Contents

Forewords xi
A Letter to the Student — xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Introduction: Euclid, the Surfer, and the Spotter |
Inductive Reasoning 6

An Introduction to Geometry 7
l. Lines in Designing a City 8
2. Angles in Measuring the Earth 13
3. Polygons and Polyhedra: Pyramid Architecture 18
4. Constructions: Telling Time with Shadows 24
>. We Can't Go On Like This 30
Summary and Review 35
Algebra Review 39

2
The Nature of Deductive Reasoning 41
. Conditional Statements 42
. Definitions 46
. Direct Proof 50
. Indirect Proof.. 55
. A Deductive System 60
fp
—
Ou
WN . some Famous Theorems of Geometry 65
Summary and Review 7]
Algebra Review 75
 3
Lines and Angles 77

. Number Operations and Equality 78

. The Ruler and Distance 84
. The Protractor and Angle Measure QI]
. Bisection 98
. Complementary and Supplementary Angles 105
. Linear Pairs and Vertical Angles 110
—
Wh
bh . Perpendicular and Parallel Lines
Sour 117
Summary and Review 123
Algebra Review 129

4
Congruence 131
. Coordinates and Distance 132
. Polygons and Congruence’ 139
. ASA and SAS Congruence 146
. Congruence Proofs 151
. Isosceles and Equilateral Triangles 157
. SSS Congruence' 163
. Constructions
RWN
SOU 169
Summary and Review 176
Algebra Review 181

=)
Inequalities 183
. Properties of Inequality 184
. The Exterior Angle Theorem 190
. Triangle Side and Angle Inequalities 195
— . The Triangle Inequality Theorem
WA 200
Summary and Review 206
Algebra Review 210

vi Contents
 6
Parallel Lines 211

. Line Symmetry 212

. Proving Lines Parallef 219
. The Parallel Postulate 225
. Parallel Lines and Angles 230
. The Angles of a Triangle 236
. AAS and HL Congruence
bhWwN
Hu
— 242
Summary and Review 249
Algebra Review 255

/
Quadrilaterals 257

. Quadrilaterals 258
. Parallelograms and Point Symmetry 265
. More on Parallelograms 270
. Rectangles, Rhombuses, and Squares 276
. Trapezoids 281
— . The Midsegment Theorem
fhwn
Au 286
Summary and Review 292
Algebra Review 296

8
Transformations 297

iF Transformations 298
2: Reflections 305
3. Isometries and Congruence 312
4. Transformations and Symmetry 319
Summary and Review 325

Midterm Review 330

Contents vii
 9
Area 337
1. Area 338
2. Squares and Rectangles 344
3. Triangles 351
4, Parallelograms and Trapezoids 358
5S. The Pythagorean Theorem 365
Summary and Review 371
Algebra Review 376

10
Similarity 377

. Ratio and Proportion 378

. Similar Figures 385
. The Side-Splitter Theorem 392
. The AA Similarity Theorem 399
. Proportions and Dilations 407
—
WN. Perimeters and Areas of Similar Figures
Auwh 414
Summary and Review 420
Algebra Reviews 425

TT
The Right Triangle 427
. Proportions in a Right Triangle 428
. The Pythagorean Theorem Revisited 434
. lsosceles and 30°-60° Right Triangles 441
. The Tangent Ratio 448
. The Sine and Cosine Ratios 454
. Slope 461
— . The Laws of Sines and Cosines
WN
“Vw 468
Summary and Review 475
Algebra Review 481

viii Contents
 12
Circles 483
. Circles, Radii, and Chords 484
. Tangents 491
. Central Angles and Arcs 497
. Inscribed Angles 504
. Secant Angles 510
. Tangent Segments and Intersecting Chords
Ouwbwn 516
Summary and Review 522
Algebra Review 527

13
The Concurrence Theorems 529

. Triangles and Circles 530

. Cyclic Quadrilaterals 536
.Incircles 542
. The Centroid of a Triangle 548
. Ceva’s Theorem 554
— . Napoleon’s Discovery and Other Surprises
nN
hw
Ow 561
Summary and Review 566

14
Regular Polygons and the Circle 571

. Regular Polygons 572

. The Perimeter of a Regular Polygon 579
. The Area of a Regular Polygon 585
. From Polygons to Pi 591
. The Area of a Circle 598
. Sectors and Arcs
Ounnh
who 605
Summary and Review 612

Contents
 15
Geometric Solids 617

]. Lines and Planes in Space 618

Solid Geometry as a Deductive System 626
. Rectangular Solids 628
. Prisms 634
. The Volume of a Prism 640
. Pyramids 647
. Cylinders and Cones 654
. Spheres 662
. Similar Solids 670
AN
WwW
A
aun
won . The Regular Polyhedra 677
Summary and Review 683

16
Non-Euclidean Geometries 689

1. Geometry ona Sphere 690

2. The Saccheri Quadrilateral 696
3. The Geometries of Lobachevsky and Riemann 702
4. The Triangle Angle Sum Theorem Revisited 707
Summary and Review 713

Final Review 718

Glossary 728
Formulary 738
Postulates and Theorems 741
Answers to Selected Exercises 747
Illustration Credits 767
Index 774

Contents
Forewords

This is one of the great geometry books of all time. It is the book that
I would like to have had for the geometry classes that I taught at
Menlo School and College. It is the finest example of instructional
artistry that I have encountered.
When I taught statistics courses, I used the counting and
probability chapters from Mathematics: A Human Endeavor by Jacobs.
His approach engaged my students and enabled them to discover
and master this subject. In the present book, Jacobs does the same
thing for geometry.
Harold Jacobs—author and master teacher—loves geometry,
and this book shows it. Its thousands of photographs, diagrams,
and figures draw the reader into the material. Jacobs has a genius
for finding illustrations that reveal a subject and make it come alive.
A look at his sources shows the broad search that he made to
assemble this visual feast.
Teachers know that in most classes the goal for students is to
complete the homework exercises with as little pain as possible.
When students get their assignment, they first go to the exercises.
If the teacher worked an example in class, the student follows that.
If not, then the student scans the text in search of an example that is
similar to the exercise. So many textbooks are little more than a
bunch of examples, followed by exercises that can be solved by
using the methods of the examples. And the student learns by
creative copying.
As you page through this book, you will be struck by how few
words Jacobs uses in introducing each lesson. Jacobs knows that
students will probably not read much introductory material and
want to get to the exercises as quickly as possible—solutions are still
the goal. But, for Jacobs, the exercises are the beating heart of the
book. You will first notice that they are beautifully illustrated with
real-world material. As you read, you will discover that they are
engaging, carefully sequenced, and structured so that students
discover ideas for themselves. Students come away from his exercise
sets empowered, because the ideas have become “their” ideas. Students
using this book, working alone or in groups, will learn geometry by
doing it. The result is that they will enjoy learning a body of
integrated concepts that has become their intellectual possession.
\ ~

Donald J. Albers
The Mathematical Association of America
 Twenty-six hundred years ago Thales of Miletus launched the idea
that Nature itself is subject to the laws of logic. Geometry, which
had previously existed as a practical science, was found during the
next few centuries to be tightly bound by logic. Some complex
geometric facts were shown to be consequences of far simpler
facts, and soon similar analyses of more general ideas about the
world became standard for the Greek philosophers. The principle of
stitching a few fundamental ideas together by logical analysis is at
the heart of all modern science.
About 300 B.c.E., Euclid compiled his famous Elements,
containing much of the geometry known at the time. Although the
Elements does not fully meet today’s standards of rigor, it quite
rightly became and remained the principal textbook for teaching
geometry for more than 2,000 years. In the past 100 years,
however, the idea of preef has slowly receded |from American
textbooks, at least), and now there is often little distinction between
statements that have been proved formally and those that appear
true on the basis of a drawing or a few measurements. This is an
immense loss for American education, especially for science
education. Some have tried to introduce forma! proofs in algebra in
place of those in geometry, but the results in algebra do not have the
appeal of theorems such as that of Pythagoras. Geometry offers
surprising theorems that can be proved by ingenious reasoning.
This book restores the idea of proof to its rightful place in
geometry. Whoever studies this text will know what a proof is,
what has been proved, and what has not.

Odi
WM teewmn
Andrew M. Gleason
Harvard University

xii Forewords
A Letter to the Student

The most useful question in the history of science is, Why?

