DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Esci 118 – Numerical Solutions to Engineering Problems

1st Semester SY 2024-2025

Laboratory Report no. 5

Numeric Differentiation

Name: CAGOYONG, Precious Mae P.

Date conducted: November 11, 2024

Introduction

Numeric differentiation is a method employed to approximate the derivative of a function.

Rather than relying on symbolic differentiation, it utilizes numerical techniques that involve small
increments (Δx) to evaluate the function at specific points. The increment Δx is selected to be sufficiently
small to provide a precise estimate of the derivative, yet not so small as to introduce numerical instability
or round-off errors. By examining the differences in function values, this method effectively calculates the
slope.
One of the simplest and most fundamental numerical methods for solving ODEs is Euler’s
method. This method, developed by Leonhard Euler in 1768, this method takes a literal, straightforward
approach to interpreting the differential term. The idea behind is to use the differential equation to
predict the future value of the function. Starting from an initial known point, it approximates the solution
of an ODE by taking smallmsteps along the direction of the slope.
For the sake of visualization, using Euler’s method is like imagining yourself walking along a path,
and then at each step, you look at the direction you are facing and take a small step forward. By
repeating this process, the path can be approximated even if the exact route is unknown from the start to
end. This makes the method a laid groundwork for more advanced numerical techniques. It is easy to
implement and provides a quick way to approximate solutions. However, it can also be inaccurate,
especially for large step sizes, reason why another method was developed for improvement of results.
Range-Kutta methods were developed in the 1900s to improve the Euler’s method. It addresses
the latter’s weakness, that is considering only the slope at the beginning of the interval which may not be
an accurate representative of the true slope, by taking account the slopes at multiple points within the
interval. By calculating the slopes at various points and taking a weighted average, these methods
provide a more accurate approximation of the solution. Its most popular version is the fourth-order
Range-Kutta method, commonly known as RK4.
This laboratory exercise aims to make the students familiarize the concept and techniques of
numeric methods for ODEs, apply them, and recognize their importance. At the end, students must also
pinpoint the advantages and disadvantages of numeric methods over the classical methods for ODEs.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Page 1 of 18

Visayas State University, PQXV+2W Baybay City,
Leyte, PHILIPPINES
Email: civilengineering@[Link] Website
[Link]
Phone: +63 53 565 0600 local 1020
Methods
Problem
[Leaking tank] A 2-m diameter cylindrical tank has a circular hole of 1 cm diameter at its bottom. The
initial level of water is 2.25 m.

Step 1: Analytic Method

Using Torricelli’s law, the rate of outflow of water through a hole is derived.
1/ 2
v=(2 gh)
Considering the area of the hole and the volume flow rate, if the hole has an area A, the
volume flow rate dV/dt is given by:
d
=−Av
dx
Substituting v from Torricelli’s law:
dV 1/ 2
=− A( 2 gh)
dt
Where A = c x total Area
c is just a fraction of the total area
A=c A o
Hence,
dV 1/ 2
=−c A o (2 gh)
dt
dV −3 π 1 /2
= (2 gh)
dt 20
Assuming the circular tank tank has a constant cross-sectional area, the area can be
calculated:
Page 2 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
 2
A=π r
V = Ah
2
V =π r h
dV 2 dh
=π r h
dt dt
2
π r =10,000 π
2
r =10,000
dV dh
=10,000 π
dt dt
dV
Combining equations:
dt
1
−3 π dh
( 2 gh ) 2 =10,000 π
20 dt

1
−3 dh
( 2 gh ) 2 =10,000
20 dt

1
dh −3
= ( 2 gh ) 2
dt 20 x 1000
1
dh −3
= ( 2 gh ) 2
dt 200 000
Separating the variables:
1
dh −3
= ( 2 g) 2
1
2
200 000
h
Integrating both sides:
−1 1
3
∫h 2
dh= ∫ − ( 2 g ) 2 dt
200 000
1 1
−3
2 h2= ( 2 g ) 2 t +C
200 000
1 1
1 −3
2
h = ( ( 2 g ) 2 t +C)
2 200 000

