DC Machine Wave Winding

Design, Principles, and Formulae

Teshome Hambissa, PhD

SECE, CTBE

January 10, 2026

1/46
Presentation Outline

1 Introduction

2 Construction Details

3 Windings Configuration

4 Rotor Types

5 Additional Components

6 Technical Specifications

7 Advantages and Applications

8 Connection of Y∆ in SGs

2/46
AC rotating Machines

Definition
AC rotating machines can be classified mainly in two categories
Synchronous Machines and Asynchronous Machines.
Asynchronous Machines:
Induction Motors:
Synchronous Machines: 1 Most widely used electrical
Synchronous Generators motors in both domestic and
1 A primary source of electrical industrial applications.
energy. Induction Generators:
Synchronous Motors 1 This generator runs at
1 Used as motors as well as asynchronous speed and
power factor compensators variable frequency voltage
2 Used as synchronous generated.
condensers 2 Due to lack of a separate field
excitation, these machines are
rarely used as generators.
3/46
Synchronous Generator Construction

Definition
Synchronous generators (alternators) are synchronous machines that
convert mechanical power to AC electric power through electromagnetic
induction.

Key Characteristics: Applications:

Synchronous operation Thermal power plants
High efficiency Hydroelectric plants
Stable frequency output Nuclear plants
Used in power plants Backup generators

4/46
Construction Details

Magnetic Field System

1 In synchronous generators, DC excitation current flows through the rotor
winding, creating a rotating magnetic field.
2 The rotor of the generator is then turned by a prime mover, producing a
rotating magnetic field within the machine.
3 This rotating field induces a three-phase voltage in the stationary stator
windings.

Operating Principle

Faraday’s Law: E = −N dΦ
dt
120f
Synchronous Speed: Ns = P rpm

5/46
Field and Armature Windings

Field Windings
Located on rotor
DC excitation source
Creates main magnetic field
Lower voltage, higher current

Armature Windings
Located on stator
AC output generated here
Three-phase configuration Figure: Synchronous generator
cross-section
Higher voltage, lower current

6/46
Salient vs. Non-Salient Poles

Salient Pole Rotor Non-Salient Pole Rotor

Poles protrude from rotor Cylindrical construction
Low-speed applications High-speed applications
Used in hydro generators Used in turbo generators
Large diameter, short length Small diameter, long length
Multiple pole pairs Few pole pairs
Table: Comparison of rotor pole configurations

7/46
Damper Windings

B
Purpose and Function
Damper windings (amortisseur windings) are
copper bars embedded in the pole faces,
short-circuited at both ends. They serve multiple
purposes:
Oscillation damping: Suppresses rotor
hunting
Stability improvement: Enhances Figure: Damper winding
transient stability arrangement

Starting assistance: Acts as induction

Key Benefit
motor during startup
Fault current limitation: Reduces Improved system stabil-
short-circuit currents ity and reliability

8/46
Technical Parameters

Electrical Parameters
Mechanical Parameters
Rated Voltage: 11 kV, 33 kV,
Speed: 1500/1800/3000/3600
etc.
rpm
Frequency: 50/60 Hz
Cooling: Air/Hydrogen/Water
Power Factor: 0.8-0.9 lagging
Insulation: Class F/H
Efficiency: 95-98%
Excitation: Brush/Brushless
Reactances:
Xd : Direct-axis
Protection: Differential,
Xq : Quadrature-axis overcurrent

Power Equation
√
P = 3 × VL × IL × cos ϕ × η
9/46
Advantages and Modern Applications

Advantages Modern Applications

Constant frequency operation Power Plants: Base load
generation
High efficiency at rated load
Renewable: Wind turbine
Excellent voltage regulation generators
Can supply leading/lagging Marine: Ship power systems
VARs
Industrial: Large motor drives
Robust construction
Emergency: Hospital backup
Suitable for parallel operation systems

10/46
The Wye and Delta connections

Once the three phase winding are done, we can connect the windings
in Y or ∆ as in the figure below

11/46
The Speed of Rotation of a Synchronous Generator

Synchronous Operation Principle

Synchronous generators are by definition synchronous, meaning that the
electrical frequency produced is locked in or synchronized with the
mechanical rate of rotation of the generator.