Because mathematics is the language of science, the same question
is important in mathematics as well.
The oldest standing examples of applied geometry are the
pyramids of Egypt, built about 2600 B.c. The bases of these
structures are almost perfect squares, and their faces are precisely
constructed triangles. There is evidence that the Egyptians even
knew how to compute the volume of a pyramid but no evidence that
they ever tried to understand or explain their methods by asking,
“Why?” Their mathematics was based on intuition and experience;
even for other ancient civilizations from Babylon to Rome, intuition
and experience were as far as geometry went. The subject consisted
of disconnected rules, and the fact that these rules “worked” in
measuring land and constructing buildings seemed to be enough.
Your understanding of geometry has been like that of these
people of long ago. You have a good intuitive knowledge of the
subject simply by growing up in the world. As a small child, you
may have played with blocks in the shape of cubes. On the play-
ground, you have played with balls in the shape of spheres. In school,
you use paper ruled with parallel and perpendicular lines. You drink
from cans in the shape of cylinders and eat ice cream from containers
in the shape of cones. Geometry is everywhere, and so it is natural
for you to take it for granted without ever asking, “Why?”

xi
 About 600 B.c., the Greeks made a discovery that led to a new
way of looking at mathematics. Thales, one of the seven wise men
of antiquity, saw how geometric ideas that had been discovered
intuitively could be related to one another logically. If some were
true, then others must follow without question. He raised the question
Why? about a mathematical idea and then successfully answered
it. For example, the four edges of the Great Pyramid that meet at its
top are equal in length. Thales explained why it follows from this
fact that the angles that these edges form with the sides of the base
also must be equal.
After Thales came other Greek mathematicians, including
Pythagoras, Hippocrates, and, eventually, Euclid. Euclid, about
whom you will learn more in this book, presented geometry as a
logical system of connected ideas so well that his book titled the
Elements became the most widely used textbook ever written. Euclid’s
approach to geometry, centered on the question why, was so
successful that it even inspired writers in other fields to organize
their ideas in the same way. One of the most influential books of
modern science, the Principia by Sir Isaac Newton, was modeled
after Euclid’s Elements.
The word geometry derives from the Greek words for “earth”
and “measure” and in some languages is still used today to mean
“earth measurement” or “surveying.” Remarkably, although Euclid’s
Elements is the most famous geometry book of all time, the Greek
word for geometry never appears in it. The Elements was not a
book about measuring the earth; rather, by bringing geometry
together as a coherent whole, it made geometry understandable and
provided a model for other sciences.
As you pursue your study of geometry, you will encounter not
only many familiar ideas but also many ideas new to you that are
both beautiful and surprising. As the title of this book suggests, it is
about seeing, doing, and understanding. As you read the lessons,
you will see the main ideas and some of their applications. With the
exercises comes your chance to do, understand, and, consequently,
know why. I hope that in using this book you will discover for
yourself the wonder and excitement of geometry so that you will
find your study of it to be an enjoyable and rewarding endeavor.

Honelh Sacrto—

xiv A Letter to the Student

Acknowledgments

Since beginning work on the first edition of Geometry some 30 years

ago, I have benefited from the comments and suggestions of many
people. Many teachers have been generous in sharing their ideas,
both at conferences and through correspondence, and students have
contributed as well.
I am especially grateful to Peter Renz, for his unflagging effort
and support during the development of all three editions of this
book; to Donald J. Albers, Andrew M. Gleason, Keith Henderson,
and Thomas Rike, for their detailed comments on the preliminary
manuscript of the third edition; and to Patricia Zimmerman, for her
expertise and patience in editing this edition and the first. ] am also
indebted to many colleagues throughout the United States for their
various contributions and helpful advice: to Thomas Banchoff,
James A. Barys, Charles Bigelow, Richard D. Bourgin,
William R. Chambers, Charles Herbert Clemens, Kevin DeVizia,
Russel L. Drylie, Kate Epstein, Dani Falcioni, Frederick P. Greenleaf,
Shirley S. Holm, Kris Holmes, Jane Jelinek, Ellen Kaplan,
Laurence Kaplan, Robert Kaplan, Lehman Kapp, John Larsen,
Joseph Malkevitch, Otis W. Milton III, Harry D. Peterson,
Gwen Roberts, Doris Schattschneider, Dennis Simons, Wolfe Snow,
John W. Sperry, and Clem Wings, in regard to this edition, and to
Dennis Anderson, Steven Bergen, Richard Brady, Don Chakerian,
Barbara Fracassa, Gary Froelich, Hector Hirigoyen, Geoffrey Hirsch,
Mel Noble, Linda Rasmussen, Sy Schuster, Bill Shutters, Ross Taylor,
and Sharon Tello, in regard to earlier editions.
Putting a book such as this one together is a formidable task.
Without the patience and support of the dedicated staff at
W. H. Freeman and Company, it would not have been possible.
For their valued efforts, many times above and beyond the call of
duty, I would like to thank Mary Johenk, Craig Bleyer, Jane O'Neill,
Paul Rohloff, Diana Blume, and Vikii Wong. I remain grateful to
Robert Ishi and Heather Wiley for their efforts on earlier editions
and their influence on the present one.
I would also like to acknowledge my indebtedness to other
authors whose work has been especially helpful to me in this
revision: Benno Artmann, H. S. M. Coxeter, John L. Heilbron,
David W. Henderson, Dan Pedoe, and David Wells. Finally, I want
to express my gratitude to Martin Gardner, for his seemingly
endless ideas and inspiring enthusiasm, and to Howard Eves,
Morris Kline, George Polya, and W. W. Sawyer, for showing us by
example what good mathematics teaching is all about.

x1
GEOMETRY
 Old Euclid drew a circle
On a sand-beach long ago.
He bounded and enclosed it
With angles thus and so.
His set of solemn graybeards
Nodded and argued much
Of are and of circumference,
Diameters and such.
A silent child stood by them
From morning until noon
Because they drew such charming
Round pictures of the moon.

VACHEL LINDSAY

INTRODUCTION

Euclid, the Surfer,

_ pRe and the Spotter
Tn nhs
oe or see
‘eu, gemee ue oss 9
sRome)'
: ¥)
rath3
finde

4 F) -* *

4 saul

a ;
atx
MEDITERRANEAN SEA

In about 300 B.c., a man named Euclid wrote what has become one of
the most successful books of all time. Euclid taught at the university
at Alexandria, the main seaport of Egypt, and his book, the Elements,
contained much of the mathematics then known. Its fame was almost
immediate. The Elements has been translated into more languages and
published in more editions than any other book except the Bible.

The poem “Euclid” is reprinted with the permission of Macmilltan Publishing

Co., from Collected Poems by Vachel Lindsay. Copyright 1914 by Macmillan
Publishing Co., renewed in 1942 by Elizabeth C. Lindsay.
 Although very little of the mathematics in the Elements was origi-
nal, what made the book unique was its logical organization of the
subject, beginning with a few simple principles and deriving every-
thing else from them.
The Elements begins with an explanation of how to draw an egut-
lateral triangle, that is, a triangle with three sides of equal length.
Euclid’s method requires the use of two tools: a straightedge for draw
ing straight lines and a compass for drawing circles. These tools have
been used to make geometric drawings called constructions ever since
Euclid’s time.

B
To construct an equilateral triangle, we begin by using the straight-
edge to draw a segment for one side. The segment is named AB in the
figure at the left above. We set the metal point of the compass at A and
adjust the compass so that the pencil point falls on B. The compass is
now set to draw a circle with radius AB about point A. We draw an arc
of this circle above the segment AB as shown in the second figure.
Next we move the metal point of the compass to point B and, keeping
the compass set at the same radius, cross the arc that we just drew
with a second arc, as shown in the third figure. Finally, we draw two
line segments from the point of intersection (labeled C in the last fig-
ure) to points A and B to form the triangle.

Exercises
1, Use a ruler to draw a line segment 12
centimeters long and then use a straight
edge and compass to construct an equilat-
eral triangle having this segment as one of
its sides.

Next, we will consider two geometric

problems about equilateral triangles. To make
them easier to understand, they will be
presented in the form of a story.