( )
1 2
1 −3 ( ) 2
h=( 2 g t+ C )
2 200 000

Page 3 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
 ( )
1
−3 ( ) 2
h= 2 g t+ C ¿ ¿2
400 000
Substituting the value of g:
1
−3
( 2(9.81) ) 2
400 000
−4
¿−3.322085189 ×10
Hence,
h=¿

Step 2: Euler’s Method

With an initial condition of y(0) = 225 cm, and a value of 6.644170377 x10−4 ¿ upon
substitution, the differential equation to be graphed is:
1 1
dy −3
= (2 g )2 ( y )2
dt 200 000

In the excel sheet, the columns looked like this:

A B C D
Interval t y_Euler dy/dt
Table 1. Excel Columns for Euler’s Method
For t, values used were from 0 to 50040, with an interval of 120.

A B
Interval t
1 0
2 120
3 240
4 360
5 480
6 600
7 720
8 840
9 960
10 1080
11 1200
12 1320
13 1440
14 1560
15 1680
16 1800

Page 4 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
 17 1920
18 2040
19 2160
20 2280
Table 2. t values
For the 3rd column, 225 was typed in as initial value of y, obtained from the analytic solution,
while in te 4th column, the value of the given ODE was simply encoded. dy/𝑑𝑡 = 6.644170377 x10−4 ¿. For
the next value of y, the Euler’s iteration formula was used:
y i+ 1=¿ y +f ( t ) h ¿
'
i i

'
The input for f ( t i ) h was the dy/dt value from the first step, while y i is the previous y-value. The
formulas were then extended for the entire range.