A synchronous generator’s rotor

consists of an electromagnet to which

Image
direct current is supplied
The rotor’s magnetic field points in
whatever direction the rotor is turned
The rate of rotation of the magnetic
field poles (rotor) in the machine is Figure: Rotor with electromagnet
related to the stator electrical frequency

12/46
 Synchronous Speed Equation

P P P
ωe = ωm or fe = fm = nm
2 2 120

Where:
ωe = frequency of generated voltage in stator (rad/s)
fe = frequency of generated voltage in stator (Hz)
ωm = rotational speed of field poles (rotor) in rad/s
nm = rotational speed of field poles (rotor) in rev/min
fm = nm /60 = rotational frequency in Hz & P = number of poles

Key Relationship
Since the rotor turns at the same speed as the magnetic field, this
equation relates the speed of rotor rotation to the resulting
13/46
electrical frequency.
Synchronous Speed Formula Derivation

Fundamental Concept
One complete mechanical Synchronous Speed
revolution produces P2 electrical Equation
cycles
For a 2-pole machine: 1 120f
mechanical revolution = 1 ns =
electrical cycle
P
Where:
For a 4-pole machine: 1
mechanical revolution = 2 ns = synchronous speed
electrical cycles (rpm)
f = electrical frequency
Conversion Factors (Hz)
1 revolution = 2π radians P = number of poles
1 minute = 60 seconds
2πnm 14/46
ωm = 60 rad/s
Example Calculation
For 50 Hz, 4-pole generator:
120 × 50
ns = = 1500 rpm
4

Standard Industrial Frequencies

50 Hz systems: Common in Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia
60 Hz systems: Common in North America, parts of South America,
Japan

15/46
Practical Speed Examples

Poles 50 Hz (rpm) 60 Hz rpm) Application

2 3000 3600 Steam turbines (high speed)
4 1500 1800 Thermal power plants
6 1000 1200 Medium speed applications
8 750 900 Hydroelectric plants
12 500 600 Low speed hydro turbines
16 375 450 Very low speed applications
24 250 300 Special low speed applications
Table: Synchronous speeds for different pole configurations

Important Note
Synchronous generators must operate at exactly these speeds to maintain
grid frequency. Any deviation affects power quality and grid stability.
16/46
Internal Generated Voltage of a Synchronous Generator

Fundamental Voltage Equation

The magnitude of the rms voltage induced in a given stator phase is:
√
Ea = 2πTph Φf = 4.44Tph Φf

Where:
Tph = number of turns (coils) per
phase
Φ = flux per pole (Webers)
f = frequency (Hz)
√
4.44 = 2π ≈ 4.44288

17/46
Key Relationship
The internal generated voltage EA is:
Directly proportional to the flux Φ
Directly proportional to the speed ω
Related to field current If through the flux: Φ = f (If )

Practical Voltage Equation with Distribution Factors

The basic equation assumes concentrated winding in one slot, but
practical windings are distributed. Therefore, we include winding factors:

√
EA = 2πTph Φfkp kd = 4.44Tph Φfkp kd

18/46
Winding Factors Magnetization Curve
kp = pitch factor (chording Plot of EA vs If is called:
factor) Magnetization curve
kd = distribution factor Open-circuit characteristic
(breadth factor)
No-load saturation curve
Both kp and kd are ≤ 1
This curve shows the nonlinear
kp kd = total winding factor
relationship due to magnetic saturation.

19/46
Terminal Voltage and Connection Types

Star (Y) Connection Delta (∆) Connection

Most common configuration Less common for generators
Phase voltage = EA Phase voltage = EA
√
Line voltage = 3× Phase Line voltage = Phase voltage
voltage No neutral point
Neutral point available
Delta Connection Formula
Star Connection Formula
√ EL = EA
EL = 3EA
√ EL = 4.44Tph Φfkp kd
EL = 3(4.44Tph Φfkp kd )

20/46
Example: Y-Connected Example: ∆-Connected
If EA = 240V per phase: If EA = 240V per phase:
√
EL = 3 × 240 ≈ 415.7V EL = 240V

Parameter Equation
Basic phase EMF Ea = 4.44Tph Φf
With winding fac- EA = 4.44Tph Φfkp kd
tors √
Star line voltage EL = 3 × 4.44Tph Φfkp kd
Delta line voltage EL = 4.44Tph Φfkp kd
Simplified form Ea = K Φω
Factor Description
kp (pitch) Accounts for coil span < 180◦
kd (distribution) Accounts for distributed winding
Table: Summary of synchronous generator voltage equations 21/46
Important Notes
1 All equations assume sinusoidal voltage waveform
2 Magnetic saturation affects Φ vs If relationship
3 Temperature effects on resistance are not included
4 These are no-load (open-circuit) voltages

