𝗦𝘂𝗯𝗷𝗲𝗰𝘁 : 𝗖𝗵𝗲𝗺𝗶𝘀𝘁𝗿𝘆

𝗖𝗹𝗮𝘀𝘀 𝟵𝘁𝗵 𝗖𝗵𝗮𝗽𝘁𝗲𝗿 𝟭

𝗠𝗮𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗿 𝗶𝗻 𝗼𝘂𝗿 𝘀𝘂𝗿𝗿𝗼𝘂𝗻𝗱𝗶𝗻𝗴𝘀

𝗜𝗻𝘁𝗿𝗼𝗱𝘂𝗰𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻
𝗪𝗵𝗮𝘁 𝗶𝘀 𝗺𝗮𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗿?
Matter is everything around us that occupies space and has mass.
It includes everything we can see, feel, and touch, such as books, tables, air, and water.
𝗖𝗵𝗮𝗿𝗮𝗰𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗶𝘀𝘁𝗶𝗰𝘀 𝗼𝗳 𝗠𝗮𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗿
𝗢𝗰𝗰𝘂𝗽𝗶𝗲𝘀 𝗦𝗽𝗮𝗰𝗲: Matter takes up space. When you sit on a chair or hold a pen, you
are interacting with matter that occupies space.
𝗛𝗮𝘀 𝗠𝗮𝘀𝘀: Matter has mass, which means it has weight and can be measured. The
amount of matter in an object determines its mass.
𝗠𝗮𝗱𝗲 𝗼𝗳 𝗣𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗰𝗹𝗲𝘀: All matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms and
molecules. These particles are too small to see with the naked eye but are the building
blocks of everything in the universe.
𝗘𝘅𝗶𝘀𝘁𝘀 𝗶𝗻 𝗗𝗶𝗳𝗳𝗲𝗿𝗲𝗻𝘁 𝗙𝗼𝗿𝗺𝘀: Matter can exist in various forms, including solids,
liquids, and gases. Each form has different properties and behaviors.
𝗖𝗹𝗮𝘀𝘀𝗶𝗳𝗶𝗰𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗼𝗳 𝗠𝗮𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗿
Matter can be classified on the basis of physical properties and chemical properties. On
this basis there are two classifications of matter.
1) Physical classification of matter
2) Chemical classification of matter
𝟭) 𝗣𝗵𝘆𝘀𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗹 𝗰𝗹𝗮𝘀𝘀𝗶𝗳𝗶𝗰𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗼𝗳 𝗺𝗮𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗿
Matter can be classified into 5 categories on this basis
a) Solids
b) Liquids
c) Gases
d) Plasma
e) Bose Einstein Condensate (BEC)
𝗦𝗼𝗹𝗶𝗱𝘀
The properties of solids are as under:
 1. 𝗗𝗲𝗳𝗶𝗻𝗶𝘁𝗲 𝗦𝗵𝗮𝗽𝗲: Solids have a definite shape, meaning they maintain a fixed
volume and shape under normal conditions. The arrangement of particles in a
solid allows it to maintain its shape even when subjected to external forces.
2. 𝗗𝗲𝗳𝗶𝗻𝗶𝘁𝗲 𝗩𝗼𝗹𝘂𝗺𝗲: Solids also have a definite volume, meaning they occupy a
specific amount of space. This volume remains constant unless the solid
undergoes a change in temperature or pressure.
3. 𝗣𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗰𝗹𝗲 𝗔𝗿𝗿𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁: The particles in a solid are closely packed together in a
regular, ordered arrangement. This close arrangement allows solids to maintain
their shape and resist deformation.
4. 𝗣𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗰𝗹𝗲 𝗠𝗼𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻: While the particles in a solid vibrate in fixed positions, they
do not have the freedom to move past each other like particles in a liquid or gas.
This limited motion contributes to the rigidity of solids.
5. 𝗗𝗲𝗻𝘀𝗶𝘁𝘆: Solids typically have a higher density compared to liquids and gases.
This is because the particles in a solid are densely packed together, resulting in a
higher mass per unit volume.
6. 𝗠𝗲𝗹𝘁𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗣𝗼𝗶𝗻𝘁: Solids have a distinct melting point, which is the temperature at
which they change from a solid to a liquid state. The melting point varies
depending on the substance and its molecular structure.
