Unit – 4 Thermal Electric and Thermionic Conversion
Wind Energy
Wind energy is a form of renewable energy that is generated by converting the kinetic energy of moving air
(wind) into mechanical energy and then into electrical energy using a wind mill (wind turbine).
Importance of Wind Energy
1. Renewable Source – Wind energy is inexhaustible and naturally replenished.
2. Environment Friendly – It produces no greenhouse gases or air pollution during operation.
3. Reduces Fossil Fuel Dependence – Helps conserve coal, oil, and natural gas.
4. Cost-Effective in the Long Run – After installation, operating and maintenance costs are low.
5. Energy Security – Reduces reliance on imported fuels.
6. Suitable for Remote Areas – Can supply electricity to rural and off-grid locations.
7. Job Creation – Supports employment in manufacturing, installation, and maintenance.
Main Components of a Wind Mill (Wind Turbine)
1. Rotor Blades
o Capture wind energy and rotate due to aerodynamic lift.
o Usually made of fiberglass or carbon fiber.
2. Hub
o Connects the blades and transfers rotational energy to the shaft.
3. Nacelle
o A protective enclosure mounted on top of the tower.
o Houses key components like the gearbox, generator, and control systems.
4. Shaft (Low-Speed and High-Speed Shaft)
o Transfers mechanical energy from the rotor to the generator.
5. Gearbox
o Increases the rotational speed from the rotor to a level suitable for electricity generation.
6. Generator
o Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
7. Brake System
o Stops the turbine during strong winds or for maintenance.
8. Yaw Mechanism
o Rotates the nacelle so that the blades face the direction of the wind.
9. Tower
o Supports the turbine at a height where wind speed is higher and more consistent.
10. Anemometer and Wind Vanea
o Measure wind speed and direction for efficient operation.
Principle of Wind Energy Conversion
The principle of wind energy conversion is based on converting the kinetic energy of moving air (wind) into
mechanical energy and then into electrical energy using the generator.
When wind flows over the aerodynamically shaped blades of a wind mill, a pressure difference is created
between the two sides of the blade. This pressure difference produces lift, causing the rotor to rotate. The rotating
rotor connected to a generator via the shaft, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
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The power available in wind is given by: 𝑃 = 2 𝜌𝐴𝑉 3 where
• 𝜌= air density (kg/m³)
• 𝐴= swept area of the rotor (m²)
• 𝑉= wind velocity (m/s)
Betz’s Law states that no wind turbine can convert more than 59.3% of the wind’s kinetic energy into mechanical
energy.
Methods Used to Reduce Fluctuating Power Generation of Wind Mills
Since wind speed is variable, wind power generation fluctuates. The following methods are used to increase
stability and reduce fluctuations in wind mill power output:
1. Energy Storage Systems
• Batteries store excess energy during high wind speeds and supply power during low wind periods.
• Flywheels store energy in rotational form.
• Pumped hydro storage stores energy by pumping water to a higher reservoir.
2. Variable Speed Wind Turbines
• Allow the rotor speed to change with wind speed.
• Maintain optimal tip-speed ratio for maximum efficiency.
• Reduce mechanical stress and power fluctuations.
3. Power Electronic Controllers
• Use converters and inverters to regulate voltage and frequency.
• Smooth out variations in power output before feeding it to the grid.
4. Pitch Control of Blades
• Adjusts blade angle according to wind speed.
• Prevents sudden power surges at high wind speeds and improves efficiency at low speeds.
5. Yaw Control System
• Keeps the turbine facing the wind direction.
• Ensures consistent energy capture.
6. Hybrid Power Systems
• Combine wind energy with solar, diesel, or grid power system.
• Ensures continuous and stable power supply.
7. Grid Interconnection
• Large wind farms connected to strong grids help absorb fluctuations.
• Geographic dispersion of turbines reduces overall variability.
Types of Wind Turbines
Wind turbines are mainly classified based on the axis of rotation:
1. Horizontal–Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)
• Axis of rotation is horizontal and parallel to the ground.
• Most commonly used for large-scale power generation.
• High efficiency and better power output.
• Requires yaw mechanism to face the wind direction for optimality.
Examples: Propeller-type turbines (2-blade, 3-blade).
2. Vertical–Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT)
• Axis of rotation is vertical and perpendicular to the ground.
• Most commonly used for small-scale or urban applications.
• Lower efficiency compared to HAWT.
• Can accept wind from any direction.