Figure: Caption

22/46
The Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator

Internal vs Terminal Voltage

The voltage EA is the internal generated voltage, but not usually the
terminal voltage Vp .
EA = Vp only when no armature current flows (no-load condition)
Under load: EA ̸= Vp

Factors Causing EA ̸= Vp
1 Armature reaction: Distortion of air-gap magnetic field by stator
current
2 Self-inductance of armature coils
3 Resistance of armature coils
4 Salient-pole rotor shapes (ignored for now)

23/46
Armature Reaction
Largest effect - magnetic field produced by three-phase stator currents
when loaded.
Creates armature reaction voltage Estat
Estat lags IA by 90◦
Estat ∝ IA

24/46
Voltage Equation Development

Total Phase Voltage

Reference
With two voltages present: EA

Vp = EA + Estat 90◦
Vp
Armature Reaction Voltage −jXIA
Since Estat ∝ IA and lags by 90◦ : Phasor diagram showing
Vp = EA − jXIA
Estat = −jXIA

where X is constant of proportionality.

Phase Voltage Equation

Vp = EA − jXIA 25/46
Complete Equivalent Circuit Model

Additional Factors
Besides armature reaction, we must include:
Stator self-inductance LA (reactance XA )
Stator resistance RA

Complete Voltage Equation

Vp = EA − jXIA − jXA IA − RA IA

Synchronous Reactance
Combine reactances into single synchronous reactance:

Xs = X + XA
26/46
Summary and Applications

Key Equations Applications of Equivalent Circuit

1 Voltage regulation calculation
Vp = EA − jXs IA − RA IA 2 Short-circuit analysis
Xs = X + XA 3 Stability studies
EA = 4.44Tph Φfkp kd 4 Load flow analysis
5 Protection system design
Typical Values 6 Parallel operation analysis
Xs : 1.0 - 2.0 pu (per unit)
RA : 0.005 - 0.02 pu Voltage Regulation
Xs /RA : 50 - 200 (large
machines) EA − Vp,rated
%VR = × 100%
Vp,rated

Typically 10-30% for SGs 27/46

Conclusion
The equivalent circuit provides a powerful tool for
analyzing synchronous generator performance under
various operating conditions, connecting internal ma-
chine parameters to measurable terminal characteris-
tics.

28/46
Figure: The full equivalent circuit of a 3-ϕ SG
29/46
Three-Phase Connections

These three phases can be either Y- or ∆-connected as shown below. If

they are Y-connected, then the terminal voltage VT (also called the line
voltage) is related to the phase voltage by:
√
VT = 3Vp
If they are ∆-connected, then:
VT = Vp

30/46
Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit of Synchronous Generator

Three-Phase Symmetry
The three phases of a synchronous generator are identical in all respects
except for phase angle. This symmetry normally leads to the use of a
per-phase equivalent circuit.

Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit

Field Circuit: IF VF LF

Armature Circuit: IA jXS RA VP

Where:
IF , VF , LF : Field current, voltage, and inductance
IA , VP : Armature current and phase voltage
jXS : Synchronous reactance
RA : Armature resistance 31/46
Important Consideration

Balanced Load Assumption:

The three phases have the same voltages and currents only
when the loads attached to them are balanced.
If the generator’s loads are not balanced, more sophisticated
techniques of analysis are required.
These techniques are beyond the scope of this course.

Advantages of Per-Phase Analysis

Simplified circuit analysis

Reduced computational complexity
Easier to understand and visualize
Applicable to most practical power systems
Forms basis for single-line diagrams
32/46
Mathematical Representation of Per-Phase Circuit

The fundamental voltage equation is:

VP = EA − jXS IA − RA IA (1)

Field Circuit Equations Power Equations

VF = IF RF Apparent Power: S = 3VP IA∗

EA = K Φω (2)
Φ ∝ IF Real Power: P = 3VP IA cos ϕ
(3)
Reactive Power: Q = 3VP IA sin ϕ
(4)
33/46
Where:
RF : Field resistance
Φ: Flux per pole
ω: Angular velocity
K : Machine constant

34/46
THE PHASOR DIAGRAM OF A SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR

Overview
In a synchronous generator, the voltages are alternating currents (AC) and
are represented as phasors in a two-dimensional plot. Phasors encapsulate
both the magnitude and angle of these voltages, allowing us to analyze the
relationships among various electrical quantities.

