

Android Architecture
Fig. 7.6.1 shows Android software stack. Each layer of the stack and the
corresponding elements within each layer are tightly integrated and carefully
tuned to provide the optimal application development and execution
environment for mobile devices. (See Fig. 7.6.1 on next page.)
• Android provides a set of core applications:
1. Email client
2. SMS program
3. Calendar
4. Maps
5. Browser
6. Contacts
7. Etc.
• All applications are written using the Java language.

App framework
• Used for enabling and simplifying the reuse of components
1. Developers have full access to the same framework APIs used by the core
applications.
2. Users are allowed to replace components.
• App Framework features are as follows:

Libraries
• Libraries include a set of C/C++ libraries used by components of the Android
system. It is exposed to developers through the Android application framework
Runtime
• Android run-time system provides core set of class libraries to ensure smooth
platform for developers. With these libraries developers can easily import
required libraries into their applications without doing any hard coding in
applications.
Dalvik virtual machine
• Dalvik is a purpose built virtual machine designed specifically for android
which was developed by Dan Bornstein and his team. Strictly it was developed
for mobile devices. While developing Dalvik Virtual Machine Dan Bornstein
and his team realize the constraints specific to mobile environment which is not
going to change in future at least, like battery life, processing power and many
more. So they optimized the dalvik virtual machine. Dalvik virtual machine
uses register based architecture. With this architecture dalvik virtual machine
has few advantages over java virtual machine such as:
1. Dalvik uses its own 16 bit instruction set than java 8 bit stack instructions,
which reduce the dalvik instruction count and raised its interpreter speed.
2. Dalvik use less space, which means an uncompressed .dex file is smaller in
size(few bytes) than compressed java archive file(.jar file).
• An open source software stack that includes operating system. Linux operating
system kernel that provides low level interface with the hardware, memory
management and process control.
• Middleware: A run time to execute Android applications including virtual
machine and core libraries.
Important blocks in Android":
1. Activity manager: Manages the activity life cycle of applications
2. Content providers: Manage the data sharing between applications
3. Telephony manager: Manages all voice calls. We use telephony manager if
we want to access voice calls in our application.
4. Location manager: Location management, using GPS or cell tower
5. Resource manager: Manage the various types of resources we use in our
application.
Android SDK features
The Android SDK includes,
1. The Android APIs.
2. The core of the SDK.
3. Development tools.
4. No licensing, distributions, or development fees or release approval
processes.
5. GSM, EDGE, and 3G networks for telephony and data transfer.
6. Full multimedia hardware control.
7. APIs for using sensor hardware including accelerometer and the compass.
8. APIs for location based services.
Application framework
1. Android offers developers the ability to build rich and innovative
applications.
2. Developers have full access to the same framework APIs used by the core
applications.
3. Underlying all applications is a set of services, including Views.
4. It can be used to build an application, including lists, grids, text boxes,
buttons, and even an embeddable web browser.
• Content providers enable applications to access data from other applications
(such as Contacts), or to share their own data.
• A resource manager provides access to non-code resources such as localized
strings, graphics and layout files.
• A notification manager enables all applications to display custom alerts in the
status bar.
• An activity manager manages the lifecycle of applications and provides a
common navigation backstack.
Libraries used in Android
• A set of C/C++ libraries used by various components of the Android system.
• System C library: Tuned for embedded Linux-based devices.
• Media Libraries: Based on Packet Video's OpenCORE; the libraries support
playback and recording of many popular audio and video formats, as well as
static image files.
• Surface Manager: Manages access to the display subsystem and seamlessly
composites 2D and 3D graphic layers from multiple applications.
• LibWebCore: A modern web browser engine which powers both the Android
browser and an embeddable web view.
• SGL/ 3D libraries: SGL is underlying 2D graphics engine.
• SQLite: A powerful and lightweight relational database engine available to all
applications.
Android run-time
• Android includes a set of core libraries that most of the functionality available
in the core libraries of the Java programming language.