A B C D
Interval t y_Euler dy/dt
1 0 225 -0.009966256
2 120 223.8040493 -0.009939733
3 240 222.6112813 -0.009913211
4 360 221.421696 -0.009886688
5 480 220.2352934 -0.009860166
6 600 219.0520735 -0.009833643
7 720 217.8720363 -0.00980712
8 840 216.6951819 -0.009780598
9 960 215.5215102 -0.009754075
10 1080 214.3510212 -0.009727552
11 1200 213.1837151 -0.009701028
12 1320 212.0195917 -0.009674505
13 1440 210.8586511 -0.009647982
14 1560 209.7008932 -0.009621458
15 1680 208.5463183 -0.009594935
16 1800 207.3949261 -0.009568411
17 1920 206.2467168 -0.009541887
18 2040 205.1016903 -0.009515363
19 2160 203.9598467 -0.009488839
20 2280 202.8211859 -0.009462315
21 2400 201.6857081 -0.009435791
22 2520 200.5534131 -0.009409267
23 2640 199.4243011 -0.009382743
24 2760 198.298372 -0.009356218
25 2880 197.1756258 -0.009329693
26 3000 196.0560626 -0.009303169
27 3120 194.9396824 -0.009276644
28 3240 193.8264851 -0.009250119
29 3360 192.7164708 -0.009223594
30 3480 191.6096395 -0.009197069
Page 5 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
 31 3600 190.5059913 -0.009170544
32 3720 189.405526 -0.009144018
33 3840 188.3082439 -0.009117493
34 3960 187.2141447 -0.009090967
35 4080 186.1232287 -0.009064441
36 4200 185.0354957 -0.009037916
37 4320 183.9509458 -0.00901139
38 4440 182.869579 -0.008984864
39 4560 181.7913954 -0.008958338
40 4680 180.7163949 -0.008931811
41 4800 179.6445775 -0.008905285
42 4920 178.5759434 -0.008878758
43 5040 177.5104924 -0.008852232
44 5160 176.4482245 -0.008825705
45 5280 175.3891399 -0.008799178
46 5400 174.3332386 -0.008772651
47 5520 173.2805204 -0.008746124
48 5640 172.2309855 -0.008719597
49 5760 171.1846339 -0.008693069
50 5880 170.1414656 -0.008666542
51 6000 169.1014806 -0.008640014
52 6120 168.0646788 -0.008613487
53 6240 167.0310604 -0.008586959
54 6360 166.0006254 -0.008560431
55 6480 164.9733737 -0.008533903
56 6600 163.9493053 -0.008507374
57 6720 162.9284204 -0.008480846
58 6840 161.9107189 -0.008454318
59 6960 160.8962007 -0.008427789
60 7080 159.8848661 -0.00840126
61 7200 158.8767148 -0.008374731
62 7320 157.8717471 -0.008348202
63 7440 156.8699628 -0.008321673
64 7560 155.871362 -0.008295144
65 7680 154.8759447 -0.008268615
66 7800 153.883711 -0.008242085
67 7920 152.8946608 -0.008215555
68 8040 151.9087942 -0.008189025
69 8160 150.9261111 -0.008162495
70 8280 149.9466117 -0.008135965
71 8400 148.9702958 -0.008109435
72 8520 147.9971636 -0.008082905
73 8640 147.0272151 -0.008056374
74 8760 146.0604502 -0.008029843
75 8880 145.0968689 -0.008003313
Page 6 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
 76 9000 144.1364714 -0.007976782
77 9120 143.1792576 -0.007950251
78 9240 142.2252276 -0.007923719
79 9360 141.2743813 -0.007897188
80 9480 140.3267187 -0.007870656
81 9600 139.38224 -0.007844125
82 9720 138.440945 -0.007817593
83 9840 137.5028339 -0.007791061
84 9960 136.5679066 -0.007764528
85 10080 135.6361632 -0.007737996
86 10200 134.7076037 -0.007711464
87 10320 133.782228 -0.007684931
88 10440 132.8600363 -0.007658398
89 10560 131.9410285 -0.007631865
90 10680 131.0252047 -0.007605332
91 10800 130.1125649 -0.007578799
92 10920 129.203109 -0.007552265
93 11040 128.2968371 -0.007525732
94 11160 127.3937493 -0.007499198
95 11280 126.4938456 -0.007472664
96 11400 125.5971259 -0.00744613
97 11520 124.7035903 -0.007419596
98 11640 123.8132388 -0.007393061
99 11760 122.9260715 -0.007366527
100 11880 122.0420883 -0.007339992
101 12000 121.1612893 -0.007313457
102 12120 120.2836744 -0.007286922
103 12240 119.4092438 -0.007260386
104 12360 118.5379975 -0.007233851
105 12480 117.6699353 -0.007207315