7. 𝗕𝗿𝗶𝘁𝘁𝗹𝗲𝗻𝗲𝘀𝘀: Solids can exhibit different levels of brittleness, which refers to
their tendency to fracture or break when subjected to stress. Some solids, like
glass, are brittle and break into sharp fragments, while others, like metals, are
ductile and can deform without fracturing easily.
𝗟𝗶𝗾𝘂𝗶𝗱𝘀
The properties of liquids are as under:
1. 𝗜𝗻𝗱𝗲𝗳𝗶𝗻𝗶𝘁𝗲 𝗦𝗵𝗮𝗽𝗲: Unlike solids, liquids do not have a definite shape. They take
the shape of the container they are placed in. This property allows liquids to flow
and adapt to the shape of their container.
2. 𝗗𝗲𝗳𝗶𝗻𝗶𝘁𝗲 𝗩𝗼𝗹𝘂𝗺𝗲: Similar to solids, liquids have a definite volume. They
occupy a specific amount of space, which remains constant as long as the
temperature and pressure remain constant.
3. 𝗣𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗰𝗹𝗲 𝗔𝗿𝗿𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁: The particles in a liquid are close together but are not
arranged in a regular pattern like in solids. They have more freedom of
movement compared to solids, allowing liquids to flow.
4. 𝗣𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗰𝗹𝗲 𝗠𝗼𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻: The particles in a liquid have more freedom of movement
compared to solids. While they still have some attraction to each other, they can
move past one another, allowing liquids to flow and take the shape of their
container.
5. 𝗗𝗲𝗻𝘀𝗶𝘁𝘆: Liquids generally have a higher density than gases but lower density
than solids. The density of a liquid depends on its composition and temperature.
 6. 𝗩𝗶𝘀𝗰𝗼𝘀𝗶𝘁𝘆: Viscosity is a measure of a liquid's resistance to flow. Liquids with
high viscosity flow slowly, while those with low viscosity flow more easily. For
example, honey has a higher viscosity than water.
7. 𝗕𝗼𝗶𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗣𝗼𝗶𝗻𝘁: Liquids have a distinct boiling point, which is the temperature
at which they change from a liquid to a gas. The boiling point of a liquid depends
on factors such as pressure and molecular composition.
8. 𝗙𝗿𝗲𝗲𝘇𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗣𝗼𝗶𝗻𝘁: Liquids also have a distinct freezing point, which is the
temperature at which they change from a liquid to a solid. This temperature is
the same as the melting point for a substance.
9. 𝗦𝗼𝗹𝘂𝗯𝗶𝗹𝗶𝘁𝘆: Liquids can dissolve solids, liquids, or gases to form homogeneous
mixtures called solutions. The ability of a liquid to dissolve another substance
depends on factors such as temperature and the nature of the substances
involved.
𝗚𝗮𝘀𝗲𝘀
The properties of gases are as under:
1. 𝗜𝗻𝗱𝗲𝗳𝗶𝗻𝗶𝘁𝗲 𝗦𝗵𝗮𝗽𝗲 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗩𝗼𝗹𝘂𝗺𝗲: Gases do not have a definite shape or volume.
They expand to fill the entire volume of their container, taking its shape. This
property allows gases to diffuse and mix evenly with other gases.
2. 𝗣𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗰𝗹𝗲 𝗔𝗿𝗿𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁: Gas particles are far apart and move randomly at high
speeds. Unlike solids and liquids, gas particles have very weak intermolecular
forces and do not have a regular arrangement. They move in straight lines until
they collide with another particle or the walls of their container.
3. 𝗣𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗰𝗹𝗲 𝗠𝗼𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻: Gas particles are in constant motion. They move freely in all
directions and collide with each other and the walls of their container. The
average kinetic energy of gas particles is directly proportional to the temperature
of the gas.
4. 𝗗𝗲𝗻𝘀𝗶𝘁𝘆: Gases have a much lower density compared to solids and liquids. The
low density of gases allows them to be easily compressed into a smaller volume
by increasing pressure. The density of a gas depends on factors such as
temperature and pressure.
5. 𝗖𝗼𝗺𝗽𝗿𝗲𝘀𝘀𝗶𝗯𝗶𝗹𝗶𝘁𝘆: Gases are highly compressible. When pressure is applied to a
gas, the volume of the gas decreases. This is because gas particles are far apart
and there is a lot of empty space between them, allowing them to be squeezed
closer together.