• Every Android app runs in its own process with its own instance of the Dalvik
virtual machine. The Dalvik VM executes files in the Dalvik Executable (.dex)
format:
Slow Android apps
1. By default on Android, all work is done in a single thread, the "main
application" thread. If a component of the work takes a long time, the rest of the
work will be "blocked". For example, a long time to access data across the
network prevents responding to any GUI events.
2. In the Android OS, if a GUI doesn't respond to an input event in five seconds,
then it is considered unresponsive and the OS will try to kill it.
Android thread design
1. Only perform GUI actions on main application thread. Spawn separate
threads to perform data-intensive or slow actions. Make these threads
asynchronous.
2. Main thread does not have to wait for/check on other threads. Instead, those
threads run as they need to and report back to the original thread. Any changes
made to the UI should go through the UI thread.
Comparison of Android OS VS iPhone OS Features

Android applications
[Link] applications get distributed in a .apk file. APK stands for "Android
board as Package". It is simply a zip file that has a particular file structure. An
APKcontains:
1. The Android Manifest file (an XML file with lots of metadata).
2. A Resource bundle containing sounds, graphics, etc.
3. The Dalvik classes that make up user application.
Android Benefits
1. An open and free development platform. Handset makers can use it without
royalty and customize to their hearts content.
2. Component-based architecture: Lots of default components can be replaced
straightforwardly.
Proponents of Android point to the following benefits:
a. Lots of services location, sql, maps, web, etc.
b. Well managed applications; isolated from each other to protect data and
provide
c. Operating system can quit programs as needed to ensure good performance
on mobile devices.
d. Portability: To support a new device, a company has to port the virtual
machine; Android apps (Dalvik) then execute on the new device with little to no
modification.
Zygote
• Android uses a concept called the Zygote to enable both sharing of code across
VM instances and to provide fast startup time of new VM instances.
• Zygote is a daemon process that provides efficient memory usage and less
time overhead when Android runs multiple application. Zygote is the parent of
all application processes.
• The Zygote is a VM process that starts at system boot time. When the Zygote
process starts, it initializes a Dalvik VM, which preloads and preinitializes core
library classes.
• Generally, these core library classes are read-only and are therefore a good
candidate for preloading and sharing across processes.
• Once the Zygote has initialized, it will sit and wait for socket requests coming
from the runtime process indicating that it should fork new VM instances based
on the Zygote VM instance.
• Cold starting virtual machines notoriously takes a long time and can be an
impediment to isolating each application in its own VM. By spawning new VM
processes from the Zygote, the startup time is minimized.
• Additional memory need not be allocated for copies of these classes when a
new DVM is forked from the Zygote DVM.
4. Android File Management
• Android uses a file system that's similar to disk-based file systems on other
platforms. A file object is suited to reading or writing large amounts of data in
start-to-finish order without skipping around.
• All Android devices have two file storage areas: "Internal" and "external"
storage.
• Android device may use an updated Linux file system, such as ext4 or a
proprietary file system by a manufacturer, depending on who made the device
and what has been done to it by the user.
• File system is the collection place on disk device for files. Visualize the file
system as consisting of a single node at the highest level (ROOT) and all other
nodes descending from the root node in a tree-like fashion.
• Samsung Galaxy S phones use the Samsung RFS proprietary file system while
the Samsung Nexus S with Android 2.3 uses the Linux Ext4 file system.
• < /mnt>: This directory is used for mount points. The different physical
storage devices (like the hard disk drives, floppies, CD-ROM's) must be
attached to some au directory in the file system tree before they can be
accessed. This attaching is no called mounting and the directory where the
device is attached is called the mount bne point.
• SDCard: The mounted SDCard is a storage device mounted to the file system
in the typical Linux fashion. On the file system root the /sdcard is a symbolic
link to /mnt/sdcard. /mnt/sdcard is where the SD card is actually mounted, but
the same files can also be accessed in /sdcard.
• Fig. 7.8.1 shows typical directory structure of android file system.