106 12600 116.8050575 -0.007180779
107 12720 115.943364 -0.007154243
108 12840 115.0848548 -0.007127707
109 12960 114.2295299 -0.007101171
110 13080 113.3773894 -0.007074634
111 13200 112.5284333 -0.007048097
112 13320 111.6826617 -0.00702156
113 13440 110.8400744 -0.006995023
114 13560 110.0006716 -0.006968486
115 13680 109.1644533 -0.006941948
116 13800 108.3314195 -0.006915411
117 13920 107.5015702 -0.006888873
118 14040 106.6749055 -0.006862335
119 14160 105.8514253 -0.006835796
120 14280 105.0311297 -0.006809258
Page 7 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
 121 14400 104.2140188 -0.006782719
122 14520 103.4000925 -0.00675618
123 14640 102.5893509 -0.006729641
124 14760 101.781794 -0.006703102
125 14880 100.9774217 -0.006676562
126 15000 100.1762343 -0.006650022
127 15120 99.37823159 -0.006623482
128 15240 98.58341369 -0.006596942
129 15360 97.79178061 -0.006570402
130 15480 97.00333238 -0.006543861
131 15600 96.21806902 -0.006517321
132 15720 95.43599056 -0.006490779
133 15840 94.65709702 -0.006464238
134 15960 93.88138844 -0.006437697
135 16080 93.10886484 -0.006411155
136 16200 92.33952624 -0.006384613
137 16320 91.57337267 -0.006358071
138 16440 90.81040416 -0.006331528
139 16560 90.05062075 -0.006304986
140 16680 89.29402244 -0.006278443
141 16800 88.54060929 -0.0062519
142 16920 87.7903813 -0.006225357
143 17040 87.04333852 -0.006198813
144 17160 86.29948097 -0.006172269
145 17280 85.55880868 -0.006145725
146 17400 84.82132167 -0.006119181
147 17520 84.08701999 -0.006092636
148 17640 83.35590365 -0.006066091
149 17760 82.6279727 -0.006039546
150 17880 81.90322715 -0.006013001
151 18000 81.18166705 -0.005986455
152 18120 80.46329241 -0.005959909
153 18240 79.74810328 -0.005933363
154 18360 79.03609968 -0.005906817
155 18480 78.32728165 -0.00588027
156 18600 77.62164922 -0.005853723
157 18720 76.91920242 -0.005827176
158 18840 76.21994128 -0.005800629
159 18960 75.52386584 -0.005774081
160 19080 74.83097612 -0.005747533
161 19200 74.14127218 -0.005720985
162 19320 73.45475403 -0.005694436
163 19440 72.77142171 -0.005667887
164 19560 72.09127526 -0.005641338
165 19680 71.41431471 -0.005614788
Page 8 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
 166 19800 70.74054009 -0.005588239
167 19920 70.06995145 -0.005561689
168 20040 69.40254882 -0.005535138
169 20160 68.73833224 -0.005508588
170 20280 68.07730173 -0.005482037
171 20400 67.41945734 -0.005455485
172 20520 66.76479911 -0.005428934
173 20640 66.11332707 -0.005402382
174 20760 65.46504127 -0.005375829
175 20880 64.81994173 -0.005349277
176 21000 64.1780285 -0.005322724
177 21120 63.53930162 -0.005296171
178 21240 62.90376113 -0.005269617
179 21360 62.27140707 -0.005243063
180 21480 61.64223948 -0.005216509
181 21600 61.01625839 -0.005189954
182 21720 60.39346386 -0.0051634
183 21840 59.77385591 -0.005136844
184 21960 59.15743461 -0.005110289
185 22080 58.54419997 -0.005083733
186 22200 57.93415206 -0.005057176
187 22320 57.32729092 -0.00503062
188 22440 56.72361658 -0.005004062
189 22560 56.12312909 -0.004977505
190 22680 55.52582849 -0.004950947
191 22800 54.93171485 -0.004924389
192 22920 54.34078818 -0.00489783
193 23040 53.75304856 -0.004871271
194 23160 53.16849601 -0.004844712
195 23280 52.58713059 -0.004818152
196 23400 52.00895235 -0.004791592
197 23520 51.43396133 -0.004765031
198 23640 50.86215759 -0.00473847
199 23760 50.29354117 -0.004711909
200 23880 49.72811213 -0.004685347
201 24000 49.1658705 -0.004658785
202 24120 48.60681636 -0.004632222
203 24240 48.05094974 -0.004605659
204 24360 47.4982707 -0.004579095