The Puzzles of the Surfer and the Spotter

One night a ship is wrecked in a storm at sea
and only two members of the crew survive.
They manage to swim to a deserted tropical

Introduction
 island where they fall asleep exhausted. After path from it to each corner so that the sum of
exploring the island the next morning, one of the lengths of the three paths is a minimum.
the men decides that he would like to spend (Digging up the vegetation to clear the paths
some time there surfing from the beaches. is not an easy job.) Where should the spotter
The other man, however, wants to escape and build his house?
decides to use his time looking for a ship that The figure below is a scale drawing of the
might rescue him. island in which 1 centimeter (cm) represents
The island is overgrown with vegetation 1 kilometer (km). Suppose that the spotter
and happens to be in the shape of an equilat- builds his house at point D. The three paths
eral triangle, each side being 12 kilometers that he has to clear have the following lengths:
(about 7.5 miles) long. DA = 4.4 km, DB = 9.1 km, and DC = 7.9 km.
' Wanting to be in the best possible position Check these measurements with your ruler,
to spot any ship that might sail by, the man remembering that 1 cm represents 1 km. The
who hopes to escape (we will call him the sum of these lengths is 21.4 km.
“spotter”) goes to one of the corners of the If the spotter builds his house at point E, the
island. Because he doesn’t know which corner path lengths are: EA = 10.4 km, EB = 5.1 km,
is best, he decides to rotate from one to and EC = 6.9 km, and their sum is 22.4 km. So
another, spending a day on each. He wants to point D is a better place for him to build than
build a shelter somewhere on the island and a point E. But where is the best place?

|2 kilometers

Euclid, the Surfer, and the Spotter fad

2. Use the equilateral triangle that you drew
in the first exercise to represent the island.
Choose several different points on it, for
each point, measure the distance between it
and each of the corners to the nearest 0.1
cm, and find their sum, as illustrated for
points D and E on page 3.

3. On the basis of your work in exercise 2,

where do you think is the best place for the
spotter to build his house? And how many
kilometers of path does he have to clear?
(Remember that 1 cm on your map repre-
sents 1 km.)

4. Where do you think is the worst place on

the island for the spotter to locate? How
many kilometers of path would he have to
clear from it?

Now consider the problem of where the

surfer should build 42s house. He likes the Perpendicular lines form right angles, 90
beaches along all three sides of the island and degrees (90°) on a protractor or the angle
decides to spend an equal amount of time on formed by the edges of a file card. An easy
each beach. To make the paths from his house way to draw a line that is perpendicular to
to each beach as short as possible, he con- another line is to use a file card as shown in
structs them so that they are perpendicular to the figures below. Small squares are usually
the lines of the beaches. used to indicate that lines are perpendicular.

4 Introduction
 In the figure above, if the surfer built his sides are 12 centimeters long. Choose
house at point D, the three paths to the several different points on it; for each
beaches would be as shown. Path DX is point, measure the perpendicular distance
perpendicular to beach AC, path DY is from it to each of the sides to the nearest
perpendicular to beach AB, and path DZ is 0.1 cm, and find their sum as illustrated for
perpendicular to beach BC. The lengths of the point D above.
three paths are: DX = 1.4 km, DY = 2.9 km,
and DZ = 6.0 km; so their sum is 10.3 km. 6. On the basis of your work in exercise 5,
The surfer, like the spotter, wants to locate where do you think is the best place for the
his house so that the sum of the lengths of the surfer to build his house? And how many
paths is a minimum. Where is the best place kilometers of path does he have to clear?
on the island for him?
Where do you think is the worst place for
5. Use a straightedge and compass to con- the surfer to locate? How many kilometers
struct another equilateral triangle whose of path would he have to clear from it?

Euclid, the Surfer, and the Spotter 5

Inductive Reasoning
In thinking about the puzzles of the surfer and the spotter, you first
collected some evidence-you made drawings and measured them.
Then you looked for conclusions based on what you had observed.
This method of reasoning is used in both science and mathematics.
You will be using it throughout this book. The scientist who makes
observations, discovers regularities, and formulates general laws of
nature calls this process the scientific methed. Mathematicians refer to
it as inductive reasoning. It is the method used for drawing conclu-
sions from a limited set of observations.
We use inductive reasoning regularly in everyday life. Its conclu-
sions are generally reliable and useful, but they are sometimes wrong.
For this reason, scientists call such conclusions conjectures.
In 1852, a young English mathematician named Francis Guthrie
noticed that he could color every map that he could draw or had seen
with only four colors in such a way that no two regions having a com-
mon border were the same color. The map of the United States of
1852 shown above is an example. Many people tried to draw maps
that would require more than four colors, but no one succeeded, which
seemed to confirm that “four colors suffice” but did not prove it.
In 1976, more than a century after Guthrie made his conjecture,
Wolfgang Haken and Kenneth Appel proved that Guthrie was right.
FOUR COLORS To celebrate Haken and Appel’s proof, the University of Illinois used
SUFFICE the postage-meter message that you see here. The method that they
used, deductive reasoning, uses logic to draw conclusions from state-
ments already accepted as true.
In addition to using inductive reasoning throughout your study of
geometry to discover what is true, you will also learn how to reason
deductively to be able to understand why.

Introduction
 Detail from Metamorphosis {{/—Maurits Escher
© 2002 Cordon Art B. V.~Baarm-Holland. All rights reserved.

In this chapter, you will see how practical problems ranging from
designing a city and measuring the earth to using shadows to tell
time led to the development of geometry. The ideas that come
from these problems are important because they lead to the
solutions of other problems. As you proceed, you will become
acquainted with geometric terms and ideas that will be useful as
you continue your study of geometry.
 wall

Light-
house Great
harbor

Pharos City wall

town

LESSON 1

Lines in Designing a City

Alexandria, the city in which Euclid wrote his famous book on geom-
etry, is named for Alexander the Great. Alexander had conquered
much of the ancient world by the time of his death in 323 B.C. He is
thought to have planned the streets of Alexandria, which today has
become the second largest city in Egypt.
The map above shows the arrangement of the streets in ancient
Alexandria. It also suggests some of the basic terms used in geom-
etry. The streets lie along straight lines; they intersect in potnts and lie
A in a common plane.
Euclid described a point as “that which has no part.” This de-
scription conveys the idea that, when we draw a dot on paper to rep-
pe °C resent a point, the point, unlike the dot, has a location only, without
physical extent. The points in a figure to which we want to refer are
Some points labeled with capital letters.
Euclid described a line as having “breadthless length” and said
that “the extremities of a line are points.” These statements reveal
that he was thinking of what we would now call a dine segment.

3 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry

 A B Po
a A Bcee

A line segment A line

A line segment is part of a line bounded by two endpoints; it has

a length that can be measured. Line segment AB in the figure at the
left above has a length of 1 inch. A dine, however, cannot be mea
sured. The arrows on the figure of the line at the right above indicate
that a line extends without end in both directions. These figures also
suggest that lines, and hence line segments, are always straight, like a
stretched string or the edge of a ruler.
Lines are usually named either by two points that they contain,
such as line AB above, or by a single small letter. The line in the figure
could be simply named line /.
The map of Alexandria is printed on a flat surface, which illus-
trates part of a plane. Planes are usually represented by figures such
as the two at the right and are usually named, like points, with capi-
tal letters. These figures are useful in suggesting that planes are al-
ways fiat but are unfortunately misleading in suggesting that planes
have edges. In geometry, we think of a plane as having no boundaries. Two planes
Although the parts of the planes shown here are bounded by edges,
the complete planes extend beyond them, just as the line AB extends
beyond the endpoints of the segment determined by A and B.
Some additional terms relating points, lines, and planes are illus-
trated and defined below.

Definitions

a
A BC
nn
= F
D

Collinear points Noncollinear points

Points are collinear if there is a line that contains all of them.

Points are noncollinear if no single line contains them all.

gl

mo
| Hn
Coplanar points Concurrent lines

Points are coplanar if there is a plane that contains all of them.

Lines are concurrent if they contain the same point.

In the figure at the right above, lines 4, m, and n all contain point
P, their common intersection.

Lesson 1: Lines in Designing a City 9

Exercises
Set |!

This map shows the plan of the main streets of the ancient Chinese city Ch’ang-an.

- sity-Ch’ang-an

The intersections of the street at the bottom of __ If the map is accurately drawn and the street
the map with the streets above it are labeled from A to K is 6 miles long,
A through K. 7. how many miles is it from A to F?
i. What word is used to describe points 8. how many miles does 1 cm of the map
such as these, given that one line represent?
tains them all?
comes er 9, how many miles is it from A to L?
Use your ruler to find the lengths of the
following line segments in centimeters. 10. Is the city square? Why or why not?
9. AK. 5, AB. 11. What regions of the city do appear to be
3. AF 6. AL square?