Types of VAWT: Darrieus turbine (egg-beater type) and Savonius turbine (S-shaped rotor)
Working Flow of a Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)
A horizontal-axis wind turbine converts the energy of moving air into electricity through the following simple
working process : (Wind → Blades → Rotor → Shaft → Gearbox → Generator → Grid).
1. Wind hits the blades
Wind flows over the aerodynamically shaped blades. Because of their airfoil shape, a lift force is
created (similar to an airplane wing).
2. Blades rotate the rotor
The lift force makes the blades rotate, turning the rotor about a horizontal axis.
3. Turbine faces the wind
Sensors measure wind direction and speed. A yaw mechanism turns the nacelle so the blades always
face the wind.
4. Mechanical energy transfer
The rotating rotor turns a low-speed shaft inside the nacelle.
5. Speed increase (gearbox)
The low rotational speed is increased by a gearbox to a higher speed suitable for electricity generation.
(Some modern turbines use direct-drive generators without a gearbox.)
6. Electricity generation
The generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy using electromagnetic induction.
7. Power control and delivery
Power electronics regulate voltage and frequency. Electricity is then carried down the tower cables to
the grid or storage system.
8. Safety and control: Pitch control adjusts blade angle to control power and Brakes stop the turbine
during very high winds or emergencies.
Advantages of HAWT
• High efficiency
• Suitable for large power generation
• Proven and widely used technology
Disadvantages of HAWT
• Requires yaw control system
• Not suitable for turbulent wind conditions
• High installation and maintenance cost
Factors to be Considered for Site Selection of Wind Farms
Proper site selection is critical for efficient and economical wind power generation. The main factors are:
1. Wind Characteristics
• Average wind speed: Should generally be above 6–7 m/s at hub height.
• Wind direction and consistency: Steady and uniform winds are preferred.
• Wind power density: Higher density means better energy output.
• Turbulence intensity: Low turbulence reduces mechanical stress.
2. Topography and Terrain
• Elevated areas such as hills, ridges, and open plains are suitable.
• Avoid sites with obstructions like buildings and trees.
• Terrain should allow easy access for construction and maintenance.
3. Land Availability
• Sufficient land area for turbine spacing to avoid wake effects.
• Compatibility with other land uses (e.g., agriculture).
4. Grid Connectivity
• Proximity to transmission lines and substations.
• Grid capacity to absorb generated power without instability.
5. Environmental and Ecological Impact
• Impact on birds, wildlife, and vegetation.
• Noise and shadow flicker considerations.
• Compliance with environmental regulations.
6. Accessibility and Infrastructure
• Availability of roads for transporting large turbine components.
• Access to cranes, ports (for offshore), and maintenance facilities.
7. Climatic Conditions
• Temperature, humidity, icing, cyclones, and extreme weather conditions.
• Corrosion risk in coastal areas.
8. Social and Legal Factors
• Distance from residential areas.
• Land ownership, permissions, and government policies.
• Community acceptance.
Advantages of Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS)
1. Renewable and Sustainable
o Wind is inexhaustible and freely available.
2. Environment Friendly
o No air pollution or greenhouse gas emissions during operation.
3. Low Operating Cost
o Fuel is free; only maintenance costs are involved.
4. Reduces Dependence on Fossil Fuels
o Helps conserve coal, oil, and gas resources.
5. Quick Installation
o Wind farms can be installed faster than conventional power plants.
6. Suitable for Remote Areas
o Can supply electricity to rural and off-grid locations.
7. Scalable Technology
o Can be used for small-scale as well as large-scale power generation.
8. Economic Benefits
o Generates employment and supports local economies.
Thermoelectric vs Thermionic Energy Conversion
Feature Theroelectric Energy Conversion Thermionic Energy Conversion
Basic principle Seebeck effect Thermionic emission
Working medium Solid-state materials (semiconductors) Vacuum or plasma
Operating
Low to moderate (≈ 100–600 K) Very high (≈ 1000–2000 K)
temperature
Electron flow Through solid material Through vacuum/plasma
Moving parts None None
Efficiency Low to moderate Higher at very high temperatures
System complexity Simple, compact More complex (requires vacuum, high temp)
Maintenance Very low Higher due to high-temperature operation
Typical Waste heat recovery, cooling devices, Space power systems, high-temperature power
applications space probes generation
Reliability Very high Lower compared to thermoelectric
Cost Relatively low High
Thermoelectric Energy Conversion
Thermoelectric energy conversion is the process of converting heat directly into electrical energy (or vice versa)
using solid-state materials, based on the Seebeck effect (for power generation) and the Peltier effect (for cooling).