• The superblock is the key to maintaining the file system. It is an 8 kB block of

disk space that maintains the current status of the file system. Because of its
importance, a copy is maintained in memory and at each cylinder group within
the file system.
• The copy in main memory is updated as events transpire. The update daemon
is the actual process that calls on the kernel to flush the cached superblocks,
modified inode and cached data blocks to disk.
• Usually Linux system assumes all file systems are read and writable.
1. ODEX FILE
• In Android file system, applications come in packages with the extension .apk.
These application packages or APKs contain certain .odex files whose supposed
function is to save space.
• These 'odex' files are actually collections of parts of an application that are
optimized before booting. Doing so speeds up the boot process, as it preloads
part of an application.
• On the other hand, it also makes hacking those applications difficult because a
part of the coding has already been extracted to another location before
execution.
2. DEODEX
• Deodexing is basically repackaging of these APKs in a certain way, such that
they are reassembled into [Link] files. All pieces of an application package
are put fo together back in one place.
• Deodexed ROMs (or APKs) have all their application packages put back
together in one place, allowing for easy modification such as theming. Since no
pieces of code are coming from any external location, custom ROMS or APKs
are always deodexed to ensure integrity.
7.8.1 SQLite
• SQlite is an open source embedded database. The resulting design goals of
SQLite were to allow the program to be operated without a database installation
or administration.
• It most widely deployed SQL database engine in the world. SQLite is based on
the Structured Query Language (SQL). Android contains the SQLite database
management classes that an application would use to manage its own private
database.
• SQLite is open source SQL database that stores data to a text file on a device.
Android comes in with built in SQLite database implementation. SQLite
supports all the relational database features.
• It is designed to provide a streamlined SQL-based database management
system suitable for embedded systems and other limited memory systems. The
full SQLite mid library can be implemented in under 400 KB.
• In contrast to other database management systems, SQLite is not a separate
process that is accessed from the client application. The library is linked in and
thus becomes an integral part of the application program.
Unique Features
1. No configuration is required.
2. No server process to administer or user accounts to manage.
3. Easy to backup and transmit database.
4. Dynamic typing for column values, variable lengths for column records.
5. Query can reference multiple database files.
6. A few non-standard SQL extensions.
• SQLiteDatabase allows methods to open the database connection, perform
queries and query updates and close the database. You can define keys and
values for queries via the ContentValues object. This is necessary for Insert and
Update calls. Delete only requires the Row Number.
• [Link] classes are as follows:
1. SQLiteCloseable - An object created from a SQLiteDatabase that can be
closed.
2. SQLiteCursor - A cursor implementation that exposes results from a query
on a SQLiteDatabase.
3. SQLiteDatabase - Exposes methods to manage a SQLite database.
4. SQLiteOpenHelper - A helper class to manage database creation and version
management.
5. SQLiteProgram- A base class for compiled SQLite programs.
6. SQLiteQuery - A SQLite program that represents a query that reads the as
resulting rows into a CursorWindow.
7. SQLiteQueryBuilder- A convenience class that helps build SQL queries to
be sent to SQLiteDatabase objects.
8. SQLiteStatement - A pre-compiled statement against a SQLiteDatabase
that can be reused.

[Link] Technology in detail APR/MAY 2025

• iOS is the operating system that runs on iPad, iPhone and iPod touch devices.
The operating system manages the device hardware and provides the
technologies required to implement native apps.
• The iOS Software Development Kit (SDK) contains the tools and interfaces
needed to develop, install, run, and test native apps that appear on an iOS
device's Home screen.
• Fig. 7.7.1 shows iOS architecture.
• The iOS Architecture is layered. At the highest level, iOS acts as an
intermediary between the underlying hardware and the apps you create.
• Apps do not talk to the underlying hardware directly. Instead, they
communicate with the hardware through a set of well-defined system interfaces.
These interfaces make it easy to write apps that work consistently on devices
having different hardware capabilities.
• The Cocoa Touch layer contains key frameworks for building iOS apps. These
frameworks define the appearance of your app. They also provide the basic app
infrastructure and support for key technologies such as multitasking, touch-
based input, push notifications and many high-level system services.