4, AD.

10 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry

The city, whose name means “long security,” For example, points E, F, and I are collinear
was protected by a surrounding wall. and lie on the line EI.
12. Use the lengths of the streets bordering 19. How many sets of three collinear points
the city to figure out how many miles does the figure contain? List them,
long the wall was that surrounded it. beginning with E-F-I.
If the city were perfectly flat, then all of the 20. What does the word concurrent mean?
points in it would lie in one plane. How many different dines in the figure are
13. What word is used to describe points concurrent at
such as these? 21. point A?
14, Are the streets in the map represented 22. point B?
by dines or line segments?
23. point C?
15. What is the difference between a line
and a line segment? 24. each of the other points?

Notice that AB, CD, and HK are three differ- And now some very tricky questions about
ent segments, yet they all lie in one line. the line segments that can be named by using
the letters in the figure.
16. On how many different lines do all the
segments in this map lie? 25. How many different line segments in
the figure meet at point A? Name them.
Set Il How many different line segments meet at
26. point B? Name them.
The points and lines in the figure below are
related in some unusual ways. 27. point C? Name them.

Set Il
On a sheet of graph paper, draw a figure
similar to, but much larger than, the one
below.

Each point in which line segments intersect

has been labeled with a letter.
17, How many such points does the figure 1. Use a colored pen or pencil to draw the
contain? following three lines:
18. What does the word collinear mean? Al, CF, and DG.
The figure has been drawn so that each set of Draw enough of each line so that it
points that appears to be collinear actually is. crosses the entire figure.

Lesson 1: Lines in Designing a City 11

2. What seems to be true about the three 6. Now try drawing all the lines again and
lines AI, CF, and DG? see what happens. What do you think?
Now use a pen or pencil of a different color to = 7. Try changing the figure in other ways to
draw these three lines: see what happens to the lines drawn in
the three colors. Some examples of
AF, Cl, and EH.
altered figures are shown here. (Be sure
Extend each line to the edges of the figure. to make your drawings much larger!)
3. Describe what you see.
Now use a pen or pencil of a third color to
draw these three lines:
BG, CH, and EI.
Extend each line to the edges of the figure.
4. What do you notice?
5. Draw the figure again, but change it so
that it is taller or shorter, BF is higher or
lower, and DH is farther to the left or
right. An example of such a figure is
shown here, but choose your own.

C DE

8. What do you think?

12 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry

 THEREFORE, GENTLEMEN,...BY
GALING DUE FROM FONTAY AND
CONTINUING TO THE FOI OF ORIGIN.
NT ....

Used by permission of Johnay Hart and Creators Syndicate, Inc.

LESSON 2

Angles tn Measuring the Earth

The ancient Greeks knew that the world was round. Eratosthenes,
the head of the library in Alexandria where Euclid lived, figured out
a clever way to estimate the distance around the world. His method
depended on measuring an angle.
Euclid described an angle as “the inclination to one another of
two lines in a plane which meet one another.” If we draw a figure
showing two lines, / and m, meeting at a point P, several angles are
formed.

m
A ray
The figure can also be described as consisting of four rays starting
from point P. As the figure suggests, a ray is part of a line that ex-
tends endlessly in one direction. To refer to a ray, we always name its A
endpoint first, followed by the name of any other point on it. The
name of the ray in the first figure at the right is PA. Pa]
An angle is a pair of rays that have the same endpoint. The rays
are called the sides of the angle and their common endpoint is called B
the vertex of the angle. Angles can be named in several ways. Using
the symbol 2 to mean “angle,” we can name the angle in the second Two rays that
figure at the right 2P or 71 or ZAPB or ZBPA. Notice that, if the forrn an angle
angle is named with three letters, the vertex is named in the middle.

13
 Before learning how Eratosthenes measured the earth, we will
review the way in which angles are measured. To measure an angle,
we need a protractor.

A protractor A protractor in
place to measure
an angle

The protractor measures angles in degrees and has two scales, each
numbered from 0 to 180. The center of the protractor is placed on the
vertex of the angle so that the 0 on one of the scales falls on one side
of the angle. The number that falls on the other side of the same scale
gives the measurement of the angle in degrees. Look carefully at the
scales on the protractor in the figure above to see why the angle has a mea
sure of 50° and not 130°.

The diagram above illustrates the method that Eratosthenes used

to measure the earth. He knew that Alexandria was about 500 miles
north of the city of Syene (now called Aswan). The points A and S
represent Alexandria and Syene, respectively, and the rays AP and
SQ represent the direction of the sun as seen from each city. At noon
on a certain day of the year, the sun was directly overhead in Syene,
as shown by SQ, In Alexandria at the same time, the direction of the
sun was along AP, in contrast with the overhead direction AV.

14 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry

 Eratosthenes measured the angle between these two directions,
£1, and found that it was about 7.5°. Euclid had shown why it was
reasonable to conclude that 21 was equal to 42, the angle with its
vertex at the center of the earth. By dividing 7.5° into 360° (the mea-
A 500 mi
sure of the degrees of a full circle), we get 48; so the full circle is 48
times the angle from Alexandria to Syene: ey
48 X 7.5° = 360°.

Eratosthenes concluded that the earth’s circumference ‘the entire dis-

tance around the circle} was 48 times the distance from Alexandria to
syene:

48 X 500 miles = 24,000 miles.

The modern value of the circumference of the earth is about 25,000

miles; so Eratosthenes’ estimate was remarkably accurate.

Exercises
Set |

C C

A B A B

Triangle Measurements. Each side and angle

of the triangle above has a different measure. 6. Name the two rays that are the sides of
If you simply look at the figure without doing ZA.
any measuring,
7. Use your protractor to measure 7A.
1. which side is the longest?
Z. which angle is the largest? 8. Carefully trace triangle ABC on your
paper and then extend the sides of ZB.
3. which side is the shortest?
9. Name the two rays that are the sides of
4. which angle is the smallest? ZB.
5 . Use your ruler to measure the sides of 10. Measure ZB.
the triangle, each to the nearest 0.1 cm.
Go back to the figure you drew for exer-
Most protractors are too large to be able to cise 8 and extend the sides of 4C.
measure the angles of a figure such as this
triangle easily. For example, to measure ZA, 11. Name the two rays that are the sides of
it is easiest to extend its sides as shown in ZC.
color in the figure at the right above. 12. Measure ZC.

Lesson 2: Angles in Measuring the Earth LP

Constellation Angles. Use a protractor to measure each of the four
Eudoxus, a Greek angles to check your guesses.
mathematician, was the 16. Z1. 18. /2.
first to write about
constellations, groupings 17. 2B. 19, ZR.
of stars in the sky, in the One of the most well-known constellations is
fourth century B.C. Ursa Major, or the Big Dipper.
Two of the ten stars
in the constellation Orion
are among the brightest
in the sky: Betelgeuse
and Rigel. They appear
as points B and R in the
figure below.

Be "Pp
20. Carefully trace the figure above and
then extend the sides of the angles as
necessary to measure each of the
following angles.
21. ZD.
22. ZI.
23. ZP.

Set Il
The Sliding Ladder. This figure represents a
ladder 6 feet long leaning against a wall.

Seeeee acetone
a coo
5

|
Ti4
iE

3
13. What word describes the apparent
relation of the points labeled X, Y, and Z
in Orion’s belt? 2
Look carefully at the four angles, 71, 2B, 22,
and ZR. Without measuring, guess which of
these four angles is nt pee eee ee iia amie elas)
SRG ee
14, smallest. PEE ety err ra =
15. largest. 6 > 3 2 1 floor

16 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry

24, On a sheet of graph paper that is 4 units Set IH
per inch, draw two lines to represent the
wall and floor as shown in the figure.
Mark a scale on the wall, letting 1 inch
(4 units) represent 1 foot.
The safest position in which to place
the ladder is with its top 5°/, feet above
the floor. Place the end of your ruler at
the 5°/,-foot point on the wall and turn
the ruler until its 6-inch mark just
touches the floor. Trace this safe posi-
tion for the ladder on your paper.
25. Approximately how far is the foot of the
ladder from the wall?

