Keywords

data, data display. qualitative research. sample, sample size

data processing, questionnaire, rationalism, sampling design,
empiricism, hypotheses, reliability, research design. secondary data,
intervieW schedule. research instrument, study design,
non-probability sample, research objectives, unstructured interview
primary data, research problem, validity.
probability sample. research proposal, variables.

At the end|of this chapter. you should have an understanding|o

The research process and its operational steps
What it involves to undertake a research study
The relationship between the research process and the theoretical knowledge needed

The research process: an eight-step model

Research methodology and methods are taught in several ways in many academic discipling:
at various levels by people committed to avariety of research paradigms. Though paradigns
vary in their contents and substance, their broad approach to enquiry, in the author's on
ion, is [Link] ideas have also been expressed by Festinger and Katz, who in the for.
word to their book Research Methods in Behavioral Sciences say: 'Although the basic logic of
scientific methodology is the same in all felds, its specific techniques and approaches wil
vary, depending upon the subject matter (1966: vi). Therefore, the model developed herei
generic in nature and can be applied to a number of disciplines in the social sciences Iti
based upon apractical and step-by-step approach to research enquiry that at each step pro.
vides a smorgasbord of methods, models and procedures to choose from.
Broadly, aresearch process is very similar to undertaking ajouney. Suppose you want
to go out for a drive. Before you start, you must decide where you want to go and then
which route to take. If you know the route, you do not need to consult a map, but. if
you do not know the route,then you need to use one. Your problem iscompounded f
there is more than one route. You need to decide which one to take. Similarly, for a
research journey there are also two important decisions to make. The first is to decide
what youwant to find out about or, in other words, what research questions you want to
find answers to. Having decided upon your research questions or research problems, you
then need to decide how to go about finding their answers. The path to finding answers to
your research questions constitutes research methodology. Just as there are signposts
along the way as you travel to your destination, so there are practical steps througn
which you must pass on your research journey in order to find the answers to you
research questions (Figure 2.1). The sequence of these steps is not fixed, and with expe
rience you can change it. At each operational step in the research process you a
research
required to choose from a multiplicity of methods, procedures and models of
34 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Phase PHASE A PHASE B PHASEC

Main task DECIDING CONDUCTING

PLANNING

WHAT HOW COLLECTING

(research (to gather evidence to (the required information)

questions to answer the research
answer?) questions)

Operational
steps/research
journey

select methods and procedures appropriate for

your
Figure 2.1 The research journev - touch each post and
journey

help you best achieve your research objectives. This is where

methodology which will
knowledge base of research methodology plays a crucial role.
your
book is to provide you with knowledge that will enable you to select the
The aim of this anchoring the
methods and procedures. The strength of this book lies in
most appropriate jourmey. At
of the steps that you need to go through on your research methods
theoretical knowledge at a beginner's level, knowledge of
book aims to provide,
each operational step,the and quantitative researchers, though there is an
qualitative
and procedures used by both way of thinking.
inclination towards the quantitative methodologies differ both in their
underpinning
Quantitative and qualitative research methods, models and procedures used. Though
in the are
philosophy and, to some extent, same in both, quantitative and qualitative researchdata
broadly the adopted for
the research process is the methods of data collection, the procedures example, if
differentiated in terms of communication of the findings. For
the style of you are more likely
processing and analysis, and mode of enquiry,
research problem lends itself to a qualitativeyour method of data collection. When
your interview or observation as themes
to use the unstructured through the process of identifying rather
research, you go interviews or observation
analysing data in qualitative out during your approach' to a
describing what you have found procedures. The mixed methods
and qualitative
subjecting your data to statistical procedures ofquantitative and/or
than uses methods and
35
GLANCE
research enquiry basically RESEARCH PR0CESS: A QUICK
THE
 of sCientific
writing
Principies
research
a Operationai theoreical intermeciary
Writing reoort Requirecknowiecge KInowieOge
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ofContents
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oftestresearch
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Planning
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andofreliability
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Constructing
collection
data
for