6. 𝗗𝗶𝗳𝗳𝘂𝘀𝗶𝗼𝗻: Gases diffuse and mix evenly with each other. This is because gas
particles are in constant motion and collide with each other, causing them to
spread out and mix.
𝗛𝗶𝘀𝘁𝗼𝗿𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗹 𝗮𝗽𝗽𝗿𝗼𝗮𝗰𝗵 𝘁𝗼 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗰𝗼𝗻𝗰𝗲𝗽𝘁 𝗼𝗳 𝗺𝗮𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗿 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗶𝘁𝘀 𝗽𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗰𝗹𝗲𝘀
Indian philosopher Maharishi Kanad proposed that when matter (Padarth) is
continuously divided, it reaches a point where further division becomes impossible. He
referred to these smallest particles as "Parmanu." When more than one of these smallest
particles combine, another particle called "anu" is formed. The terms Parmanu and anu
are called atoms and molecules respectively in English.
Greek Philosophers: Ancient Greek philosophers like Democritus and Leucippus
believed that everything is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms. These
atoms, according to Democritus, were eternal and varied in size, shape, and
arrangement, giving rise to the diversity of matter.
𝗪𝗵𝗮𝘁 𝗶𝘀 𝗮𝗻 𝗮𝘁𝗼𝗺?
An atom is the basic building block of matter, consisting of a nucleus made up of
protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons. It is the smallest unit of an element that
retains the chemical properties of that element. Atoms are incredibly small, with
diameters on the order of angstroms (10^-10 meters). They combine to form molecules,
which in turn make up all substances in the universe.
𝗪𝗵𝗮𝘁 𝗶𝘀 𝗮 𝗺𝗼𝗹𝗲𝗰𝘂𝗹𝗲?
A molecule is a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental
unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction. Molecules can
consist of atoms of the same element, as in the case of oxygen (O2), or atoms of
different elements, as in water (H2O), where two hydrogen atoms are bonded to one
oxygen atom.
𝗣𝗵𝘆𝘀𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗹 𝗻𝗮𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗲 𝗼𝗳 𝗺𝗮𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗿
𝗣𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗰𝗹𝗲 𝗻𝗮𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗲: The particle nature of matter refers to the concept that matter is
composed of tiny, discrete particles called atoms and molecules. These particles have
mass, occupy space, and are in constant motion.
𝗖𝗵𝗮𝗿𝗮𝗰𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗶𝘀𝘁𝗶𝗰𝘀 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗽𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗰𝗹𝗲𝘀 𝗼𝗳 𝗺𝗮𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗿
The characteristics of the particle nature of matter are as follows:
1. Atoms and molecules, being tiny and discrete particles, are only observable at
the microscopic level, typically through experiments involving diffusion and
Brownian motion.
2. Particles exhibit attraction towards each other: In solids, molecules are tightly
bonded with negligible intermolecular space due to a strong force of attraction;
in contrast, this force is comparatively weaker in liquids and gases. Various
forces of attraction between matter particles keep them together.
3. When subjected to impact, materials like chalk, ice cubes, and iron nails behave
differently: Chalk breaks easily into smaller pieces, ice requires more energy to
shatter, and iron nails remain intact even under significant force. This indicates
 varying levels of inter-particle attraction, with chalk having the least, ice slightly
stronger, and iron nails the strongest.
4. All particles are in continuous motion, and heating increases their speed, as
evidenced by experiments on diffusion and Brownian motion.
5. There exists space between particles of matter. When sugar dissolves in water,
sugar crystals break down into fine particles, filling the spaces between water
particles without altering the volume of water.
6. The units typically used to measure matter particles are micrometers,
nanometers, and picometers.
𝗢𝘁𝗵𝗲𝗿 𝘀𝘁𝗮𝘁𝗲𝘀 𝗼𝗳 𝗺𝗮𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗿
𝗣𝗹𝗮𝘀𝗺𝗮: Plasma is an ionized gas composed of positive ions and free electrons. It’s
the most abundant form of matter in the universe, found in stars, solar wind, etc. In
plasma, atoms have been stripped of their electrons due to high energy collisions.
Examples include the sun's corona, lightning, and fluorescent light bulbs.