Use your protractor to measure the angle that

the ladder makes
26. with the floor. Measuring Mars. The above map of the planet
Mars was drawn in 1903 by the astronomer
27. with the wall.
Percival Lowell. It shows canals and cities
Now suppose that the ladder slips down the that he thought had been built by intelligent
wall. Place the end of your ruler at the 5-foot beings on the planet.
point on the wall and turn it until its 6-inch Suppose that the Martians discovered
mark touches the floor. Trace this position on that, when the sun is directly overhead at
your paper. Botrodus (point B below), it is 24° from the
vertical at Aquae Calidae (point A)."
28. About how far is the foot of the ladder
from the wall now?
Measure the angle that the ladder now makes
29. with the floor.
30. with the wall.
Place the end of your ruler at the 3-foot point
on the wall, again being sure to turn it so that
its 6-inch mark touches the floor.
31. About how far is the foot of the ladder
from the wall now?

Measure the angle that the ladder now makes

32. with the floor.
33. with the wall. If the distance between the two cities is
880 miles, what is the distance around Mars?
Notice that, as the ladder’s angle with the (Show your reasoning.)
floor becomes smaller, its angle with the wall
becomes larger.
34. How big do you suppose each angle "For convenience, we will assume that the Martians
would be when the angles are equal? use the same units of measure that we do.

Lesson 2: Angles in Measuring the Earth 17

 LESSON 3

Polygons and Polyhedra: Pyramid Architecture

More than 2,000 years before Euclid was born, the ancient
Egyptians used their knowledge of geometry to build the Great Pyra
mid at Giza, the only one of the “seven wonders of the world” still in
existence. This pyramid is comparable in height to a building 40 sto-
ries high and covers an area of more than 13 acres. It was put to-
gether from more than 2 million stone blocks, weighing between 2
and 150 tons each!
Its base is almost a perfect square, and its four faces are in the
shape of triangles. Squares and triangles are special types of polygons,
and the pyramid itself is an example of a polyhedron. The words poly-
gon and polyhedron are Greek in origin and, although the plural of
polygon is polygons, the plural of polyhedron is polyhedra.

po
L/ Polygons Polyhedra

18 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry

 Polygons and polyhedra are related to line segments in a simple
way. As you know, a line segment is part of a line bounded by two
endpoints; it is a one-dimensional figure. A polygon is bounded by
line segments and lies in a plane; it is a two-dimensional figure. A
polyhedron is bounded by polygons and exists in space; it is a three
dimensional figure.

Figure Dimensions Example

line segment ] Ps

polygon 2 /

polyhedron 3 CP

The most basic way to name polygons is according to their num-

ber of sides. Some of them are illustrated here.

ACOOS
3 sides 4 sides 5 sides 6 sides & Sides
Triangle Quadrilateral Pentagon Hexagon Octagon

The ways for naming polyhedra are more complicated. Some

words, such as cube and pyramid, are already familiar to you. Others,
such as tetrahedron and parallelepiped, are probably not.
Whenever polygons or polyhedra are in practical problems,
their measurements are often important. Consider the Great Pyra-
mid, for example. A person seeing it for the first time might wonder
how much ground it covers. In other words, what is the area of the
polygon that is its base? Another question might concern how long it
would take to walk around the pyramid. The answer depends on the
perimeter of its base. A third question might concern how much stone
was required to build the pyramid. This answer is related to the vol-
ume of the polyhedron that is its shape.

Lesson 3: Polygons and Polyhedra: Pyramid Architecture 1

 In this lesson, we will review two of these terms. The easiest one
is perimeter. The perimeter of a polygon is the sum of the lengths of
its sides.

The perimeter of
triangle ABC is
3+4+5= 12 units.
|
I unit
The second term is area. According to one dictionary, area is “the
surface included within a set of lines; specifically, the number of unit
squares equal in measure to the surface.”* This definition is obvious
} square unit for a simple figure such as this rectangle.

The area of
rectangle DEFG is
2 x 5 = 10 square units.

The figure even suggests the simple formula for the area of any
rectangle. A rectangle with length / and width w has area A given by
A= lw.

The base of the Great Pyramid is square, with sides 756 feet long.
756

756 156

(56

Its perimeter, then, is

756 feet + 756 feet + 756 feet + 756 feet =
4 X 756 feet =
3,024 feet.

A square is also a rectangle; so its area is

756 feet X 756 feet =
571,536 square feet.

"Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary.

20 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry

 Pentominoes. A game called Pentominoes
Exercises uses the 12 pieces shown here. Their names
are suggested by their shapes.
Set |
The Perimeter and Area of a Square. The base
of the Great Pyramid is in the shape of a
square. A square is a rectangle all of whose
sides are of equal length. Because a square is a
rectangle, each of its angles is a right angle; that
is, each angle has a measure of 90°.

| |_
Square Rectangle

1, Use your ruler and protractor to accu-

rately draw a square whose sides are 3
inches long. Then divide it into smaller
squares whose sides are | inch long.
2. What is the area of the square?
12. Each piece is in the shape of a polygon.
3. What is its perimeter? What is a polygon?
13. Which piece is in the shape of a guadri-
Without drawing it, imagine a square whose
sides are 6 inches long.
lateral? Why?
14. All 12 pieces have the same area. What
4. What is its area?
is it?
5. What is its perimeter?
15. All 12 pieces have the same perimeter
except for one. Which one is it?
Without drawing it, imagine a square whose
sides are 1 foot long.
Texas Ranches. Two ranches are for sale in
6. What is its area in square feet? Texas. Each is in the shape of a rectangle an
7, What is its perimeter in feet? their dimensions are as follows:
Ranch A: 4 miles wide, 14 miles long.
Now think of the same square as having sides Ranch B: 6 miles wide, 10 miles long.
12 inches long.
16. Suppose that neither ranch has a fence.
8. What is its area in square inches?
Which one would need more fencing to
9, What is its perimeter in inches? surround it?
17. Both ranches are the same price and you
If a square has sides that are x units long, want to buy the bigger one. Which one
what, in terms of x, is its should you buy?
10. area? 18. Which is more important in this situa-
11. perimeter? tion: perimeter or area?

Lesson 3: Polygons and Polyhedra: Pyramid Architecture 2

Set Il
A Model of the Great Pyramid. While on a The pyramid has five faces altogether: its
trip to study the Great Pyramid in 1799, square base and its four triangular faces.
Napoleon made this sketch together with 23. What kind of figures are squares and
some notes. triangles?
24, What kind of figure is the pyramid
oy 74
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itself?
Llag Mme ecboonpay aittntyy
porn ToT. ee Binns AgsiO yg
¥
Menem Done PHP Lc Fe wee? coy = ee
ae. AT he
The line segments in which the faces of
hte bf the pyramid meet are called its edges.
25. How many edges does the pyramid
have?
26. How many corners does it have?
27. How many edges meet at the top of the
pyramid?
28. How many edges meet at each corner of
the base?
Use your ruler and protractor to draw a
square 10 cm on each side for the base of the Each face of the pyramid lies in a plane.
pyramid on a heavy sheet of paper. 29. In how many different planes do the
The other four faces of the pyramid are in faces of the pyramid lie?
the shape of triangles. Use the measurements 30. If two dines intersect, they intersect in a
shown in the figure below to draw four point. If two planes intersect, in what do
triangles on a sheet of heavy paper. they intersect?
31. Use your ruler to estimate, as best as
you can, the height of your model in
centimeters.

In your model, 10 cm represent 756 feet,

the length of one edge of the base of the
pyramid.
58° 58° 32. How many feet does 1 cm represent?
lOcm 33. Use this result and your estimate of the
height of your model in centimeters to
19. Use your protractor to measure the estimate the height of the Great Pyramid
angle at the top of one of these triangles. in feet.
20. Do any sides of the triangle appear to be 34. What view of the Great Pyramid does
equal? Use your ruler to check your this drawing appear to show?
answer.
21. Cut out the square and four triangles
and tape them together to make a scale
model of the Great Pyramid.
22. Make a drawing of the pyramid.