Research
design: designs
Study
functions
Conceptualising
research
a
design

typology
and
definition
what
Deci
Literature
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Variables
problem
research
Considerations
in formulating
a
steps
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17
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a
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and
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Chapter16
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collection
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 qualitative, quantitative and mive3
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Chapter I compares perspectives.
approaches Table 1.2 in
approaches to research from different the choice of methods and proce-
methods process,
steps of the rescarch
Since, at a number of quantitative-qualitative distinction,
the methods and procedures
with separately under qualitative
dures is influenced by the this book are dealt does not
even though the distinction as a attach
chapters in author
discussed in some of the methodology,
sections of the
and quantitative distinction. The author has triedto
minimise this
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the book on your infomation is available. arowt av
where additional Figure 2.2. The tasks identified by
model is shown in study, whether quantitative
The proposed research order to conduct a
need to follow in identified in rectangles are tho
the operational steps you methods approach. Topics i
qualitative or using the mixed needed to carry out these steps. The tasks identified
required theoretical knowledge need to complete to gofrom one step to another
that you
circles are the intermediary steps through these steps in the proposed sequence,
beginner to work
It is important for a know the route for your research journey you will not
though,as already stated, once you
need to follow the sequence.
is written around each operational sten
In this book the theoretical knowledge required undertaking a
needed when actually
and follows the same sequential progression as is theoretical knowledge is further
research investigation. For each operational step, the required
author's opinion.
organised, in different chapters, around the operational step to which, in the
study this
it is most logicaly related (Figure 2.3). Again, for a beginner, it is important to
diagram to relate the theoretical knowledge to the operational steps.
The following sections of this chapter provide a quick glance at the whole process to
acquaint you with the various tasks you need to undertake to carry out your study, thus
giving you some idea of what the research journey involves.

A: Deciding what to research

Step I: Formulating a research problem
Formulating a research problem is the first and most important step in the research pro
cess. A research problem identifies your destination: it should tell you,
your research
supervisor and your readers what you intend to research. The more specific and clearer
you are the better, as everything that follows in the
research process -
urement procedures, sampling strategy, frame of analysis and the stylestudy design, meas
dissertation or report -is greatly influenced by the way in which youof writing of your
research problem. Hence,you should examine it formulate you
main function of formulating a research thoroughly, carefully and critically. Ine
about. Chapter 4deals in detail with problem is to decide what you want to ind ou
various aspects of formulating a research problem.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 It is extremely important to evaluate the research
problem in the light of the financial
resources at your disposal, the time available, and your own and your
sor's expertise and knowledge in the field of study. It is equally research supervi
gaps in your knowledge of relevant disciplines, such as important to identity any
Also ask yourself whether youhave sufficient knowledge statistics
about
required for analysis.
if you plan to use them. computers and software

B: Planning how to conduct the study

Step Il: Conceptualising a research design
An extremely important feature of research is the use of appropriate methods. Research
involves systematic, controlled, valid and rigorous exploration and description of what is
not known, and establishment of associations and causation that permit the accurate
prediction of outcomes under a given set of conditions. It also involves identifying gaps
in knowledge, verification of what is already known and identification of past errors and
limitations. The strength of what you find largely rests on how it was found.
The main function of a research design is to decide, describe, justify and explain how you
will find answers to your research questions. The research design sets out the specific details
of your enquiry. Aresearch design should include the following: the study design per se and
the logistical arrangements that you propose to undertake, the measurement procedures, the
sampling strategy, the frame of analysis and the time-frame. (Do not confuse the study design
and research design. The study design is just one part of the research design. The research
design also includes other parts which constitute the research process.)
For any investigation, the selection of an appropriate research design is crucial in enabling
mis
you to arrive at valid findings, comparisons and conclusions. A faulty design results in
In
leading findings and is therefore tantamount to wasting human and financial resources.
scientific circles, the strength of an empirical investigation is primarily evaluated in the light
of the research design adopted. When selecting aresearch design it is important to ensure
the research
that it is valid, workable and manageable. Chapter 7 provides details about
research.
design most commonly used in quantitative and qualitative
8) and you need to be
There is an enormous variety of study designs (Chapter
in quantitative and qualitative
acquainted with some of the most common ones both methods
designs for the mixed
approaches. The chapter does not separately describe study
primarily uses those which are either quantitative or qualitative. Select or
approach as it
You must have strong reasons for
develop the design that is most suited to your study.
particular design; you must be able to justify your selection; and you should be
selecting a addition, you will need toexplain the
strengths, weaknesses and limitations. In
aware of its
design.
logistical details needed to implement the suggested

