Lecture - 14 : Respiratory system
Tracheal system
In insects, exchange of gases takes place through tubular structures, called
trachea. They are distributed throughout the body collectively forming tracheal
system. These trachea open outside on the body wall through small openings called
spiracles. Spiracles occur on the pleural surfaces of the body, one on either side of
each segment.
The trachea are divided in to very fine branches known as tracheoles. They
supply oxygen to the body tissues.
The tracheal system with functional spiracles is called the open tracheal
system and with non-functional spiracles is called closed tracheal system.
Trachea are fine elastic tubular structures which are ectodermal in origin. They
consist of cuticle, epidermis, basement membrane as in case of general body wall
but arranged in reverse manner, i.e. basement membrane forms the outermost coat
of trachea. The inner cuticular lining forms the intima inside.
Trachea are circular or elliptical in their cross section.
The cuticular lining (intima)appear as a spiral thickening throughout the length of the
tube of trachea. These spiral thickenings are known as ‘taenidia’ which give support
to the trachea without being collapsed when there is no air. It consists of chitin,
resilin in protein-chitin matrix.
The trachea ramify into very fine branches known as ‘tracheoles’ which are about
0.1 – 1 µm in diameter (Fig. 32). These tracheoles are formed in to cells called
‘tracheoblast’ or tracheolar end cell, which are derived from epidermal cells, lining
the trachea. Tracheoles form a network over the visceral organs including the
alimentary canal as well as the gonads (ovaries, testis) and penetrate in to the
tissues of the organs and become intracellular and supply oxygen directly to the
tissues.
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Fig. 32 Structure of trachea
(Source: Taken from The Insects- Structure and Function(4th Edition, 1998) – R.F.
Chapman (Cambridge University Press)
Differences between trachea and tracheoles:
Trachea Tracheoles
1 These are large tubes running from Fine tubes arising distally from
spiracles trachea
2 Taenidia present Absent
3 Intima layer is shed during moulting Intima layer is retained,
unchanged during moulting
4 Never become intracellular Intracellular
5 The intima layer consist of protein – Chitin – protein matrix present,
chitin matrix with resilin resilin absent
Tracheal trunks
The trachea coming from spiracles through out the body join with those of
neighbouring spiracles forming ‘longitudinal trunks’. Likewise, these trachea by
combining with those coming from dorsal, lateral and ventral sides of the body fuse
to form transverse commissures and longitudinal connectives.
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All these in total form into dorsal trunk, lateral trunks which are two in
number and one ventral trunk (Fig. 33). The dorsal trunk supply oxygen to
proximal part of the body as well as to heart where as the ventral supplies to the
central nervous system. The two lateral longitudinal trunks spreads tracheoles to
alimentary canal, legs, gonads and wings.
As the head do not contain spiracles, air is supplied through the first pair
spiracles by means of two main branches of the dorsal longitudinal trunk, where one
branch supply O2 to eyes, antenna, brain; other branch to mouthparts and muscles
of the head.
Fig. 33 Tracheal system
(dorsal tracheal trunks)
(Source: Taken from A General Textbook of Entomology (1960) – A.D. Imms
(Revised by Professor O.W. Richards and R.G. Davies, 9th Edition) (Butler & Tanner
Ltd., Frome and London))
Spiracles: They are the openings of the internal tubular trachea. Except in Diplura,
in all the orders, spiracles are absent in prothorax and distributed in meso,
metathorax and abdomen.
A total of 10 pairs are present in general, 2 pairs in thorax and 8 pairs in abdomen.
Spiracles are situated on pleural surface. They consists of a small ring like
sclerite at opening called ‘peritreme’ leading to a cavity known as ‘atrium’ (Fig. 34).
The closing and opening of spiracles is accompanied by atrial valve lined with
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fibrous processes which reduces water loss in the absence of closing mechanism.
In some dipterans, coleopterans, lepidopterans, spiracles consists of sieve plate
containing large number of small apertures through which gas exchange takes
place. This modification is to prevent entry of water especially in acquatic forms.