Key Components

EA : The internal generated voltage.

Vp : The phase voltage at the generator terminals.
jXs IA : The voltage drop due to the synchronous reactance.
RA IA : The voltage drop caused by the armature resistance.
IA : The armature current in the phase.
35/46
Description of the Phasor Diagram

Phasor Representation
The phasors are represented as arrows emanating from a common origin
on a Cartesian plane:
Magnitude: Length of each arrow corresponds to the magnitude of
the voltage or current.
Angle: The angle between the arrows represents the phase difference
between the voltages and currents.

Voltage Equation
The relationships among the phasors can be illustrated by the equation:

Vp = EA − jXs IA − RA IA

This equation indicates that the phase voltage Vp is equal to the internal
voltage EA minus the voltage drops across the synchronous reactance and
armature resistance. 36/46
Figure: The phasor diagram of a synchronous generator at unity power factor

37/46
Figure: The phasor diagram of a synchronous generator at lagging power factor

38/46
Figure: The phasor diagram of a synchronous generator at leading power factor

39/46
1 Notice that, for a given phase voltage and armature current, a larger
internal generated voltage EA is needed for :
lagging loads than for leading loads.
Therefore, a larger field current is needed with lagging loads to get the
same terminal voltage.
2 Constant Frequency: This equation suggests that EA must remain
constant to maintain a constant frequency. EA = K Φω
3 Synchronous Reactance:
Alternatively, for a given field current and magnitude of load current,
the terminal voltage is lower for lagging loads and
higher for leading loads.
In real synchronous machines, the synchronous reactance Xs is
normally much larger than the winding resistance RA , so RA is often
neglected in qualitative studies of voltage variations.
4 For accurate numerical results, RA must of course be considered.

40/46
POWER AND TORQUE IN SGs
Source of Mechanical Power (Prime mover)
The source of mechanical power, known as the prime mover, can be:
Diesel Engines
Steam Turbines
Water Turbines
Any similar device
The prime mover must maintain a nearly constant speed despite variations
in power demand to prevent frequency fluctuations in the power system.

Efficiency of the Generator

Not all mechanical power input into a synchronous generator is
converted into electrical power output.
The difference between input and output power represents the losses
of the machine.
41/46
 Figure: The power flow diagram of a SG

1 The input mechanical power is defined as the shaft power in the

generator.
Pin = Tm · ωm (5)

where Tm is the mechanical torque and ωm is the angular velocity of

the rotor.
42/46
Converted Power from Mechanical to Electrical

The power converted from mechanical to electrical form internally is given

by:
Pcomp = Pin − Ploss = EA · IA · cos(θ) (6)
where:
EA is the voltage generated,
IA is the armature current,
ϕ is the phase angle between voltage and current.

Real Electrical Output

The real electrical output power of the synchronous generator can be
expressed in line quantities as:
√
Pout = 3 · VL · IL · cos(θ) (7)

43/46
where:
VL is the line voltage,
IL is the line current.

Reactive Power Output

The reactive power output can be expressed as:
√
Q = 3 · VL · IL · sin(θ) (8)

Simplified Equation
If the armature resistance RA is ignored (assuming Xs ≫ RA ), a simplified
equation can be derived to approximate the output power of the generator.

44/46
Figure: Simplified phasor diagram with armature resistance

44/46
Power Relationship
Notice that the vertical segment bc can be expressed as either:
EA
IA cos δ = sin δ
Xs
Thus, substituting this into Equation (7) gives:

3Vp EA sin δ
Pout =
Xs

Significance of the Equation: Power Output

This equation shows that the power produced by a synchronous generator
depends on:
Vp : the terminal voltage,
EA : the internal generated voltage,
δ: the torque angle of the machine.
44/46
Stability Limit
The maximum power indicated by this equation is called the static
stability limit of the generator.
Normally, real generators never come close to that limit.
Full-load torque ranges of 15 to 20 are more typical of real machines.