• It occurs when there is a temperature difference across a thermoelectric material.
• No moving parts are involved.
Thermionic Energy Conversion
Thermionic energy conversion is the process of converting heat directly into electrical energy by emission of
electrons from a hot metal or cathode into a vacuum or plasma, based on the principle of thermionic emission.
• It requires very high temperatures to release electrons.
• It involves electron flow through vacuum or plasma, not solid materials.
Working of the Thermoelectric Generator
Step-by-step operation:
1. Temperature difference applied
o One junction is heated (hot side)
o Other junction is cooled (cold side)
2. Charge carrier movement
o In n-type material, electrons move from hot to cold side
o In p-type material, holes move from hot to cold side
3. Voltage generation
o Due to the Seebeck effect, this movement of charge carriers creates a potential difference
4. Current flow
o When an external load is connected, current flows through the circuit
o Heat energy is thus converted into electrical energy
A thermoelectric generator works on the principle of the Seebeck effect. It consists of p-type and n-type
semiconductor elements connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel.
When a temperature difference is applied across the two junctions of the thermoelectric generator, one
junction is maintained at a higher temperature (hot junction) while the other is maintained at a lower
temperature (cold junction).
Due to this temperature difference, charge carriers start moving from the hot side to the cold side. In the n-
type semiconductor, electrons move from the hot junction to the cold junction, while in the p-type
semiconductor, holes move from the hot junction to the cold junction.
This movement of charge carriers results in the development of an electromotive force (EMF) across the
terminals of the thermoelectric generator. This phenomenon is known as the Seebeck effect.
When an external load is connected across the terminals, the generated EMF causes an electric current to
flow through the circuit. Thus, the supplied heat energy is directly converted into electrical energy without
any moving parts.
Role of the Seebeck Effect in TEG (Why It Is Important)
The Seebeck effect is the fundamental reason a thermoelectric generator works:
• It directly converts heat to electricity
• No Seebeck effect → no voltage generation
• Efficiency and output voltage depend on:
o Seebeck coefficient of materials
o Magnitude of temperature difference
Advantages of Thermoelectric Generators
• No moving parts → high reliability
• Silent operation
• Low maintenance
• Works with waste heat (engines, exhausts, solar heat)
Limitations
• Low efficiency (typically 5–8%)
• High cost of materials
• Requires large temperature differences for higher output
Construction of a Thermoelectric Generator
A thermoelectric generator consists of a number of p-type and n-type semiconductor elements which are used
to convert heat energy into electrical energy.
Each p-type and n-type semiconductor leg is connected electrically in series using metallic connectors
(usually copper) and thermally in parallel so that heat can flow through all the elements simultaneously.
The upper ends of the p-type and n-type elements are connected by a metal strip to form the hot junction,
while the lower ends are connected by another metal strip to form the cold junction.
The hot junction is placed in contact with a heat source, such as exhaust gases or a heated surface, while the
cold junction is connected to a heat sink to maintain a lower temperature.
The entire assembly is sandwiched between ceramic insulating plates which provide electrical insulation and
mechanical support while allowing heat transfer. Terminals are taken from the two free ends to connect an
external load.
Factors Affecting Thermoelectric Devices
The performance and efficiency of thermoelectric devices such as thermoelectric generators depend on the
following factors:
1. Temperature Difference (ΔT)
The output voltage and power of a thermoelectric device increase with an increase in the temperature
difference between the hot and cold junctions. A larger ΔT produces higher EMF due to the Seebeck effect.
2. Seebeck Coefficient (S)
The Seebeck coefficient of the material determines how much voltage is generated per unit temperature
difference. Materials with a high Seebeck coefficient produce higher output voltage.
3. Electrical Conductivity (σ)
High electrical conductivity reduces internal resistance, allowing more current to flow. Therefore, materials
with high electrical conductivity improve device performance.
4. Thermal Conductivity (k)
Low thermal conductivity is desired because it helps maintain the temperature difference across the device.
High thermal conductivity reduces efficiency by allowing heat to flow too quickly from hot to cold side.
5. Material Properties
The type of semiconductor material used (such as bismuth telluride) significantly affects performance due to
differences in carrier concentration and mobility.
6. Contact Resistance
High electrical and thermal contact resistance at junctions reduces output power and efficiency.
7. Device Geometry
The length and cross-sectional area of p-type and n-type elements affect resistance and heat flow, influencing
power output.