data collection
Step ll: Constructing an instrument for study is called a
becomes a means of collecting information for your
Anything that interview schedules, questionnaires,
'research instrument', for example
research tool' or a
39
THE RESEARCH PROCESS: A QUICK GLANCE
 diaries, information collected from secondary notes,
observations, field
notes on field 'practical' step in carrying out
interview guides.
rescarh instrument is the first
a data for the proposed study
The construction of decide how you are going to collect
study. You will ncedto collection. Chapter 9 details the Va
a data
construct arescarch instrument for quantitative studies and the pro
and then and
collection for qualitative
ousmethods of data instrument.
of developing a
research
for your study (primary data), you ped
specifically been cos
to collect data
If vouare planning research to select one that has already
instrument or
either to construct a collecting data using attitudinal scales. Th
methods for
[Link] 10 deals with in relation toa research instrument are discussed
in
reliability
concepts of validity and
Chapter l1. (information already collected for other purposes)
data extract
If youare using secondary information is needed and then develop a form to
you will need toidentify what determine what information is required, you need to go
to
the required data. In order
primary data.
through the same process as for instrument construc.
pre-testing) aresearch tool is an integral part of
Field testing (or out on the
pre-test of a research instrument should not be carried
tion. As a rule, the population which you are not propo_
similar
sample of your study population but on a
detail in Chapter 9.
ing to study. This is covered in greater provide
for data analysis, you may wish to
If you are planning to use a computer
instrument. This is explained in Chapter 15
space for coding the data on the research

Step V: Selecting asample

The accuracy of your findings largely depends upon the way you select your sample. The
basic objective of any sampling design is to minimise, within the limitation of cost, the
gap between the values obtained from your sample and those prevalent in the study
population.
The underlying premise in sampling is that a relatively small nunmber of units, if
selected so that they genuinely represent the study population, can provide - with a
sufficiently high degree of probability - afairly true reflection of the sampling popula
tion that is being studied.
When selecting a sample you should attempt to achieve two key aims of sampling
i) the avoidance of bias in the selection of a sample: and (ii) the attainment of maxi
mum precision for a given outlay of resources.
There are three categories of sampling design (Chapter 12): random/probability samplng
designs, non-random/non-probability sampling designs, and the 'mixed'
There are several sampling strategies within the first two sampling design.
categories. You need to De
acquainted with these sampling designs - the strengths and weaknesses
situations in which they can or cannot be applied - in of each and the
appropriate for your study. The type of sampling strategyorder to select the one mo
you use will influence you
ability to make
and the type of generalisations from the
statistical tests you can sample findings about the study
population,
apply to the data.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 Step V: Writing a research proposal
Having done all the preparatory work, the next step is to put everything together in a way
that provides adequate information about your research study, for your research supervi
sor and others. This overall plan, called a research proposal, tells the reader about
your
research problem and how you are planning to investigate it. Broadly, a research proposal's
main function isto detail the operational plan for obtaininganswers to
your research ques
tions. In doing so it ensures - and reassures the reader of- the validity of the methodology WHAT IS A
RESEARCH
toobtain answers accurately and objectively. PROPOSAL?