205 24480 46.94877929 -0.004552531
206 24600 46.40247557 -0.004525967
207 24720 45.85935959 -0.004499402
208 24840 45.3194314 -0.004472836
209 24960 44.78269107 -0.00444627
210 25080 44.24913864 -0.004419704
Page 9 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
 211 25200 43.71877418 -0.004393137
212 25320 43.19159773 -0.00436657
213 25440 42.66760937 -0.004340002
214 25560 42.14680915 -0.004313434
215 25680 41.62919712 -0.004286865
216 25800 41.11477336 -0.004260295
217 25920 40.60353791 -0.004233726
218 26040 40.09549085 -0.004207155
219 26160 39.59063223 -0.004180584
220 26280 39.08896212 -0.004154013
221 26400 38.59048059 -0.004127441
222 26520 38.09518769 -0.004100868
223 26640 37.6030835 -0.004074295
224 26760 37.11416808 -0.004047722
225 26880 36.62844149 -0.004021147
226 27000 36.14590382 -0.003994572
227 27120 35.66655512 -0.003967997
228 27240 35.19039547 -0.003941421
229 27360 34.71742494 -0.003914844
230 27480 34.24764361 -0.003888267
231 27600 33.78105154 -0.003861689
232 27720 33.31764881 -0.003835111
233 27840 32.85743549 -0.003808532
234 27960 32.40041167 -0.003781952
235 28080 31.94657742 -0.003755372
236 28200 31.49593281 -0.003728791
237 28320 31.04847794 -0.003702209
238 28440 30.60421287 -0.003675626
239 28560 30.1631377 -0.003649043
240 28680 29.7252525 -0.003622459
241 28800 29.29055736 -0.003595875
242 28920 28.85905237 -0.00356929
243 29040 28.43073761 -0.003542704
244 29160 28.00561317 -0.003516117
245 29280 27.58367915 -0.003489529
246 29400 27.16493562 -0.003462941
247 29520 26.7493827 -0.003436352
248 29640 26.33702046 -0.003409762
249 29760 25.927849 -0.003383171
250 29880 25.52186843 -0.00335658
251 30000 25.11907884 -0.003329988
252 30120 24.71948033 -0.003303394
253 30240 24.323073 -0.0032768
254 30360 23.92985696 -0.003250205
255 30480 23.53983231 -0.00322361
Page 10 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
 256 30600 23.15299915 -0.003197013
257 30720 22.7693576 -0.003170415
258 30840 22.38890777 -0.003143817
259 30960 22.01164977 -0.003117217
260 31080 21.63758371 -0.003090617
261 31200 21.26670971 -0.003064015
262 31320 20.89902789 -0.003037413
263 31440 20.53453837 -0.003010809
264 31560 20.17324127 -0.002984205
265 31680 19.81513671 -0.002957599
266 31800 19.46022482 -0.002930992
267 31920 19.10850574 -0.002904385
268 32040 18.75997959 -0.002877776
269 32160 18.4146465 -0.002851166
270 32280 18.07250662 -0.002824554
271 32400 17.73356009 -0.002797942
272 32520 17.39780703 -0.002771329
273 32640 17.06524761 -0.002744714
274 32760 16.73588196 -0.002718098
275 32880 16.40971023 -0.00269148
276 33000 16.08673259 -0.002664862
277 33120 15.76694918 -0.002638242
278 33240 15.45036016 -0.00261162
279 33360 15.13696571 -0.002584998
280 33480 14.82676597 -0.002558374
281 33600 14.51976113 -0.002531748
282 33720 14.21595136 -0.002505121
283 33840 13.91533683 -0.002478493
284 33960 13.61791772 -0.002451863
285 34080 13.32369422 -0.002425231
286 34200 13.03266651 -0.002398598
287 34320 12.7448348 -0.002371963
288 34440 12.46019926 -0.002345326
289 34560 12.17876012 -0.002318688
290 34680 11.90051757 -0.002292048
291 34800 11.62547183 -0.002265406
292 34920 11.3536231 -0.002238762
293 35040 11.08497162 -0.002212117
294 35160 10.8195176 -0.002185469
295 35280 10.55726129 -0.00215882
296 35400 10.29820291 -0.002132168
297 35520 10.04234271 -0.002105515
298 35640 9.789680946 -0.002078859
299 35760 9.540217869 -0.002052201
300 35880 9.293953742 -0.002025541
Page 11 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
 301 36000 9.050888836 -0.001998878
302 36120 8.811023427 -0.001972214