• High-Level features of Cocoa touch layers are AirDrop, Multitasking, Auto
Layout, Storyboards and Local Notifications And Apple Push Notification
Service.
• Cocoa touch layer contains following frameworks for iPhone app
development:
a. UIKit framework
b. Map kit framework
c. Push notification service.
d. Message UI framework noise
e. Address book UI framework
f. Game kit framework
g. iAd framework
h. Event kit UI framework
i. Accounts framework
j. Twitter framework
• The Media layer contains the graphics, audio and video technologies you use
to implement multimedia experiences in your apps. The technologies in this
layer make it easy for you to build apps that look and sound great.
Media Layer
• The role of the Media layer is to provide iOS with audio, video, animation and
graphics capabilities.
• As with the other layers comprising the iOS stack, the media layer comprises a
number of frameworks which may be utilized when developing iPhone apps.
• The technologies in this layer make it easy for sound great.
a. Graphics technologies
b. Audio technologies
c. Video technologies
d. AirPlay.
• Media layer contains following frameworks:
1. Core video framework: This framework provides buffering support for the
AMI Ista Core media framework. Whilst this may be utilized by application
developers it is typically not necessary to use this framework.
2. Core text framework: The iOS core text framework is a C-based API
designed to ease the handling of advanced text layout and font rendering
requirements.
3. Image I/O framework: The Image I/O framework, the purpose of which is
to facilitate the importing and exporting of image data and image metadata, was
introduced in iOS 4. The framework supports a wide range of image formats
including PNG, JPEG, TIFF and GIF.
4. Assets library framework: The assets library provides a mechanism for
locating and retrieving video and photo files located on the iPhone device. In
addition to accessing existing images and videos, this framework also allows
Simon new photos and videos to be saved to the standard device photo album.
5. Core graphics framework: The iOS core graphics framework provides a
lightweight two dimensional rendering engine. Features of this framework
include PDF document creation and presentation, vector based drawing,
transparent layers, path based drawing, anti-aliased rendering, color
manipulation and management, image rendering and gradients.
6. Core image framework: A new framework introduced with iOS 5 providing
a set of video and image filtering and manipulation capabilities for application
developers.
7. Quartz core framework: The purpose of the Quartz Core framework is to
provide animation capabilities on the iPhone. It provides the foundation for the
majority of the visual effects and animation used by the UIKit framework and
provides an Objective-C based programming interface for creation of
specialized animation within iPhone apps.
8. OpenGL ES framework: For many years the industry standard for high
performance 2D and 3D graphics drawing has been OpenGL. OpenGL
for Embedded Systems (ES) is a lightweight version of the full OpenGL
specification designed specifically for smaller devices such as the iPhone.
9. GLKit framework: The GLKit framework is an Objective-C based API
designed to ease the task of creating OpenGL ES based applications.
10. NewsstandKit framework: The Newsstand application is a new feature of
iOS 5 and is intended as a central location for users to gain access to
newspapers and magazines. The NewsstandKit framework allows for the
development of applications that utilize this new service.
11. iOS audio support: iOS is capable of supporting audio in AAC, Apple
orolove Lossless (ALAC), A-law, IMA/ADPCM, Linear PCM, u-law, DVI/Intel
IMA ADPCM, Microsoft GSM 6.10 and AES3-2003 formats through the
support provided by the following frameworks.
12. AV foundation framework: An Objective-C based framework designed to
allow the playback, recording and management of audio content.
Core Services Layer
• The Core Services layer contains fundamental system services for apps.
• Key among these services are the core foundation and foundation frameworks,
which define the basic types that all apps use.
• This layer also contains individual technologies to support features such as
location, iCloud, social media and networking.
Features:
1. Peer-to-Peer services
2. iCloud storage
3. Automatic reference counting
4. Block objects
5. Grand central dispatch
6. In-App purchase
7. SQLite
8. XML support
9. File-sharing support, data protection.
It consists of the following frameworks:
•Address book framework: This provides programmatic access to the iPhone
Address Book contact database allowing applications to retrieve and
modify contact entries.
