Nucleic acids

We have studied two of the three major kinds of biopolymers: polysaccharides and proteins. Now we
will look at the third kind of biopolymer— nucleic acids.
Every generation of each and every species resembles its ancestors in many ways. How are these
characteristics transmitted from one generation to the next?
It has been observed that nucleus of a living cell is responsible for this transmission of inherent
characters, also called heredity.
Nucleic acids are mainly two types:
1) Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 2) Ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Chemical Composition of Nucleic Acids:
Complete hydrolysis of DNA (or RNA) yields a pentose sugar, phosphoric acid and nitrogen
containing heterocyclic compounds (called bases).
In DNA molecules, the sugar moiety is β-D-2-deoxyribose whereas in RNA molecule, it is β-D-ribose.

DNA contains four bases viz. adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T). RNA also
contains four bases, the first three bases are same as in DNA but the fourth one is uracil (U).

Nucleosides: (Base+Sugar)
The anomeric carbon of the furanose ring is bonded to purines at N-9 and to pyrimidines at N-1.
A compound containing a base bonded to D -ribose or to 2-deoxy- D-ribose is called a nucleoside
The nucleosides of RNA—where the sugar is D-ribose— are more precisely called ribonucleosides,
whereas the nucleosides of DNA—where the sugar is 2-deoxy-D-ribose—are called
deoxyribonucleosides.

Nucleotides: (base+sugar+phosphate)
A nucleotide is a nucleoside with an OH group of the sugar bonded in an ester linkage to phosphoric
acid. The nucleotides of RNA are more precisely called ribonucleotides, and those of DNA are called
deoxyribonucleotides.

Because phosphoric acid can form an anhydride, nucleotides can exist as monophosphates,
diphosphates, and triphosphates.
They are named by adding monophosphate or diphosphate or triphosphate to the name of the
nucleoside.
Structure of Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are composed of long strands of nucleotide subunits. A dinucleotide contains two
nucleotide subunits, an oligonucleotide contains 3 to 10 subunits, and a polynucleotide contains many
subunits. DNA and RNA are polynucleotides.
A simplified version of nucleic acid chain is as shown below
Base Base Base

Sugar Phosphate Sugar Phosphate Sugar

n
Information regarding the sequence of nucleotides in the chain of a nucleic acid is called its primary
structure.
Nucleic acids have a secondary structure also. James Watson and Francis Crick gave a double strand
double helix structure for DNA.
Two nucleic acid chains are wound about each other and held together by hydrogen bonds between
pairs of bases.
The two strands are complementary to each other because the hydrogen bonds are formed between
specific pairs of bases.

RNA
Secondary structure of RNA, helices are present which are only single stranded.
RNA molecules are much shorter than DNA molecules and are generally single- stranded.
Although DNA molecules have billions of base pairs, RNA molecules rarely have more than 10,000
nucleotides. There are several kinds of RNA.
Messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA).
DNA Fingerprinting
It is known that every individual has unique fingerprints.
These occur at the tips of the fingers and have been used for identification for a long time but these
can be altered by surgery.
A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for a person and information regarding this is called DNA
fingerprinting.
It is same for every cell and cannot be altered by any known treatment. DNA fingerprinting is now
used
(i) in forensic laboratories for identification of criminals.
(ii) to determine paternity of an individual.
(iii) to identify the dead bodies in any accident by comparing the DNA’s of parents or children.
(iv) to identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution.
Biological Functions of Nucleic Acids
DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and may be regarded as the reserve of genetic information.
DNA is exclusively responsible for maintaining the identity of different species of organisms over
millions of years.
A DNA molecule is capable of self duplication during cell division and identical DNA strands are
transferred to daughter cells.
Another important function of nucleic acids is the protein synthesis in the cell.
Actually, the proteins are synthesised by various RNA molecules in the cell but the message for the
synthesis of a particular protein is present in DNA.
Why DNA does not have a 2-OH group
Unlike DNA, RNA is not stable because the 2-OH group of ribose acts as a nucleophilic catalyst for
the cleavage of RNA.
This explains why the 2-OH group is absent in DNA.
DNA must remain intact throughout the life span of a cell in order to preserve the genetic information.
Easy cleavage of DNA would have disastrous consequences for the cell and for life itself.
RNA, in contrast, is synthesized as it is needed and is degraded once it has served its purpose.
Biosynthesis of DNA is called replication
DNA molecules can be copied using the same base-pairing principle that is fundamental to their
structure that is, each strand can serve as the template for the synthesis of a complementary new
strand.
The new (daughter) DNA molecules are identical to the original (parent) molecule, so they contain all
the original genetic information. The synthesis of identical copies of DNA is called replication.
synthesis of RNA from a DNA blueprint is called transcription
synthesis of a protein from an RNA blueprint is called translation
Vitamins
It has been observed that certain organic compounds are required in small amounts in our diet but
their deficiency causes specific diseases. These compounds are called vitamins.
Most of the vitamins cannot be synthesised in our body but plants can synthesise almost all of them,
so they are considered as essential food factors. However, the bacteria of the gut can produce some of
the vitamins required by us. All the vitamins are generally available in our diet.
Different vitamins belong to various chemical classes and it is difficult to define them on the basis of
structure. They are generally regarded as organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts
to perform specific biological functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth and health
of the organism.
Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon their solubility in water or fat.
(i) Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils but insoluble in water are kept in
this group.
These are vitamins A, D, E and K.
They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues.
(ii) Water soluble vitamins: B group vitamins and vitamin C are soluble in water so they are grouped
together.
Water soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in diet because they are readily excreted in urine
and cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our body.