303 36240 8.574357801 -0.001945546
304 36360 8.34089225 -0.001918876
305 36480 8.110627074 -0.001892204
306 36600 7.883562583 -0.001865529
307 36720 7.659699095 -0.001838851
308 36840 7.439036937 -0.001812171
309 36960 7.221576446 -0.001785487
310 37080 7.007317969 -0.001758801
311 37200 6.796261864 -0.001732111
312 37320 6.5884085 -0.001705419
313 37440 6.383758256 -0.001678723
314 37560 6.182311526 -0.001652023
315 37680 5.984068714 -0.001625321
316 37800 5.789030239 -0.001598614
317 37920 5.597196533 -0.001571904
318 38040 5.408568045 -0.00154519
319 38160 5.223145236 -0.001518472
320 38280 5.040928586 -0.00149175
321 38400 4.861918592 -0.001465024
322 38520 4.686115767 -0.001438293
323 38640 4.513520647 -0.001411557
324 38760 4.344133785 -0.001384817
325 38880 4.177955756 -0.001358072
326 39000 4.01498716 -0.001331321
327 39120 3.855228618 -0.001304565
328 39240 3.69868078 -0.001277804
329 39360 3.54534432 -0.001251036
330 39480 3.395219944 -0.001224263
331 39600 3.248308386 -0.001197483
332 39720 3.104610416 -0.001170696
333 39840 2.964126837 -0.001143903
334 39960 2.826858492 -0.001117102
335 40080 2.692806263 -0.001090293
336 40200 2.561971075 -0.001063476
337 40320 2.434353903 -0.001036651
338 40440 2.309955769 -0.001009817
339 40560 2.188777753 -0.000982973
340 40680 2.070820992 -0.000956119
341 40800 1.956086688 -0.000929255
342 40920 1.844576113 -0.000902379
343 41040 1.736290615 -0.000875492
344 41160 1.631231626 -0.000848591
345 41280 1.52940067 -0.000821678
Page 12 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
 346 41400 1.430799369 -0.000794749
347 41520 1.335429458 -0.000767806
348 41640 1.243292794 -0.000740845
349 41760 1.154391371 -0.000713867
350 41880 1.068727333 -0.000686869
351 42000 0.986302995 -0.000659851
352 42120 0.907120865 -0.00063281
353 42240 0.831183664 -0.000605744
354 42360 0.758494361 -0.000578651
355 42480 0.689056204 -0.000551529
356 42600 0.622872765 -0.000524373
357 42720 0.559947989 -0.000497181
358 42840 0.500286258 -0.000469948
359 42960 0.443892466 -0.00044267
360 43080 0.390772121 -0.000415339
361 43200 0.34093146 -0.000387949
362 43320 0.294377616 -0.00036049
363 43440 0.251118823 -0.000332951
364 43560 0.211164696 -0.000305317
365 43680 0.17452662 -0.000277569
366 43800 0.141218291 -0.000249681
367 43920 0.11125652 -0.000221617
368 44040 0.084662454 -0.000193324
369 44160 0.061463552 -0.000164721
370 44280 0.041697004 -0.000135673
371 44400 0.025416253 -0.000105925
372 44520 0.01270531 -7.48916E-05
373 44640 0.003718312 -4.05148E-05
374 44760 -0.001143464 #NUM!
375 44880 #NUM! #NUM!
376 45000 #NUM! #NUM!
377 45120 #NUM! #NUM!
378 45240 #NUM! #NUM!
379 45360 #NUM! #NUM!
380 45480 #NUM! #NUM!
381 45600 #NUM! #NUM!
382 45720 #NUM! #NUM!
383 45840 #NUM! #NUM!
384 45960 #NUM! #NUM!
385 46080 #NUM! #NUM!
386 46200 #NUM! #NUM!
387 46320 #NUM! #NUM!
388 46440 #NUM! #NUM!
389 46560 #NUM! #NUM!
390 46680 #NUM! #NUM!
Page 13 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
 391 46800 #NUM! #NUM!
392 46920 #NUM! #NUM!
393 47040 #NUM! #NUM!
394 47160 #NUM! #NUM!
395 47280 #NUM! #NUM!
396 47400 #NUM! #NUM!
397 47520 #NUM! #NUM!
398 47640 #NUM! #NUM!
399 47760 #NUM! #NUM!
400 47880 #NUM! #NUM!
401 48000 #NUM! #NUM!
402 48120 #NUM! #NUM!
403 48240 #NUM! #NUM!
404 48360 #NUM! #NUM!
405 48480 #NUM! #NUM!
406 48600 #NUM! #NUM!
407 48720 #NUM! #NUM!
408 48840 #NUM! #NUM!
409 48960 #NUM! #NUM!
410 49080 #NUM! #NUM!
411 49200 #NUM! #NUM!
412 49320 #NUM! #NUM!
413 49440 #NUM! #NUM!
414 49560 #NUM! #NUM!
415 49680 #NUM! #NUM!
416 49800 #NUM! #NUM!
417 49920 #NUM! #NUM!
418 50040 #NUM! #NUM!