In most of the terrestrial insects, water loss through spiracles is controlled by
the closing mechanism which consists of one or two valves or a constriction from
the trachea or by muscular activity. The hydrophobic nature of spiracles is also due
to the presence of modified epidermal glands known as peristigmatic glands which
secrete a hydrophobe material preventing the wetting of these organs.
Fig. 34. Structure of spiracle
(Source: Taken from A General Textbook of Entomology (1960) – A.D. Imms
(Revised by Professor O.W. Richards and R.G. Davies, 9th Edition) (Butler & Tanner
Ltd., Frome and London)
Classification of respiratory system based on number and arrangement of
functional spiracles
In most of the insects, 10 pairs of spiracles are present. Some of the modifications
are as follows
1. Polypneustic Type: Atleast 8 pairs of functional spiracles are present on
either side of the body.
a. Holopneustic : These are primitive type with 2 pairs of spiracles on thoraxand 8
pairs on abdomen . All the spiracles are functional. 1 + 1 + 8.
e.g. dragonflies, grasshoppers and cockroach
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b. Hemipneustic : 9 pair of spiracles present. 1 meso thoracic+ 8 abdominal Eg.
Cecidomyid larvae, many endopterygote larvae.
c. Peripneustic : 8 pair of spiracles are present. Metathoracic
spiracle is closed. 1 + 0 + 8.(1 meso thoracic+ 8 abdominal)
e.g.: larvae of Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Coleoptera.
2. Oligopneustic- One/Two Pair of spiracles are present.
a. Amphipneustic : Only mesothoracic and last pair of abdominal spiracles are
open. 1 + 0 + 1.
e.g: larva of cyclorrhaphan Diptera.
b. Propneustic : Only one pair i.e. mesothoracic spiracles are open, 1 + 0 +0 e.g.:
mosquito pupa
c. Metapneustic : Only last pair of abdominal spiracles are open. 0 + 0 + 1. e.g.:
mosquito larvae
3. Apneustic: No functional spiracles.
e.g: mayfly larva, nymph of
Odonata
4. Hypopneustic : 1 or 2 pairs of spiracles may completely disappear or absent
e.g.: Siphunculata, Mallophaga
5. Hyperpneustic : More than 10 pairs of spiracles are presente.g.: Japyx sps.
(dipluran)
Other types of respiration
a. Cutaneous respiration : e.g.: Protura, Collembola and endoparasitic
insects.
When the spiracles are absent, respiration occurs through body wall which
forms main source for gaseous exchange.
[Link] gills: e.g.: larva of Trichoptera, nymphs of Ephemeroptera
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Also called as abdominal gills which occur as the outgrowths of the trachea in the
form of gills distributed on the lateral sides of the body. They are useful for
absorption of dissolved oxygen. They may vary in shape as lamellate or
filamentous.
c. Spiracular gills : In some aquatic pupae,
Peritreme or atrium of spiracles is drawn out in to a long filament like structure
known as spiracular gills. These gills are adapted for both aquatic and aerial
respiration, enabling the insect to live in air and moist places or completely in water
or at the edges of water structures.
d. Blood gills: These are tubular or digitiform or eversible structures present at
the anal end of body ranging from 4-6 in larva of Trichoptera. In chironomid larva of
Diptera, 2 pairs of blood gills are present on penultimate segment and a group of 4
shorter anal gills are present. These are called blood gills as they contain blood but
some times have trachea. Function of these structures is the absorption of water
and inorganic ions rather than respiration.
e. Rectal gills: In dragonfly nymphs (naids), the rectum modifies in to a barrel
like chamber where the rectal wall forms in to basal thick pads and distal gill
filaments which are richly supplied with tracheoles. They help in respiration.
f. Air sacs: In many winged insects, the trachea get dilated at some points to
form thin walled air sacs which do not contain the taenidia. These can be seen as
glistening sac like structures mainly function as storage structures of air which
change their volume with respiratory movement.
g. Plastron respiration: e.g.: aquatic beetles.
The plastron is a special type of air store in the form of a thin film held by a system of
hydrofuge hairs, scales or other cuticular processes whose volume remains
constant. If there is adequate oxygen dissolved in water, the plastron can act as a
permanent physical gill. The trachea opens in to plastron.
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