Torque Relation
Because Pcov = Tind · ωm , the induced torque in a synchronous generator
can be expressed as:
3Vp EA sin δ
Tind =
ωm Xs

44/46
Increase in Load
1 An increase in the load is an increase in the real and/or reactive
power drawn from the generator.
2 Such a load increase raises the load current drawn from the generator.
3 Because the field resistor has not been changed, the field current
remains constant, and therefore the flux Φ is constant.
4 Since the prime mover also keeps a constant speed, the magnitude of
the internal generated voltage EA = K Φω remains constant.

Armature Reaction
For a generator operating at a lagging power factor:
If more load is added at the same power factor, then IA increases to
IA′ , but remains at the same angle θ with respect to Vp as before.
Therefore, the armature reaction voltage jXs IA is larger than before
but at the same angle (note EA is constant).
The relationship can be expressed as:

EA = Vp + jXs IA 44/46
Figure: The effect of an increase in generator loads at constant power factor upon
its terminal voltage for lagging power factor load

44/46
Example

A 3-phase, Y-connected, 11 kV, 50 Hz, 8-pole synchronous generator

has the following parameters:
Synchronous reactance Xs = 8 Ω per phase
Armature resistance Ra = 0.2 Ω per phase (negligible for most
calculations)
Full-load current = 500 A at 0.8 power factor lagging
Rotational losses = 150 kW
The generator is connected to an infinite bus and delivers full-load
power. Determine:
1 Synchronous speed and generated voltage per phase
2 Voltage regulation at full load
3 Torque angle and power angle
4 Maximum power (steady-state stability limit)
5 Excitation voltage for different power factors
6 Plot the capability curve (PQ diagram) 44/46
 120f 120 × 50
ns = = = 750 rpm
P 8
2πns 2π × 750
ωs = = = 78.54 rad/s
60 60
Line-to-neutral voltage:
VL 11000
Vϕ = √ = √ = 6350.9 V
3 3
Full-load apparent power:
√ √
S = 3 × VL × IL = 3 × 11000 × 500 = 9.526 MVA

Real power at full load (0.8 pf):

P = S × pf = 9.526 × 0.8 = 7.621 MW

Reactive power at full load:

Q = S × sin(cos−1 (0.8)) = 9.526 × 0.6 = 5.716 MVAR

44/46
Using the phasor diagram for lagging power factor:

Phasor Equation:

Ef = Vϕ + Ia (Ra + jXs )

Where:
Ia = 500∠ − cos−1 (0.8) = 500∠ − 36.87◦ A
Vϕ = 6350.9∠0◦ V
Zs = Ra + jXs = 0.2 + j8 = 8.0025∠88.57◦ Ω

Ia Zs = 500 × 8.0025 = 4001.25 V

θ = 88.57◦ − 36.87◦ = 51.7◦
Using cosine rule:
q
Ef = Vϕ2 + (Ia Zs )2 + 2Vϕ (Ia Zs ) cos(θ)
44/46
 q
Ef = (6350.9)2 + (4001.25)2 + 2 × 6350.9 × 4001.25 × cos(51.7◦ )
p p
Ef = 40, 333, 918 + 16, 010, 000 + 31, 554, 000 = 87, 897, 918
Ef = 9375.4 V (line-to-neutral)
Line-to-line excitation voltage:
√
Ef (LL) = 3 × 9375.4 = 16, 240 V

Answer 1:
Synchronous speed = 750 rpm (ωs = 78.54 rad/s)
Generated voltage per phase = 9375.4 V
Line-to-line excitation voltage = 16.24 kV

Ef − V ϕ
Voltage Regulation = × 100%
Vϕ
9375.4 − 6350.9
VR = × 100% = 47.6%
6350.9 44/46
 Answer 2: Voltage regulation = 47.6% (typical for lagging power
factor)

Using the power-angle equation:

3Vϕ Ef
P= sin δ
Xs

Rearranging for δ:

PXs 7.621 × 106 × 8

sin δ = =
3Vϕ Ef 3 × 6350.9 × 9375.4

60, 968, 000

sin δ = = 0.3415
178, 545, 000

δ = sin−1 (0.3415) = 20.0◦

44/46
 Answer 3:
Torque angle (δ) = 20.0°
Power angle = 20.0°
This is well within the stability limit of 90°

Maximum power occurs at δ = 90◦ :