Table 3. Values of y using Euler’s method

Step 3: RK4 Method

Using the RK4 method, like in the previous step, the differential equation to be graphed is dy/dt =
6.644170377 x10−4 ¿.

In MS excel, the first row looked like this.

A B C D
Interval t y_RK4 k1
Table 4. Partial columns for RK4 method

Given the first condition, the value of y is 225 when t = 0. For k1, 6.644170377 x10−4 ¿ was
inputted, with C2 values as y.

Page 14 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
 Figure 1. Value of k1

Next, calculating k2 entailed locating a midpoint by linear extrapolation using k1. Shown
in the table below, t-mid is the t + half step. Since the chosen step is 120, the half step is 60, and
t-mid is 0 + 60, which is also 60. For y_mid, the formula was y_mid = y + (k1)(60). The value of
y_mid is then substituted into the ODE for k2.
A B C D E F G
Interval t y_RK4 k1 t_mid y_mid k2
-
1 0 225 0.00997 60 224.402 -0.009953
Table 5. Value of k2

Again, using linear interpolation, k3 is calculated by locating another midpoint using k2.
t_mid2 is t + half step, 0 + 60, which is still 60, and y_mid2 = y + (k2)(60). y_mid2 was then
substituted to the ODE for the value of k3.
A B C D E F G H I J
Interval t y_RK4 k1 t_mid y_mid k2 t_mid2 y_mid2 k3
1 0 225 -0.00997 60 224.402 -0.009953 60 224.4028 -0.009953
Table 6. Value of k3

For the last value of k, which is k4, the coordinates of the end point was solved by
extrapolating k3. After that, y_end is substituted to the ODE.
C D E F G H I J K L M
y_RK4 k1 t_mid y_mid k2 t_mid2 y_mid2 k3 t_end y_end k4
- -
- 0.0099 223.805 0.00993976
225 -0.00997 60 224.402 0.009953 60 224.4028 53 120 6 9
Table 7. Value of k4

Since k1 and k4 were solved, phi can already be calculated using the formula:

Figure 2. Value of phi

Using phi, the value of y is obtained. Finally, all formulas were extended to the entire range.

Page 15 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
 Figure 3. Extended formulas
Step 4: Comparison and Graphing
For comparison, another sheet was allocated with the following columns:

t y_Euler dy/dt y_Analytic y_RK4 y_Analytic

Table 8. Excel Columns for Comparison of Values

The results were then compared by collecting the y column results if each method.

Figure 4. Comparison of values

Page 16 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
Results and Discussion

Numeric differentiation is a technique particularly useful for functions that are difficult or
impossible to differentiate analytically. In this laboratory exercise, Euler’s method and Range
Kutta method were performed to approximate the given problem.
Euler's method provides approximate solutions to differential equations and often yields
results that are reasonably close to those obtained from manual or analytic methods. However,
its accuracy has limitations. For the given problem, it wasn’t particularly beyond two decimal
places.

y_Euler
250

200

150

100

50

0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
-50

Figure 5. Graph of Results Using Euler’s method

Euler’s method assumes that the function is approxmately linear over the interval, which
is often not the case for complex functions. When the function’s behavior changes significantly,
the slope assumption at a single point may be inaccurate, hence the parabolic error shown in
the figure below.