Universities and other institutions may have differing requirements regarding the style
and content of a research proposal, but the majority of institutions would require most of
what is set out here. Requirements may also vary within an institution, from discipline to
discipline or from supervisor to supervisor. However, the guidelines set out in Chapter 13
provide a framework which will be acceptable to most.
A research proposal must tell you, your research supervisor and a reviewer the fol
lowing information about your study:
what you are proposing to do;
" how you plan to proceed;
" why you selected the proposed strategy.

Therefore it should contain the following information about your study (Chapter 13):
a statement of its objectives:
. a list of hypotheses, if you are testing any;
" the study design you are proposing to use;
" the setting for the study;
" the research instrument(s) you are planning to use;
" the sample size and sampling design;
" the data processing procedures;
" an outline of the proposed chapters for the report;
" the study's problems and limitations; and
" the proposed time-frame.

C: Conducting aresearch study

Step VI: Collecting data
research
Having formulated a research problem, developed a study design, constructed a draw
which you will
instrument and selected a sample, you then collect the data from
inferences and concusions for your study.
part of the
Many methods could be used to gather the required information. As a
collect your data.
research design, you decided upon the procedure you wanted to adopt to
you
In this phase you actually collect the data. For example, depending upon your plans,
nominal/focus group dis
might commence interviews, mail out a questionnaire, conduct
methods may involve
cussions or make observations. Collecting data through any one of the
Some ethical issues, which are discusSsed in Chapter 14.
THE RESEARCH PROCESS: A QUICK GLANCE 41
 and displaying data
Step VIl: Processing largely depends upon two things: the
information youcollected attitudinal);andthe way yo
analyse the qualitative or describes
The way vou
information(descriptive,
quantitative, 15
readers. Chapter details various different ways
tvpe of communicate your findingstoyour
want to qualitative data and Chapter 16 methods of
quantitative and
ofanalysing
has been analysed. important for data
is analysisthat
displayingthe datathat distinction,it
qualitative--quantitative by a computer.
In additiontothe analysed manually ordissertation/report on
whether the data is to be
write your the basis
vou onsider descriptive, you
can (content analysis), or use
lfyour study is purely contents of your notes
manually analyse the
of vour fieldInotes, NVivo for this
purpose.
decide upon the type of
program such as necessary to
a computer also
quantitative analysis, it is cross-tabulations or other statistical pro
If you want distributions,
frequency variance)
and
analysis required (i.e. analysis, factor analysis and analysis of subjected tohow
ths
it
cedures, such as regression
also need to identify the variables to be
should be presented. You will
statistical procedures.

report
Step Vill: Writing a research
categories of reports: quantitative and qualitative. As mentioned
There are two broad to com.
as in most studies you need
earlier, the distinction is more academic than real
Nevertheless, there are some purely qualitative
bine quantitative andqualitative skills.
and some purely quantitative studies.
Writing the report is the last and, for many, the most dificult step of the research
process. This report tells the world what you have done, what you have discovered and
what conclusions you have drawn from your findings. If you are clear about the whole
process, you will alsobe clear about the way you want to writeyour report. Your report
should be written in an academic style and be divided into different chapters and/or
sections based upon the main themes of your study. Chapter l7 suggests some ways of
writing a research report.

Summary
This chapter has provided an overview of the
down into three phases (A, B, C) and eight steps,research process, which has been broken
remainder of this book. At each step the researchthe details of which are covered in the
models, techniques and procedures so that model provides a variety of methods,
your study. It is like a buffet party you can select the one most
from similar ingredients. You go to with eight tables, each with different appropriate for
most from each table. The alleight tables and select dishes made
main difference the dish that you like the
in the model you between the
the most. For a select what is most appropriate for yourmodel and this example is that
in the same beginner it is important to go study and not what youlike
sequence. With experience you canthrough
take a
all the steps, although
perhaps not
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY number shortcuts.
of