3Vϕ Ef 3 × 6350.9 × 9375.4

Pmax = =
Xs 8

178, 545, 000

Pmax = = 22.32 MW
8

Stability margin:

Pmax − P 22.32 − 7.621

Margin = × 100% = × 100% = 65.9%
Pmax 22.32
44/46
 Answer 4:
Maximum power = 22.32 MW
Stability margin = 65.9%
The generator can deliver 2.93 times the rated power
theoretically

Ia = 500∠0◦ A
q
Ef = (Vϕ + Ia Ra )2 + (Ia Xs )2
q p
Ef = (6350.9 + 100)2 + (4000)2 = 41, 616, 000 + 16, 000, 000 = 7585 V

Ia = 500∠ + 36.87◦ A
θ = 88.57◦ + 36.87◦ = 125.44◦
p
Ef = 40, 333, 918 + 16, 010, 000 + 2 × 6350.9 × 4001.25 × cos(125.44◦ )
44/46
 p p
Ef = 56, 343, 918 − 29, 500, 000 = 26, 843, 918 = 5181 V

Excitation Comparison

Power Factor Excitation Voltage (kV) Torque Angle Voltage

0.8 lagging 16.24 20.0° 47
Unity 13.14 14.8° 20
0.8 leading 8.97 9.5° -15

Answer 5: Excitation voltage varies significantly with power factor:

Highest excitation required for lagging power factor

Lowest excitation for leading power factor
Negative voltage regulation possible with leading power factor

The capability of a synchronous generator is limited by:

44/46
 1 Armature current limit (heating limit)
2 Field current limit (excitation limit)
3 Prime mover limit (mechanical power limit)
4 Steady-state stability limit
Armature current limit (circle):
√
Smax = 3VL Ia(max) = 9.526 MVA (constant)

Field current limit (circle):

3Vϕ Ef (max) 3Vϕ2

Qmax = −
Xs Xs

Ef (max) = 1.2 × 9375.4 = 11250 V (20% overexcitation)

3 × 6350.9 × 11250 3 × (6350.9)2

Qmax = −
8 8
Qmax = 26.78 − 15.13 = 11.65 MVAR
44/46
Prime mover limit:

Pmax = 8.0 MW (assume 5% above rated)

Capability Curve Limits

Limit Value
Armature Current (MVA circle) 9.526 MVA
Field Current (Excitation) 11.65 MVAR
Prime Mover Power 8.0 MW
Steady-State Stability 22.32 MW (theoretical)
Practical Operating Region Within all limits

44/46
Synchronous Machine Duality

2 Synchronous Generator:
Converts mechanical to electrical power
δ is positive (E leads V)
Active power flows out
Can supply or absorb reactive power
Voltage regulation important
Stability limit: δ < 90◦
Synchronous Motor:
Converts electrical to mechanical power
δ is negative (E lags V)
Active power flows in
Can operate at leading/lagging/unity pf
Pullout torque important
Stability limit: δ < 90◦
44/46
 Parameter Synchronous Generator Synchronous Motor
Power Equation P = 3VE
Xs sin δ
f
P = 3VE
Xs sin δ
f

3VEf 3VEf
Torque Equation τ = ωs Xs sin δ τ = ωs Xs sin δ
Reactive Power Q = 3V
Xs (Ef cos δ− V) Q = 3VXs (V − Ef cos δ)
Excitation Higher for lagging pf Higher for leading pf
Phase Angle E leads V E lags V

1 Generator: High excitation needed for lagging loads, low voltage

regulation desirable
2 Motor: Can provide reactive power compensation while driving loads
3 Both: Stability limit at δ = ±90◦ depending on mode
4 Application: Generators in power plants, motors in constant-speed
drives
5 Control: Both use automatic voltage regulators (AVR) and governors
45/46
Important Notes

This example shows complete generator analysis including

voltage regulation
The same machine can operate as motor or generator
(reversibility)
Practical limits (heating, excitation) restrict theoretical
capabilities
Modern control systems maintain operation within safe limits
Generator capability decreases at lower terminal voltages

45/46
SG modeling: Direct and Quadrature Axes

d = Direct Axis
Spinning axis directly in line with the “North Pole” of the field winding

q = Quadrature Axis
Spinning axis 90 degrees out of phase with the direct axis

(We choose Leading)

Rotor Angle (δ)

Angle between q-axis and Phase A axis
(this is arbitrary)

45/46
46/46