22 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry

Set Ill
A Square Puzzle. The book Mathematical Test the accuracy of your drawing and
Snapshots by the Polish mathematician Hugo your ability to measure angles by doing each
Steinhaus begins with an illustration of four of the following.
polygons arranged to form a square.”
1. ZEPF, 7 FPG, and ZGPH should appea:
to be equal..What is the measure of each
B 6 F 8 C of these angles? Write the measure
inside each angle.
ZBFP should appear to be 30° larger
than 7 AEH. What is the measure of
7 7 each of these angles?
ZBEH should appear to be 90° larger
than ZEHA. What is the measure of
E G each of these angles?
Two other line segments in the figure
7 should appear to have the same length
7 as that of EH. Which are they?
. Carefully cut the four polygons out. Try
to rearrange them to form an equilateral
A 8 H 6 D triangle {a triangle all of whose sides are
equal), Trace the arrangement on your
paper.
Use your ruler and protractor to make an
enlargement of this figure on a sheet of heavy About how many centimeters long is
paper by doing each of the following: each side of the equilateral triangle?
(1) Draw a square 14 cm on each side and . How large is each of its three angles?
label its corners A, B, C, and D as shown
in the figure. . How does the area of the triangle
compare with that of the original
(2) Mark the points E, F, G, and H at the square? Why?
indicated distances from the corners.
. What is the area of the triangle?
(3) Draw EH.
10. How does the perimeter of the triangle
(4) Mark point P on EH. compare with that of the original
(5) Draw PF and PG. square?

“The figure is the solution to a puzzle created in 1902

by Henry Dudeney, England’s greatest inventor of
mathematical puzzles. The lengths in it have been
rounded for convenience.

Lesson 3: Polygons and Polyhedra: Pyramid Architecture

 LESSON 4

Constructions: Telling Time with Shadows

The largest sundial in the world, built in 1724 in Jaipur, India, is shown
in the photograph above. Its gnomon (the object that casts the shadow)
is a ramp that rises 90 feet above the ground. The shadow cast by the
ramp moves at a rate of about two inches per minute, making it pos-
sible to accurately teli the local time within seconds!
Sundials were the main instrument for keeping time from the days
of ancient Egypt until the sixteenth century. At noon, the sun is at its
highest in the sky, the shadow cast by the gnomon is at its shortest,
and, in the northern hemisphere, the shadow points northward.
The Egyptians were aware of these facts and put them to use in
constructing their pyramids so that their sides faced directly north,
south, east, and west. The method that they are thought to have used
for finding map directions is related to a geometric construction.
Since the time of Euclid, two tools have been used in making geo-
metric drawings: the straightedge and compass. The straightedge is
used for drawing J/ines (actually line segments), and the compass is used
for drawing circles or parts of circles called ares. A circle is the set of
all points in a plane that are a fixed distance from a given point in
the plane. The fixed distance is called the radius of the circle and the
given point is called its center.
Drawings made with just a straightedge and compass are called
constructions to distinguish them from those made with other tools
such as a ruler and protractor.

24 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry

 In this lesson, we will learn simple constructions for bisecting line
segments and angles. To bisect something means to divide it into two
equal parts.

Construction 1
To bisect a line segment.

Let AB be the given line segment. With A as center, draw an arc inter-
secting the segment as shown in the first figure. With B as center,
draw an arc of the same radius that intersects the first arc in two points
(C and D in the second figure). Draw line CD. Line CD bisects seg
ment AB. In other words, AM and MB have the same length.

There is a simple way to prove that this method does what we

have claimed. You will learn how it works later in your study of
geometry.
Angles can also be bisected with a straightedge and compass.

Construction 2
To bisect an angle.

Let ZC be the given angle. With point C as center, draw an arc that
intersects the sides of the angle {at points A and B in the figure). With
A as center, draw an arc inside the angle as shown in the second fig-
ure, With B as center, draw an arc of the same radius that intersects
the arc drawn from point A (at point D in the third figure). Draw line
CD. It bisects 2C. In other words, ZACD and ZDCB are equal in
measure.

This equality also can be easily proved, as you will learn later.

Lesson 4: Constructions: Telling Time with Shadows

Exercises 3. Apply the directions given for exercise |
to the following figure.
Set |

4. Check the accuracy of your drawing by

Finding North by Shadows. The ancient using your protractor to measure ZAPB
Egyptians are thought to have used the and “. APN.
shadow of a vertical post to find north. The
figure below is an overhead view of some In each of your drawings, points P, A, and B
level ground into which a post has been stuck do not lie on the same line.
at point P. Once in the morning the tip of the 5. What word describes such points?
post’s shadow touches the circle at A, and
once in the afternoon it touches the circle at B. On the other hand, points P,,A, and B do lie
These two positions of the shadow, PA and in the same plane.
PB, form ZP.
6. What word describes these points?

Suppose line NS in the figure below points

north and south.

Ss

1. Draw a circle larger than this one, label 7. Draw a figure like this one on your
its center P, mark two points on the paper and then use your straightedge
circle A and B, and draw PA and PB. and compass to construct the line that
Bisect ZP. bisects segment NS. In what directions
The ray that bisects 2P points north. do you think this line points? Label
Label the point in which it intersects the them on the line.
circle N. Also draw the ray from P that
points south. 8. Use your protractor to measure the
angles formed by NS and EW. Do you
2. Check the accuracy of your drawing by get the results that you would expect?
using your protractor to measure “ APB
and ZAPN. What measurements do 9. What is the sum of all four angles? What
you get? do you expect it to be?

26 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry

Bisectors in a Triangle.
ic:

3 in.

A 4 in. B
10. Use your ruler and protractor to draw a
triangle with the measurements shown
in the figure above. Then use your
straightedge and compass to bisect each
side of the triangle.
11. What relation do the three bisecting
lines that you drew seem to have to
each other? i
ta
i

i oat
a

12. Where do the lines seem to meet?

Label the point in which they meet P and

In what map direction does the shadow
draw PA. a
17. point at 6 o’clock in the morning?
13. How do the distances from point P to
the corners of the triangle, A, B, and C, 18. point at noon?
seem to compare? 19. never point?

14. Make another copy of the same triangle. 20. At what time of the day do you think
This time, use your straightedge and the shadow moves the most slowly?
compass to bisect its angles. 21. When does it appear to move fastest?
15. What seems to be true about the three The hour lines of the Kellogg sundial have
lines that you drew? been redrawn and lettered in the figure below
Labei the point in which they meet S.
16. Are the distances from point S to the F
GHI JS K L
corners of the triangle equal?
E M
Set Il
D N
About Sundials. A sundial was once featured
on boxes of Kellogg’s Raisin Bran. When the a P

gnomon (shadow pointer) was cut out and

put in place, its shadow moved around the . 0
dial during the day. The way in which the
hour lines are spaced suggests that the B Q
shadow does not always move at the same
speed. A R

Lesson 4: Constructions: Telling Time with Shadows 2

 Draw a line through O as shown in
2oN 7k, the figure at the bottom of the preceding
column and label the points in which it
EF M intersects the circle A and B.
With your compass, draw an arc
D N centered at A and passing through O as
shown in the figure below. Label the
points in which the arc intersects the
C p circle C and D.
A
B Q
A R

22. Which angle in the figure seems to be

equal to 2HOI?
23. If your answer to exercise 22 is true,
what does OI do to ZHOJ? B
24. Does OQ seem to bisect 2POR? Why or Draw another arc centered at B and
why not? passing through O as shown in the left-
25. Name two angles in the figure that OC hand figure below. Label the points in
seems to bisect. which the arc intersects the circle E
26. Which angle seems to be equal to and F.
ZCOF?
27. Name three angles in the figure that
seem to be equal to 2COD.
28. Which angle seems to be equal to
Z AOR?

A sundial in which the hour lines are evenly

spaced is simpler to make but harder to use.
A straightedge and compass can be used to
construct such a sundial without the use of a
protractor. If you have drawn your figure accu-
29. Use your compass to draw a circle with rately, points C, O, and F should appear
a radius of 3 inches. Label its center O. to be collinear, as should points E, O,
and D.
LA 30. What does collinear mean?

Draw the lines CF and ED and number the

angles at the center as shown in the right-hand
figure above. Each of the six numbered angles
in your drawing should appear to be equal.
Measure them with your protractor.
31. What does the measure of each angle
appear to be?