𝗕𝗼𝘀𝗲-𝗘𝗶𝗻𝘀𝘁𝗲𝗶𝗻 𝗖𝗼𝗻𝗱𝗲𝗻𝘀𝗮𝘁𝗲 (𝗕𝗘𝗖): BEC is a state of matter formed at temperatures
close to absolute zero (near -273.15°C or 0 Kelvin).It occurs when a dilute gas of
bosons is cooled to very low temperatures, causing their atoms to lose their identity
and make them unable to move.
𝗜𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗰𝗼𝗻𝘃𝗲𝗿𝘀𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗼𝗳 𝗠𝗮𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗿: Matter can change between solid, liquid, and gas states
through phase transitions.
These transitions include melting (solid to liquid), freezing (liquid to solid),
vaporization (liquid to gas), condensation (gas to liquid), sublimation (solid to gas),
and deposition (gas to solid). These changes occur either by changing temperature or
pressure.
𝗠𝗲𝗹𝘁𝗶𝗻𝗴: Melting is the process by which a substance changes from a solid to a liquid
state. It occurs when the temperature of the solid reaches its melting point. During
melting, the substance absorbs heat energy, increasing the kinetic energy of its
particles.
𝗠𝗲𝗹𝘁𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗣𝗼𝗶𝗻𝘁: Melting point is the temperature at which a solid substance changes
into a liquid. It’s a characteristic property of a substance and remains constant under a
given pressure.
• Impurities can lower the melting point and broaden the melting range.
𝗟𝗮𝘁𝗲𝗻𝘁 𝗛𝗲𝗮𝘁 𝗼𝗳 𝗙𝘂𝘀𝗶𝗼𝗻: Latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat energy required to
change one unit mass (1kg) of a substance from solid to liquid at constant temperature
and pressure. It’s also known as the heat of fusion.
During fusion, the substance undergoes a phase transition without a change in
temperature.
𝗙𝗿𝗲𝗲𝘇𝗶𝗻𝗴: Freezing is the process in which a liquid change to a solid when its
temperature is lowered below its freezing point. It’s the reverse of melting. During this
process, heat energy equal to the latent heat is released.
𝗙𝗿𝗲𝗲𝘇𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗣𝗼𝗶𝗻𝘁: Freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid change into a solid.
It’s a characteristic property of a substance.
• Adding impurities can lower the freezing point. The extent of lowering in the
freezing point, however, depends upon the nature of the impurity and also the
amount of impurity added. For example, a 30% solution of sodium chloride
(NaCl) in water freezes at -18°C whereas a 30% solution of calcium chloride
(CaCl2) in water freezes at -55°C.
𝗕𝗼𝗶𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗼𝗿 𝘃𝗮𝗽𝗼𝗿𝗶𝘇𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻: Boiling is the process by which a liquid turns into a vapor
when it is heated to its boiling point. The change from a liquid phase to a gaseous phase
occurs when the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure
exerted on the liquid.
𝗕𝗼𝗶𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗣𝗼𝗶𝗻𝘁: The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapour
pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure of the liquid’s
environment. At this temperature, the liquid is converted into a vapour.
The boiling point of the liquid depends upon the pressure of the surrounding. When the
liquid is at high pressure, it has a higher boiling point than the boiling point at normal
atmospheric pressure.
𝗟𝗮𝘁𝗲𝗻𝘁 𝗵𝗲𝗮𝘁 𝗼𝗳 𝘃𝗮𝗽𝗼𝗿𝗶𝘇𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻: The amount of heat required to change one unit mass
(1kg) of a liquid into gaseous state at atmospheric pressure at its boiling point.
𝗧𝘆𝗽𝗲𝘀 𝗼𝗳 𝗹𝗶𝗾𝘂𝗶𝗱𝘀: The classification of liquids into volatile and non-volatile is based
on their tendency to evaporate at room temperature and their respective boiling points:
𝗩𝗼𝗹𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗹𝗲 𝗟𝗶𝗾𝘂𝗶𝗱𝘀: Volatile liquids have a high tendency to evaporate at room
temperature. They possess relatively low boiling points, meaning they vaporize readily
even at lower temperatures. Volatile liquids typically have high vapor pressures,
meaning their molecules escape into the gas phase easily. Examples include ethanol,
acetone, and gasoline.
𝗡𝗼𝗻-𝗩𝗼𝗹𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗹𝗲 𝗟𝗶𝗾𝘂𝗶𝗱𝘀: Non-volatile liquids have a low tendency to evaporate at room
temperature. They possess relatively high boiling points, requiring higher temperatures
to vaporize. Non-volatile liquids generally have low vapor pressures, meaning their
molecules do not escape into the gas phase easily at room temperature. Examples
include water, glycerol, and cooking oils.