• CFNetwork framework: The CFNetwork framework provides a C-based
interface to the TCP/IP networking protocol stack and low level access to BSD
sockets. This enables application code to be written that works with HTTP, FTP
and domain name servers and to establish secure and encrypted connections
using Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer Security (TLS).
• Core Data Framework: This framework is provided to ease the creation of
data modeling and storage in Model-View-Controller (MVC) based
applications. Use of the Core Data framework significantly reduces the amount
of code that needs to be written to perform common tasks when working with
structured data within an application.
• Core foundation framework: The core foundation framework is a C-based
Framework which provides basic functionality such as data types, string
manipulation, raw block data management, URL manipulation, threads and run
loops, date and times, basic XML manipulation and port and socket anro
communication.
• The core media framework is the lower level foundation upon which the AV
foundation layer is built.
• Core telephony framework: The iOS core telephony framework is provided
to allow applications to interrogate the device for information about the current
cell phone service provider and to receive notification of telephony related
events.
• EventKit framework: An API designed to provide applications with access to
the calendar and alarms on the device.
• Most applications will use iCloud document storage to share documents from
a user's iCloud account. This is the feature that users think of when they think of
iCloud storage. A user cares about whether documents are shared across devices
and can see and manage those documents from a given device.
• Data protection allows applications that work with sensitive user data to take
advantage of the built-in encryption available on some devices.
• When your application designates a specific file as protected, the system stores
that file on-disk in an encrypted format. While the device is locked, the contents
of the file are inaccessible to both your application and to any potential
intruders.
• However, when the device is unlocked by the user, a decryption key is created
to allow your application to access the file.
Core OS Layer
• The Core OS layer contains the low-level features that most other technologies
are built upon.
• Even if you do not use these technologies directly in your apps, they are most
likely being used by other frameworks.
• And in situations where you need to explicitly deal with security or
communicating with an external hardware accessory, you do so using the
frameworks in this layer.
• This layer provides a variety of services including low level networking,
access to external accessories and the usual fundamental operating system
services such as memory management, file system handling and threads.
• The Core OS layer occupies the bottom position of the iOS stack and, as such,
sits directly on top of the device hardware.
• The layer provides a variety of services including low level networking, access
to external accessories and the usual fundamental operating system services
such as memory management, file system handling and threads.
• Accelerate framework: Introduced in iOS 4.0, the Accelerate framework
contains. interfaces for performing DSP, linear algebra and image-processing
calculations. The advantage of using this framework over writing your own
versions of these interfaces is that they are optimized for all of the hardware
configurations present • in iOS, based devices. Therefore, you can write your
code once and be assured that it runs efficiently on all devices.
• External accessory framework: It provides the ability to interrogate and
communicate with external accessories connected physically to the iPhone via
the 30-pin dock connector or wirelessly via Bluetooth.
• Security framework: The iOS Security framework provides all the security
interfaces you would expect to find on a device that can connect to external
networks including certificates, public and private keys, trust policies, key
chains, encryption, digests and Hash-based Message Authentication Code
(HMAC).
• The core bluetooth framework allows developers to interact specifically with
80 Bluetooth Low-Energy ("LE") accessories. The Objective-C interfaces of
this framework allow you to scan for LE accessories, connect and disconnect to
ones you find, read and write attributes within a service, register for service and
attribute change notifications and much more.
• System: The system level encompasses the kernel environment, drivers and
low level UNIX interfaces of the operating system. The kernel itself is based on
Mach and is responsible for every aspect of the operating system.
• It manages the virtual memory system, threads, file system, network and
interprocess communication. The drivers at this layer also provide the interface
between the available hardware and system frameworks.
• For security purposes, access to the kernel and drivers is restricted to a limited
set of system frameworks and applications.
• iOS provides a set of interfaces for accessing many low-level features of the
operating system. Your application accesses these features through the
LibSystem library.