28 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry

 Use your straightedge and compass to Set Ill
bisect 21, 22, 23, and 24. The lines in your
drawing should now look like this. Angle Bisectors in a Rectangle. Something
rather surprising usually happens when the
angles of a rectangle are bisected. The follow-
ing exercises will help you discover what it is.
1. On a sheet of graph paper ruled 4 units
per inch, draw a rectangle having sides
with lengths 1.5 and 2 inches.
2. Draw the four lines that bisect the
angles of the rectangle. What polygon
do they seem to form?
3. Draw another rectangle having sides of
lengths 2 inches and 3 inches. Draw the
32, What is the measure of each of the eight lines that bisect its angles. What do you
smaller angles in the figure?
notice?
Use your straightedge and compass to 4. Follow the directions given in exercise 3
bisect each of these angles. The lines in your but with a rectangle of sides 2 inches
drawing should now look like this. and 4 inches. What do you notice?
5. Follow the directions given in exercise 3
but with a rectangle of sides 1 inch and
4 inches. What do you notice?
6. Is the size of the polygon formed related
in any way to the shape of the rect-
angle? Explain.
7, Do you think there is any rectangle for
which the polygon would shrink to a
point? Explain.

Compare your drawing with the Kellogg’s

sundial and number the hour spokes
appropriately.
If your sundial had a gnomon perpendicu-
lar to its base and if the sundial were tilted in
the right direction, the shadow would move
at a steady speed across the hour lines.
Through how many degrees would the
shadow turn
33. between 6 A.M. and 6 P.M.?
34, between noon and 6 P.M.?
35. during one hour?
36. How long would it take the shadow to
turn | degree?

Lesson 4: Constructions: Telling Time with Shadows 29

 An overhead view of plots of land
in the shape of quadrilaterals not
far from Alexandria.

LESSON 5

We Can’t Go On Like This

This title may seem to be a very strange one for a geometry lesson,
but it points out a troubling problem with what we have been doing
so far.
We have become acquainted with many important ideas in ge-
ometry, mostly in an informal way. We have learned how to make
simple constructions with a straightedge and compass, yet we don’t
really know how they work. We have guessed some conclusions on
the basis of the appearance of things, not always being certain that
they were true. Our approach to geometry to this point has been com-
parable to that of the ancient Egyptians, long before the time of Euclid.
What has survived of Egyptian mathematics as it existed 4,000
years ago reveals an accumulation of rules and results seemingly based
on trial and error. The Egyptians were evidently satisfied with ideas
that appeared to be useful, without concerning themselves about why
they might or might not always be true.

30 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry

 Here is an example of the difficulties to which this approach to
geometry leads. To find the areas of fields in the shape of quadrilat-
erals, the Egyptians used the formula

A= +(a + J(b+ d)
in which a, 8, ¢, and d are the lengths of the consecutive sides. They
had gotten this formula from the ancient Babylonians. The trouble
with it is that sometimes it gives the correct answer and sometimes it
does not.
Thus when tax assessors used it to figure out the areas of four-
sided fields, some landowners were charged correctly and some were
not. In fact, those who were not were cheated every time! The tax
assessors may have known that these charges were incorrect, but ap-
parently no one could figure out what was wrong with the formula to
cause it to give such undependable results.
We will explore this problem and some other similarly troubling
ones in this lesson.

Exercises Ramses
Set | IY
The Egyptian Tax Assessor. We are back in
2500 B.C. and three Egyptians, Ramses, 10
Cheops, and Ptahotep, have recently pur-
chased plots of land in the shapes shown here. 1]
The tax assessor uses his formula for the ee
area of a quadrilateral,

A= Tat o(+ d)
in which a, 6, c, and dare the lengths of the
consecutive sides.
What area does he calculate for the plot
belonging to
1. Ramses?
2. Cheops?
3. Ptahotep?
Ptahotep
The bigger the plot, the higher the tax.
4. According to these results, who has to
pay the highest tax? 9

Lesson 5: We Can‘t Go On Like This 41

 The area of Cheops’s plot, being rectangular
in shape, is easiest to check.

ES

5. Does it contain as many square units as

10. How many square units do you think
the tax assessor says?
Ptahotep’s part of this rectangle
contains?
Before we try to count the number of
squares in each of the other plots, making 11. Use these results to determine how
some changes in the figures will make the job many square units Ptahotep’s property
easier. contains.
For Ramses’ plot, we can imagine cutting off
the triangular part on the left and moving it to 12. Which one of the three is cheated the
the right. most by the tax assessor’s formula?
Why?

How to calculate area correctly is an impor-

tant topic in geometry. Having worked
through these exercises, you will probably
agree that it would be convenient to
have easier methods whose logic we really
understand.

Set Il
Trisection Problems. The methods for bisect-
ing line segments and angles by using just a
straightedge and compass were known to the
ancient Greeks long before Euclid was born.
6. How many square units does the plot Having solved these two problems, the
contain? Greeks naturally wondered if just these two
tools could be used to érisect a line segment or
For Ptahotep’s plot, we can add some lines angle, that is, divide them into three equal
as shown at the top of the next column. parts.
The trisection problem for line segments
7. How many square units does the left- was solved almost immediately. Here is one
hand rectangle contain? way to do it.
8. How many square units do you 13. For convenience in checking the result
think Ptahotep’s part of this rectangle at the end, draw a line segment AB
contains? 3 inches long.
9. How many square units does the right-
hand rectangle contain? 3 inches

32 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry

 First, use your straightedge and These two line segments trisect the
compass to construct the line, { that original line segment AB, which you can
bisects AB. Label the midpoint C. check with your ruler.

An early method proposed for trisecting

angles is illustrated below.

A——¢ _-g |

C C B
With C as center, draw a circle Start with Draw an arc
through A and B. Label the points m angle C centered at C
which line / intersects the circle D and E.
Draw AD and BE. A A

if, D D

E
BOA B C BoC B
Draw AB Trisect AB

A
El, F
I

Construct the line that bisects AD and \

label it m. (You should notice that line m LE”®
|
goes through C, the center of the circle.) C B
Where line m intersects AD and BE,
label the points F and G as shown here. Draw CD and CE
Draw DG and FE.
Rather than carrying out this construction
D with straightedge and compass, we will
draw an accurate figure to test the results.

14, Use your ruler and compass to draw an

equilateral triangle, each of whose sides
is 3 inches long. Label its vertices A, B,
and C to correspond to the third figure
above. Use your ruler to find the points
D and E on side AB that trisect it. Draw
CD and CE.

Lesson 5: We Can’t Go On Like This 33

 15. Center your protractor on C and care- How many regions would be formed if you
fully measure Z2ACD, ZDCE, and started with
ZECB. What does the measure of each 3. just two points?
angle seem to be?
4, three points?
Because we can neither draw nor measure 5. Put all of these results together by making
things perfectly, it is not easy to tell whether a table like this:
the original angle has been trisected. In fact, it
has not. As surprising as it may seem, since the Number ofpoints connected: 2 3 4 5
time of Euclid, no one has ever found a way Number of regions formed: ? ? 8 ?
that can be used to trisect any angle by using
Just a straightedge and compass! 6. What happens to the number of regions
We have made two drawings, both of which each time one more point is added
might seem to be correct, yet one is not. The to the circle?
title of this lesson, “We Can’t Go On Like This,”
describes our dilemma. It is not possible to be How many regions would you expect to be
sure of what we are doing in geometry formed if you started with
without developing a deeper understanding
of the subject. 7. six points?
8. seven points?
Set III 9. Make drawings of circles having six and
seven points. Start with large circles.
Cutting Up a Circle. Here is a simple problem
about points and circles that has become 10. Are the results what you expected?
famous because it is so baffling.
If four points are chosen on a circle and
connected with line segments in every pos-
sible way, the result might look something
like this. Notice that the circle is separated
into eight regions.

1. Draw a circle, choose five points on it,

and connect them with line segments in
every possible way.
2. Into how many regions is the circle
separated?

34 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry

 naan alia

This engraving from 1630 is titled Dido Purchases Land for the
Foundation of Carthage. It depicts the hide of an ox being cut to
solve a problem in geometry considered in this review.