Page 17 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
 absolute error
0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000

Figure 6. Absolute Error of Euler’s method

Parabolic error typically emerges when a function is approximated using its derivatives
over an interval. It arises because the true function being approximated may not be perfectly
represented by the slope over the chosen interval, and may not be able to capture higher-
degree components of the function.
In getting a general idea of the solution’s behavior, Euler’s method is a practical option.
The reliability of up to two decimal places is already sufficient for preliminary analysis. However,
when examining results to a higher precision, Euler's method starts to show discrepancies.
These variations become more pronounced because the method's inherent error accumulation
and simplistic linear approximations can't capture the finer details of the solution accurately.
To address and improve upon the limitations of earlier numerical method, Range Kutta
was performed next to approximate the solution. By evaluating the slope at multiple points, the
fourth-order Range-Kutta achieve higher accuracy and better approximation.

y_RK4
250

200

150

100

50

0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000

Figure 7. Graph of Results Using RK4 method

By using multiple intermediate slopes and averaging them, Runge-Kutta method
significantly reduces the local truncation error, leading to more accurate solutions with less error
accumulation, which can be observed in figure 8. Hence, Range Kutta methods are better suited

Page 18 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
for handling non-linear and complex functions because they consider the behavior of the
function at several points within the interval.

error
0.00003

0.000025

0.00002

0.000015

0.00001

0.000005

0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000

Figure 8. Absolute Error of RK4 method

RK4 method is widely regarded as one of the most effective numerical methods for
solving ordinary differential equations because of its high accuracy due to multiple evaluations,
stability, efficiency, and error control. By providing a more accurate solution, RK4 reduces the
number of steps needed to achieve a desired level of accuracy, saving computational resources.
It is also applicable in a wide range of ODEs, including those with complex or rapidly changing
behaviors, reason why it is widely used in fields such as physics, engineering, and finance.
Moreover, RK4 can be easily extended to solve systems of differential equations and higher-
order equations, making it a flexible tool in numerical analysis.

Comparison
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
-50

y_Euler y_Analytic y_RK4

Figure 9. Euler’s Method vs RK4 Method

Overall, RK4 is better over Euler’s method in terms of accuracy and stability. However, for
preliminary analysis and in situations where critical precision isn’t required, the latter would
suffice. Both method offer advantages over classical methods including their simplicity and ease
of implementation, quick estimations, reliability, efficiency, and versatility. Both are considered
improvements over classical methods for solving ordinary differential equations.
Page 19 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.
 In summary, Euler's method provides approximate solutions to differential equations and
often yields results reasonably close to those obtained from manual or analytic methods.
However, its accuracy is limited, typically only reliable up to two decimal places. To address its
issues, the Runge-Kutta method, specifically the fourth-order Runge-Kutta (RK4), is used to
achieve higher accuracy and better approximations by reducing local truncation error and error
accumulation. While RK4 is superior to Euler's method in terms of accuracy and stability, Euler's
method remains useful for preliminary analysis where critical precision is not required.

References
Lamar University (2022). Differential Equations – Euler’s Method.
[Link]
Levy, D. (n.d.). Numerical Differentiation. Retrieved from
[Link]
[Link]
Lucknow University (2020). Numerical Differentiation and Integration. Retrieved from
[Link]
dharth_bhatt_engg_Numerical_Differentation_and_Integration.pdf
Mahaffy, J. (2010). Numerical Differentiation and Integration. Retrieved from
[Link]
Oklahoma Universty (n.d.). Range-Kutta method.
[Link]
[Link]

Page 20 of
20
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative technologies
for sustainable communities and environment.