𝗖𝗼𝗻𝗱𝗲𝗻𝘀𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻: The process of conversion of gaseous state into liquid state by
lowering the temperature is known as condensation.
𝗦𝘂𝗯𝗹𝗶𝗺𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻: Sublimation is the process where a substance transitions directly from
a solid to a gas without passing through the liquid phase.
• The best example of sublimation is dry ice which is a frozen form of carbon
dioxide. When dry ice gets exposed to air, dry ice directly changes its phase from
 solid-state to gaseous state which is visible as fog. Frozen carbon dioxide in its
gaseous state is more stable than in its solid-state.
• Another well-known example of sublimation is naphthalene which is an organic
compound. Naphthalene is usually found in pesticides such as mothballs.
𝗘𝘃𝗮𝗽𝗼𝗿𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻
Evaporation is the process where a liquid turns into a gas, typically at temperatures
below its boiling point. Factors affecting evaporation include temperature, surface area,
humidity, and air movement.
1. 𝗧𝗲𝗺𝗽𝗲𝗿𝗮𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗲: Temperature plays a significant role in evaporation. Higher
temperatures provide more energy to the molecules in the liquid, causing them
to move faster and escape into the air as vapor. As a result, evaporation rates
increase with higher temperatures.
2. 𝗦𝘂𝗿𝗳𝗮𝗰𝗲 𝗔𝗿𝗲𝗮: The surface area of the liquid exposed to the air directly impacts
evaporation. A larger surface area allows more liquid molecules to come into
contact with the air, facilitating faster evaporation. For example, water in a
shallow pan evaporates more quickly than water in a deep container due to the
larger exposed surface area.
3. 𝗛𝘂𝗺𝗶𝗱𝗶𝘁𝘆: Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor present in the air.
When the air is already saturated with moisture, it has a high humidity level,
which slows down evaporation. This is because there is less room in the air for
additional water vapor. Conversely, low humidity levels promote faster
evaporation as the air can absorb more water vapor.
4. 𝗔𝗶𝗿 𝗠𝗼𝘃𝗲𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁: Air movement, such as wind or ventilation, affects evaporation
by continuously carrying away the water vapor from the liquid's surface. This
creates a concentration gradient that encourages more molecules to evaporate
from the liquid. Consequently, increased air movement enhances evaporation
rates.
5. 𝗡𝗮𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗲 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗹𝗶𝗾𝘂𝗶𝗱: Lesser the boiling point of a liquid, more is its tendency
to change into vapours or to evaporate.
𝗔𝗽𝗽𝗹𝗶𝗰𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻𝘀 𝗼𝗳 𝗲𝘃𝗮𝗽𝗼𝗿𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻
1. 𝗗𝗿𝘆𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗣𝗿𝗼𝗰𝗲𝘀𝘀𝗲𝘀: Evaporation is extensively used in drying processes across
industries such as food, pharmaceuticals, and textiles. For instance, fruits and
vegetables are often dried using evaporation to extend their shelf life by
removing moisture. Similarly, pharmaceuticals and textiles undergo drying
processes to eliminate moisture and improve stability.
2. 𝗗𝗲𝘀𝗮𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻: Evaporation is a key process in desalination, where it is used to
separate salt from seawater to produce freshwater.
3. 𝗦𝘄𝗲𝗮𝘁 𝗖𝗼𝗼𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗴:
a) Our bodies sweat to cool down when we feel hot.
 b) Sweat evaporates from our skin into the air, taking away heat and making us
feel cooler.
4. 𝗗𝗿𝘆𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝘄𝗲𝘁 𝗰𝗹𝗼𝘁𝗵𝗲𝘀: Hanging wet clothes outside to dry results in them
becoming dry. Sunlight and wind cause the water on the clothes to evaporate
into the air, cooling the clothes and removing moisture.
5. 𝗖𝗼𝗼𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗘𝗳𝗳𝗲𝗰𝘁 𝗼𝗳 𝗪𝗲𝘁 𝗛𝗮𝗶𝗿: Wet hair feels cooler than dry hair on a hot day.
Water in wet hair evaporates into the air, taking away heat and providing a
cooling sensation.

Notes compiled by
Gauher khan,
Chemistry lecturer,
Oasis higher secondary