CHAPTER 1 Summary and Review

Introduction (pp. 1-2) Lesson 2 (pp. 13-15)
Since about 300 B.c., Euclid’s book titled the A ray is part of a line that extends endlessly
Elements has been the model for presenting in one direction. An angle is a pair of rays (called
geometry in a logical way. We will become its sides| that have the same endpoint ‘called its
acquainted with Euclid’s approach to mathemat vertex).
ics in our study of geometry. A protractor measures angles in degrees.
Lesson 7 (pp. 8-9) Lesson 3 (pp. 18-20)
Some basic terms used in geometry are A polygon is bounded by line segments and
point, line, and plane. A line segment is part of a lies in a plane. A polyhedron (plural polyhedra} is
line bounded by two endpoints. bounded by polygons and exists in space.
Some terms relating poinis, lines, and Names for some common polygons include:
planes are collinear (points that are on the same triangle {three sides), guadrilateral (four sides),
line), noncollinear (points that are not on the pentagon (five sides), hexagon |six sides), and oc-
same line), coplanar (points that are in the same tagon (eight sides).
plane}, and concurrent (lines that contain the Two numbers associated with a polygon are
same point). its perimeter (the sum of the lengths of its sides)

35
and its area (the number of unit squares equal The figure below is a transparent view of a
in measure to its surface). cube.
A rectangle with length / and width w has
area A given by
C
A= lw. D

Lesson 4 (pp. 24-25)

Geometric drawings called constructions are
Oa
made with just two tools: the straightedge (for
drawing lines) and the compass (for drawing
circles). E
Two simple constructions are to bisect a line
segment and to bisect an angle. To bisect some- A
thing means to divide it into two equal parts. F

Lesson 5 (pp. 30-37)

The study of geometry in an informal way,
How many edges
as we have done in this chapter, can lead to
many interesting and practical results. This in- 4. meet at each corner of a cube?
formal approach is ultimately unsatisfactory, 5. does a cube have altogether?
however, because conclusions based on appear-
How many faces
ances Or guessing may not always be correct.
6. meet at each corner of a cube?
7. does a cube have altogether?
Exercises
The corners A, G, and C of the cube are
Set | - noncollinear.
8. What is another word that describes
them?

The following pattern can be used to form a

cube.

The die shown in the photograph above was

made in Italy in about 700 B.c. and is in the
shape of a cube.
The corners of a cube are points. What kind
of geometric figure
1. are its edges?
2. are its faces? 9. In how many lines do the edges of the
3. is the cube itself? pattern lie?

36 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry

Some harder questions triangle with the measurements shown
Suppose the pattern is cut out and folded below in the center of a sheet of paper.
together to form a cube.
With which edge would each of the follow-
ing edges come together? C
10. JW.
11. MN.
12. LM.

With which corner(s) would each of the

3 iF,
following corners come together?
13. R.
14. W. Extend the lines of the sides CA and CB,
marking two points D and E on them as
Here is another transparent view of a cube. shown below.

15. Looking at this figure as flat rather than

three-dimensional, what polygons do Measure each of the following angles:
you see in it?
20. ZDAB.
16. Make a copy of the figure, but make the
+
21. ZABE.
figure look three-dimensional by
drawing it with the hidden edges as 22. ZDCE.
dashed line segments. Now use your straightedge and compass to
17. What is the greatest number of faces of bisect 2DAB and ~ABE. Draw the two
a die that can be seen at any one time? bisectors long enough so that they meet in a
point; label it F.
Check the accuracy of your drawing by
Set II measuring these angles:
Some drawings in geometry are made with a 23. ZDAF and ZFAB.
ruler and protractor, and others are made with 24. ZABF and ZFBE.
just a straightedge and compass.
Draw CFE.
18. What are drawings made with just a 25. Measure Z2DCF and ZFCE.
straightedge and compass called?
26. What does the line CF seem to do to
19, Use your ruler and protractor to draw a Z DCE?

Summary and Review 37

27, Draw a quadrilateral of about this shape Suppose that her plot of land had to be in
on your paper. the shape of a rectangle, that it could face a
river so that the cord would have to stretch
B only along three sides, and that the cord was
900 yards long.
If the land were in the shape of a square, it
would look like this.

D C

Use your straightedge and compass to

bisect the four sides of the quadrilateral.
Use the letter M to label the midpoint of 1. Including the fourth side, what is the
side AB, the letter N for the midpoint of perimeter of this property?
BC, the letter O for the midpoint of CD, 2. What is its area?
and the letter P for the midpoint of DA.
Connect M, N, O, and P with line The following figure shows another possible
segments to form quadrilateral MNOP. shape for Dido’s land.
28. What do you notice about the sides of
this quadrilateral?
29. What is its perimeter in centimeters? 200 |
Draw AC and BD. These line segments are
called the diagonals of quadrilateral ABCD. River
30. Measure AC and BD in centimeters and
add their lengths.
3. In this case, how far would the cord
If you have drawn and measured every- reach across the top side?
thing accurately, your answers to exercises 29
a . What is the perimeter of this property?
and 30 should be the same, even though your
original copy of quadrilateral ABCD may not 5. What is its area?
look exactly like the one above!
6. What length and width should the
rectangle have for Dido to get as much
Set III land as possible? Make some more
drawings to try to find out.
According to the Roman poet Virgil, a prin-
cess named Dido wanted to buy some land in
Africa in about 900 B.c. She was told that she
could buy as much land as she could enclose
with the skin of an ox.
Dido is said to have had the hide cut into
thin strips which were then tied together to
form as long a cord as possible.

38 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry

 ALGEBRA REVIEW

Simplifying Expressions

The operations of addition and multiplication have these basic

properties:

Addition Multiplication
Commutative at+tb=b+a4 ab = ba
Associative (a+ b)+c=at+(b+a {ab\c= albe
Identity at+Q=a l-a=a
Inverse at+(-a=0 a: = 1

The commutative property tells you that the result of operating on two
numbers is independent of their order.
The associative property tells you that the result of operating on three
numbers is independent of the way in which they are grouped.
The additive identity is 0 and the multiplicative identity is 1.
The additive inverse of a number, a, is its opposite, — a,and the

multicative inverse of a number, a, is its reciprocal, —.

a * - ‘ ‘ . l

a
Multiplication can often be understood as repeated addition, for
example, 3@ means a+ a+ a. The 3 in the expression 3a is called
the coefficient.
Raising to a power can often be understood as repeated multiplication;
for example, a? means a: a: a. The 3 in the expression a? is called
an exponent.

Subtraction and Division

The operations of subtraction and division are not listed above

because they are defined in terms of addition and multiplication,
respectively.
Subtracting a number is defined as adding its opposite.
Example: a— b= a+ (-))
Dividing by a number is defined as multiplying by its reciprocal.
jt
Examplelac
2
5 aa,
8S=

Algebra Review 39
 1G.. 2° 22x 2x
17, 2x + 3x
18. x7- x?
IQ, xtxtytyty
20. X° x yoy y
| begins | faa nie \ | 21. x0 xt yoy y
[= -18)(-4)=
+72 PACE+ TZ 22. RRR ey
: 23. (x+y)+
This figure illustrating the associative property of 24, (xy)y
multiplication is from a Korean mathematics book. .
p f 25. (x2 + x2 + x2 4+ x7) + (x2 + x? + x)
96. 4x2 + 3x2
Exercises
DD ob gD txt
27. (x + xe txee
tt gD tx
a 2 + 2)
x°) x 42
amen iittala — 98, 6x2 — x2
Name the property or definition illustrated by = 29. (x2 + x2 + x2 + x2) + (x + x4 2)
each of the following equations. 30. 3+ 23+ 842244244

(xt I+ 2=x4+
(1 +2) BL. (x2+ x2 - x2 © x2) x2 - x? + x?)
2.3-4=4-3 32. (x8)(x9)
8. x—(-S)=x+5 33. (2x*)(3x7)
4. 100+ 0 = 100 34, (x3 + 3)( x2 + x2 + x2)

5 *_,.1 35. (Qx + 2x + 2x(3x+ 3x)

6 6 36. (2x > 2x - 2x\(3x - 33)
67-5 =1 37. (xt xtutyt yt (xt yt y)
38. (38x + 2y)+ (x + 25)
Write each of the following expressions as a 89. (xt xtxtyty—(xtyty)
single integer. 40. (3x + 2y)— (x + 25)

7. 123 41. (x+y) + —(x+ 9)

9, 5 — (-15) MEY
10. 5(-—15) 43, (4x + 7y) + (x + 34)
11. 172 — 82 44, (4x + 7y)— (x + 3y)
12, (17 — 8) 45. (4x — 7y) + (x — 3y)
46. (4x — 7y) — (x — 39)
Simplify the following expressions. 47. (4x)(79) + (x)(39)
13. (7)? 48, (4x)(7y) — (x}(3y)
14. 27(7) 49, (2+ x9) + (5 + x°)
lh. xtxtxtxtex 50. (2x°)(5x°)

40 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geometry